Forensic identification- one of the main most common means of establishing objective truth in the process of investigating a crime. It aims to identify the object under study with itself.

The essence of forensic identification consists in comparing such an object with its reflections in the form of materially fixed and "ideal" traces left by the criminal or his actions.

Identification objects are divided into:

• identifiable(person, object, animal, vehicle, weapon, tools, substances);
• identifying, i.e. containing displays of features and an identified object.

In relation to a person, these can be signs of appearance, mental images (used for identification), a set of skills in handwriting, traces of display in the form of traces of hands, feet, teeth, blood, subungual contents.

In relation to firearms - traces on a spent cartridge case, bullet, barrier; to the vehicle - traces of rolling, tire braking.

Types of identification

Depending on the basis of classification, identification is divided into the following types:

By legal nature, a) procedural, i.e. carried out within the framework of the criminal procedure law; b) non-procedural, i.e. carried out during operational-search activities, in the preparation of forensic records;

By subjects: a) an operative, b) an investigator, c) a prosecutor, d) a specialist, e) a court, f) an expert;

By the nature of the displays: a) identification by material-fixed reflections of the features of objects, b) identification by a mental image imprinted in a person’s memory (during identification);

According to evidence: a) individual (in the traditional concept), i.e. during which the subject of the study establishes the fact that the discovered ice belongs to a specific person (traces of hands, odor traces, blood, hair and other objects of biological origin, etc.). the fact of firing a discovered cartridge case from a specific weapon submitted for ballistic examination; b) group (otherwise it is defined as the establishment of group membership). Such identification assumes a possible connection of the object with the crime event, it determines the class, genus, species, group to which the identified object may belong (for example, traces of spiked wheels at the scene of a traffic accident were left by a car, presumably GAZ-Z110 Volga) .

A kind of identification is carrying out such identification on the grounds of a common origin, i.e. establishing the whole in parts (a document torn into pieces, part of a mechanism, assembly, etc.).

The conclusion of the subject of research about the identity of the object is based on the totality of its relatively stable identification features. These are subdivided into: a) private, which are usually the details of the object formed during its manufacture, operation, repair, elements of the papillary pattern of the phalanx of a human finger; b) general, which are inherent in homogeneous objects and allow you to attribute a specific object to a given group (for example, to establish a blood type).

Stages of forensic identification

There are four traditional stages of identification:

• Inspection of the object under study, during which all objects (identifiable, identifying), as well as samples for comparative research (free, conditionally free and experimental) are studied.
• Separate, detailed study of the object in order to identify the maximum number of general and particular features that characterize the object of identification. This stage may be accompanied by experimentation (for example, experimental production of shells or bullets from an identifiable weapon).
• Comparison of features of compared objects. At this stage, the identification of matching signs and signs of difference is carried out.
• Evaluation of the features of the object and the formation of conclusions about the presence or absence of identity. Conclusions can be affirmative or negative, reliable or probable.

The concept and scientific basis of forensic identification

In the course of investigating crimes, the task often arises to identify a specific person, object or other object that left these traces by traces-displays of such an event. Tasks of the same kind arise when it is necessary to establish whether the parts of an object found at the scene of an incident and parts seized from suspects and other persons belong to one whole, and also whether these or other objects related to the crime under investigation and of interest to the investigation, homogeneous and of the same type. The solution of these problems usually plays an important role in establishing the truth about the crimes under investigation.

The very process of research, aimed at solving most of these problems, was called "forensic identification". Identification is the identification of the object, identified during the investigation as the alleged source of these traces, with the object that really left traces of interest to the investigator at one time or another of the crime event. This is also the process of identifying the whole in parts; a group or species level of identification is also used, or an incomplete individual identification.

The concept of "" has several meanings: it is both a task and a process of cc solution; part of the general forensic theory and a special universal method of forensic science. As a special method and the process of its application, forensic identification must in all respects comply with the requirements of criminal procedural legislation. In particular, only those factual data that are obtained and recorded in accordance with the criminal procedure law can be used as source material for resolving the issue of the identity of objects in their tracks. This serves as a guarantee of objectivity and reliability of their origin. In the course of identification research, only such scientific tools, such techniques that do not contradict the general procedural provisions, can be used. Accordingly, the results of this study must be formalized in accordance with the procedural requirements (an expert opinion or a protocol of an investigative action).

In forensics, a theory of forensic identification has been developed, which is based on the provisions of the dialectical theory of knowledge about the identity of the objects of the material world, about the individuality and uniqueness of its objects and their ability to reflect their properties and qualities outside.

The dialectical and formal-logical statements about identity are connected with the conclusion about the limiting non-classification case of the equality of objects not only in terms of generic properties, but also in terms of their individual characteristics. Accordingly, to identify means to establish the same generic (species) property in different objects that make up a strictly defined group (class), or the same individual properties of the same object perceived in its various states.

In the first case, we are not talking about a classification study, but about group identification, or about establishing the group membership of an object, in the second - about individual identification.

With group identification, which is very important to emphasize, as in the case of individual, the question of identity (in this case, a certain classification group, sometimes called a “special class”) is investigated, and not about the classification similarity of objects that may belong to different such groups.

Identification process is impossible without the use of the method of comparison (comparative research) as one of the most important methods of forensic knowledge. It is during a comparative study that the general and individual that unites the compared objects, as well as the differences that exist in them, including those that separate them, are established.

Thus, forensic identification is based on the following basic theoretical principles about: a) the existence of individual and group identity; b) individuality or uniqueness of objects in all their manifestations; c) the individuality of a group of objects with special specific properties; d) the relative stability of their individuality for a sufficiently long time; e) the property of material objects to reflect their external uniqueness when in contact with other objects; f) the ability to maintain individuality in parts.

Types and objects of forensic identification

Identification features

Identification studies are divided into several types for different reasons. The most important basis for such a division is the end result or the nature of the identity being established. On this basis, identification is divided into two types: individual, at which the presence or absence of the identity of an individually defined object is established, and group(specific), establishing the group, or specific, affiliation of the objects under study.

The establishment of group membership as a stage of classification research is an indispensable stage of any individual identification. At the same time, the establishment of group affiliation can also be an independent type of identification. With group identification, as well as with individual identification, identity is established, and not similarity, because the identification of similarities between the compared objects cannot be considered sufficient to conclude that the object under study belongs to a particular group (objects of different groups can be similar).

Of greatest importance for the investigation is the establishment of individual identity. However, the definition of group affiliation can play an equally important role in the investigation process, because it allows you to narrow the circle of objects being checked, and if the classification group of the compared objects does not match, it can serve as a basis for terminating their further comparative study.

In order to minimize the scope of the classification group to which the object under study belongs, criminologists have developed a methodology for determining not only group membership, but also common origin as a form of group membership.

In the process of such identification, the belonging of the compared objects to one group, mass (shot, buckshot, ink in strokes and a fountain pen, etc.) or one batch of goods (mostly mass production) produced by a specific enterprise is determined, and sometimes its workshop, a specific machine tool is revealed. , day of production, work shift, etc. In this case, both the internal features of the object, its structure, composition, as well as traces reflecting the process of its manufacture and the mechanisms and tools used in this are subjected to a comparative study.

According to the nature of the initial information underlying the comparative study, there are identification by materially fixed representations of an object, identification of the whole by its parts, identification by a mental image preserved in a person’s memory (recognition).

When identifying the whole by its parts, separate parts of the damaged object (fragments, fragments, parts, scraps of paper, etc.) found at the scene and seized from suspects are compared and compared with each other, along the lines of their separation, microrelief on the combined parts , on signs of structure, physical and chemical properties.

A variation of the identification of the whole in parts is the identification of capacity, volume and storage found in a suspected person by comparing the contents of the container, volume, storage with traces (parts) of liquids, loose and other substances found at the scene. For example, it is necessary to establish that the kerosene found at the site of the arson was taken from a can (canister) seized from the suspect, etc. information that the liquid (kerosene, etc.) or substance he had was only in this confiscated container, he had no other storage facilities.

According to the nature of the features used in the comparative process, the following types of identification are distinguished: a) by the features of the external structure; b) according to the features of the internal structure; c) according to functional and dynamic features; d) according to the characteristics of the smell.

By the subject of identification and the nature of its procedural regulation distinguish between investigative, expert and judicial identification.

Investigative is carried out by the investigator in the process of individual investigative actions (when objects are presented for identification, comparison of objects found and seized during inspection, search and seizure, etc.), when special knowledge is not required to solve identification problems.

Expert identification is carried out in the form of an examination.

Judicial identification is carried out during the judicial investigation both with the help of direct perception of the object, and by proving.

According to the object of comparative study, the identification of a person, a corpse, vehicles, objects, things and animals, areas of the terrain is distinguished.

Taking into account the branch of forensic science to which the compared objects belong, the following types of identification can be distinguished: traceological, fingerprinting, forensic ballistics, handwriting, authorship, typewriters and other multiplying means, document materials, according to the features of a person’s appearance, etc.

Above were listed objects of animate and inanimate nature of the material world and their individual structural elements that can be identified. There is another group of objects directly related to the methodology of forensic identification, which play a different role in the identification process. These include objects whose identity is established; objects in which traces are displayed, by which identification is carried out, or parts of some whole object; sample objects, whose identity is established.

To the first group of objects, participating in the identification process, include objects whose identity is established. In forensic science they are called identifiable(identifiable). Until these objects are identified, they are referred to as desired. When solving the problem of identification, the concepts of "identifiable" and "sought" merge into one. Objects that, due to the circumstances of the case, could leave traces found at the scene of the incident and are assumed to be sought are called verifiable. The number of recent objects can be significant. In this case, the required object may or may not be among the checked.

The second group of objects constitute objects that reflect in themselves external and other properties (signs of other objects (identifiable - sought), by which it is possible to solve the question of identity). They got the name identifying(identifying). Such objects can be traces of fingers, bare feet, teeth, lips of a person on various objects, traces of shoes, vehicles, hacking tools, a spent bullet or cartridge case, handwritten or typewritten text, separate parts that previously formed a single whole (shards of a headlight glass, fragments of parts of a car, a knife, parts of a torn document, etc.), as well as some object - a representative of the desired classification group. Identifying objects contain the source material, without which identification is impossible.

In one material (identifying) object, heterogeneous properties (features) of different identifiable objects can be displayed. For example, the handwriting features are displayed in the manuscript, according to which the executor of the manuscript is identified. At the same time, it contains signs by which the author of the manuscript can be identified. These individuals may be different. As a result, two different sets of features are formed in one object (manuscript), which can be used to identify different objects. Such sets of signs in forensics are called identification fields(one and second identification field).

Third group of objects consists from comparative samples objects to be scanned. Such objects are not a mandatory element of the identification process. They are necessary when a direct comparison of the identifying and identifiable objects is impossible or significantly complicated. For example, the identification of firearms by rifling marks from zeros of the rifling of the barrel bore on a fired bullet cannot be carried out without a comparative study of these marks on the investigated bullet and the sample-bullet obtained during an experimental shot from an identified weapon. A direct comparison of the indicated traces on the bullet and the rifling inside the bore is impossible.

In the case of group identification of materials, substances and products, samples (samples) of the objects being checked are taken (selected) as samples for a comparative study.

As samples, only undoubted reflections of the features of the checked objects and their carriers, containing a sufficient amount of their features and being comparable with the identifying objects, can be used.

Depending on the method and conditions of obtaining, comparative samples are divided into two groups: free and experimental. Free samples are objects that did not arise in connection with the crime committed and its investigation, but usually related to the period preceding the investigation. These are the most valuable comparative samples. However, they can only be obtained from such identifiable objects that are associated with the need to constantly display their individual properties to the outside (samples of handwriting, signatures, typewritten texts, etc.).

Experimental samples are specially obtained for comparative study from the suspect, the accused, the witness and the victim in the process of investigating crimes. For example, the accused or the suspect perform a handwritten text under the dictation of the investigator or at his request; forensic expert shoots bullets from a tested pistol.

A clear separation of these objects creates the necessary prerequisites for the methodologically correct implementation of identification research.

One of the important elements in the theory of forensic identification is the concept identification mark. As noted earlier, each object has a large number of properties and traits. For identification, not all can be used, but only those properties and features that are displayed in the trace of the object of interest to the investigation. So, to identify the person who performed any text, only those features of the handwriting that are displayed in this text can be used. In turn, to identify the author of this text, it is no longer necessary to have signs of handwriting, but signs of written speech that are displayed in it. Therefore, identification features are understood as the properties of an identified object that are displayed in its trace and can be used to identify it.

Properties that reflect the external structure of the object (shape, dimensions, type and surface topography, etc.), features of its internal structure (anatomical chemical properties, density, hardness, etc.) can serve as identification features. However, each of these properties can be used as identification only if it meets the following requirements.

The identification feature must be significant and specific. These requirements are usually met by such features that may not reflect the essential properties of the object, but are clearly individual, atypical and, accordingly, the most significant for resolving the issue of identity. For example, they usually recognize very peculiar and atypical deviations from the writing in the handwriting in which the manuscript is made; special signs of a person's appearance, etc. At the same time, the more peculiar the property, the higher its identification significance.

This feature should be relatively stable. The criteria for such stability of a trait are its constant reproducibility, or repeatability, under various conditions, combined with unambiguously transmitted information about this trait, as well as its slight variability over time within the identification period. At the same time, the rule applies: the rarer such a feature is, the higher its identification value.

The identification feature should reflect a relatively independent property of the object, which is mutually independent of its other properties (not important for the identification process).

Identification features identified and studied in the process of forensic identification are classified according to several criteria.

Depending on whether the features characterize the identified object as a whole or only its individual properties, they are divided into general and private. Common features express the most common properties of a group of homogeneous objects. Particular features mainly characterize the properties of individual parts of a particular object, allow it to be distinguished from a group of homogeneous ones and identified. At the same time, individual particular features can be repeated in objects of the same group. Therefore, the decision about identity or its absence is made on the basis of the selection and evaluation of an individual set of particular and general features.

Particular signs, depending on which aspects of the properties of the identified object characterize, are divided into signs external and internal structure.

Depending on the degree of display in the sign of the essence of the object characterized by it, identification signs are divided into necessary and random.

The necessary features display such important properties of the identified object, without which it would not be what it is. For example, among the necessary are signs of a person's appearance, called their own and which are its integral properties and inherent in a person from birth (general physical, anatomical and partly functional). It is these signs that primarily form the individual image of a person.

Random are those signs that do not affect the essence of the object, for example, a particular person. These include special signs. They can be the result of regular (congenital anomalies) and accidental (scars, burn marks, etc.) causes.

However, the above division is not related to the assessment of the identification value of necessary and random features. Both can be more important for successful identification.

Identifiable signs, due to various reasons (features of the mechanism of interaction of inanimate objects, situational factors of human behavior, etc.), are inherent variability and variation. These features are most clearly manifested, for example, in human handwriting. So, individual signs of handwriting can vary depending on the adaptation of the writer to various life situations (a business official letter, a careless lecture note, etc.). Accounting for such circumstances when identifying is important for the formation of the correct conclusion about the presence or absence of identity.

General methodology for identification progress

As already noted, the essence of identification consists in comparing the features of objects with reflections of their features. In investigative identification, which does not require special knowledge and appropriate technical means and instrumental research to solve identification problems, the identification process is based on the use of the simplest methods of the comparison method. Investigative identification is mainly in the nature of establishing group affiliation and is carried out both in procedural and non-procedural forms. Part of the conclusions about the identity, which the investigator comes to, is not recorded directly in the case file and is used by him most often to make certain decisions. Individual identification is carried out during such an investigative action as presentation for identification (people, corpses, objects, terrain). In this case, identification is carried out according to a mental image.

The most complex methods of expert identification. Each type of expert forensic identification has its own research methods. Some methods are used in forensic ballistic identification, others in traces, others in handwriting, others in identification by physical features, etc. In this case, the most scientifically developed methods are used using the most advanced means of technical and forensic research.

The forensic identification process consists of four stages: preparatory; separate analytical study of the presented objects; comparative study; synthesis, evaluation of research results and formulation of expert conclusions.

preparatory the stage is reduced to familiarization with the materials sent for examination in order to find out whether the weight of the materials listed in the resolution (determination) on the appointment of an examination is presented to the expert, whether the questions posed for the permission of the expert are clear, whether the necessary procedural requirements have been met during execution, are suitable whether the objects of examination for a comparative study, whether there are enough samples for this. At this stage, a plan is drawn up and possible methods of identification are determined.

On the stage separate analytical study of the presented objects(one identifiable or several tested and comparative samples), each of them is studied separately. At the same time, the maximum number of identification features characteristic of each object under study is revealed and investigated. The importance, stability, relative independence, variation and other features are also checked. The complex of identification features inherent in each object under study is determined.

At another stage, there is comparative study identified and studied the same name identification features of objects. In this case, coinciding and differing features are determined. It is at this stage that scientific and technical means for comparative microscopic examination, various measuring instruments, photographic research methods, coordination grids, image alignment methods, overlays, etc. are widely used.

On the stage synthesis, evaluation of research results and formation of expert conclusions the data obtained as a result of comparing the identified set of features of the presented objects are synthesized, the synthesized results are evaluated and the expert's conclusion is formed.

Based on a comprehensive assessment of the results of a comparative study of the object that left traces, and its display depending on the importance, stability and number of matching features established in them, as well as the identified nature (including variation), quality and quantity of differing features, the experts come to one conclusion. from three possible conclusions: a) about the presence of individual or group identity; b) about its absence; c) about the impossibility of solving the problem of identification. These conclusions about the presence or absence of identity can be categorical and probable.

When evaluating these findings, investigators should keep in mind that in the process of proof, only the data contained in the categorical conclusions are considered as established facts for identification. Probable conclusions are mainly of search and orientation value. In the process of proving, they should not be discarded, but only used carefully and very thoughtfully, combining with other circumstances established in the case.

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FORENSIC IDENTIFICATION THEORY: STATUS, PROBLEMS, DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS

Forensic identification

The theory of forensic identification occupies a special place among the general theoretical issues of forensic science, as it is the scientific basis for studying a number of areas in forensic science, for example, the forensic theory of a person's appearance, forensic investigation of traces, and others.

In addition, its role is great in practical activities.

It should be noted that this topic presents a certain complexity, since the purely theoretical issues under consideration are based on philosophical concepts.

In the presented work, if possible, the wide use of identification, the establishment of group affiliation and diagnostics in the investigation of crimes will be disclosed.

The scientific nature of forensic identification is substantiated, the main provisions of which are theories of knowledge about individuality, relative stability of objects of the material world and their ability to reflect their signs on other objects.

The concept and scientific basis forriministic identification

Any crime is committed in the conditions of reality and, at the same time, inevitably in the environment where this or that crime is committed, various traces (displays) are formed due to the universal property of matter as a property of reflection. And when solving crimes, it often becomes necessary to determine the connection of a person, object (hacking tool) or other object with the event under investigation by traces or other reflections.

For example, in the city of Cheboksary, personal property was stolen from a private house. Upon receipt of a message about the crime committed, an operational group immediately went to the scene, consisting of: an investigator, a criminal investigation officer, a forensic specialist, a dog handler, and a district police inspector.

When examining the scene of the incident, they found: on the door - traces of a hacking tool, on the box - traces of hands, near the front door - a key that did not belong to the owners of the apartment.

You have a cynologist with a local police inspector who followed the trail of the criminal and came to one house, which was located 800 meters from the scene of the crime.

The key found at the scene matched the lock on the door of the house. During a search in the house, a number of things were seized from this MP and a number of things from other places of committed thefts, as well as hacking tools - a crowbar-nail puller.

Subsequently, the examinations established that the traces of the fingers seized from the scene were left by the suspect and the traces of the burglar found on the door were left by a crowbar-nail puller seized from the suspect.

In the above example, the identification (identification) of a person, an object with the event under investigation is carried out.

The term "identification" comes from the Latin word "identificare" - identical, the same and means establishing the identity of an object (person, thing, phenomenon, etc.).

To identify, to identify - this means by the method of comparative research to establish whether a certain object is not the desired one.

Forensic identification is the process of establishing a single specific object according to its various representations from many other similar objects in order to investigate and prevent crimes.

It can be seen from the definition that, first of all, identification is a process of research. Since it is a research process, then certain persons participate in it, who establish this single concrete object. They are usually called subjects of forensic identification. They can be various participants in the criminal process: an investigator, an interrogating officer, a judge, an expert, a victim, suspects, etc. Each of them solves the problem of identification in accordance with its procedural status and means permitted by law. For example: a) an expert, conducting a ballistic examination, determined that the bullet was fired from a given pistol; b) witnesses saw the criminal, remembered his appearance and can recognize him by mental image.

The definition specifies a way to establish a single concrete object - these are various mappings of these objects.

It is known that each object has many properties and features (shape, size, color, composition, etc.).

In forensic identification, not all properties and signs are studied, but mainly their external signs, features of the external structure of objects. These features of the external structure of objects under certain conditions are displayed on other objects. For example, the features of an ax blade (roughness) are displayed in the trace of a cut on a tree, the features of a person's appearance - in the memory of another person, in a photograph, etc.

Thus, object mappings exist in various forms, namely:

1) display in the form of mental images that arise in the minds of people as a result of visual or other perceptions (signs of a criminal in the memory of the victim, features of the sound of a shot).

2) display in the form of a description, drawings made at the time or after visual perception of objects by the observed themselves or according to their testimony by other persons (investigator, artist, etc.) (orientation, subjective portraits).

3) display, as a fixation of the reproduction of the developed skills, for example, the skills of writing and handwriting in manuscripts, the way of criminal actions in the environment.

4) photographic displays and displays in the form of mechanical recordings of human speech, voice (phonograms).

5) display in the form of parts of objects and particles of a substance (parts of a hacking tool, fragments of a headlight glass at the scene).

6) display in the form of various types of traces (traces of hands, feet, hacking tools, vehicles).

Depending on which display was used for identification, the type of identification itself is determined.

Types of forensic identification.

Depending on the nature of the display of the features of the object, the identity of which is established, there are 4 types of forensic identification.

1. Identification of objects by mental image. It is widely used in the practice of investigating crimes during the investigative action of presenting for identification.

2. Identification of an object by its description. It is mainly used to search for criminals and stolen items, to identify unidentified corpses, as well as in forensic records.

1. Identification of objects by their material-fixed representations (traces, photographs, manuscripts, etc.) is the most common case of forensic identification carried out in the process of forensic examinations.

2. Identification of an object by its parts. It is carried out in cases when it becomes necessary to establish that these parts before the destruction (separation) of the object constituted a single whole. For example, fragments of a headlight glass found at the scene of an accident and seized from the headlights of a car identify this car as a participant in this incident.

The scientific basis of forensic identification are the provisions of the theory about the individuality and relative stability of objects of the material world and their ability to reflect their characteristics on other objects.

Let us briefly consider these provisions.

Individuality is the uniqueness of an object, its identity, equality with itself. In nature there are not and cannot be two objects identical to each other. The individuality of an object is expressed in the presence of a unique set of features that no other similar object has. Such signs for an object, thing are dimensions, shape, color, weight, material structure, surface topography and other signs; for a person - features of the figure, structure of the head, face and limbs, physiological features of the body, features of the psyche, behavior, skills, etc. Since the objects of the material world are individual, identical to themselves, then they, therefore, are characterized by individual signs and properties. In turn, these signs of objects are displayed on other objects. The mappings, therefore, are also individual.

On the other hand, all objects of the material world are subject to continuous changes (a person gets old, shoes wear out, etc.). For some, these changes occur quickly, for others slowly, for some the changes may be significant, while for others they may be insignificant. Although objects are constantly changing, they retain the most stable part of their features for a certain time, which allow identification. The property of material objects to maintain, despite changes, the totality of their characteristics is called relative stability. The next important prerequisite for forensic identification is the property of reflecting objects of the material world, i.e. their ability to reflect their attributes on other objects in various forms of mappings, which we considered above.

In this way:

Identification of objects of the material world associated with the event of a crime plays an important role in the process of disclosure, investigation of a crime;

The scientific basis of forensic identification is the provisions of the theory of knowledge about individuality, relative stability and the ability of objects of the material world to reflect signs on other objects.

Objects and subjects of forensic identification. Identificationnye signs and their classification

The objects of forensic identification can be any objects of the material world that have a material-fixed structure. Mostly they are solids.

In any process of forensic identification, at least two objects are necessarily involved, which are divided into:

Identifiable (identifiable);

Identifying (identifying).

Identifiable are those objects whose identity is being established. These are objects that can be displayed on other objects. They may be:

1) a person (a suspect, an accused, a wanted person, a witness, a victim, etc.);

2) corpses of people requiring identification;

3) items serving as physical evidence (weapons, hacking tools, shoes, stolen items, vehicles, etc.);

4) animals;

5) the area or premises where the event under investigation took place, etc.

Identifiers are objects with the help of which the identity of the identifiable is established. They can be any objects on which (or in which) the signs of the identified object are displayed. For example, for a person, traces of hands, bare feet, teeth, blood, etc. can be identifying.

There are two types of identifying objects:

1) Physical evidence. Most often these are objects with traces of unknown origin, anonymous letters, typewritten texts, etc. The occurrence of these objects is associated with the event of the crime being investigated, they serve as a means of proof in the case and therefore they are irreplaceable.

2) Samples are materials for comparison with physical evidence obtained presumably from the same source, i.e. identified object. Such samples will be the fingerprints of a certain person, obtained for comparison with the traces of fingers found at the scene, the manuscripts of a specific person, obtained for comparison with the handwriting of the performer of an anonymous letter, etc.

Depending on the method of preparation, free and experimental samples are distinguished.

Free samples are those that are made out of connection with the crime committed (samples of a person's handwriting in his letters).

Experimental - obtained during the investigation. For example, a text written by a suspect under the dictation of an investigator. The procedure for obtaining them is regulated by article 186 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR.

The subject of forensic identification can be any person who provides evidence in a criminal case: an investigator, an expert, a court.

Forms of forensic identification.

Identification can be carried out in two forms: procedural and non-procedural.

Procedural - these are the forms that are directly provided for by the criminal procedure code of the RSFSR and other republics. They can be carried out at:

Conducting identification examinations (Articles 28-91 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR);

Presentation for identification (Articles 164-166 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR);

Inspection and examination (Articles 178-182 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR);

Seizure and search (Articles 167,168 of the Code of Criminal Procedure of the RSFSR).

The results of identification, reflected in the conclusion in the expert's opinion and in the protocol of presentation for identification, acquire the value of evidence.

The non-procedural form includes identification carried out for operational purposes. These include:

Conducting an expert study (expert's certificate);

Carrying out by the investigator independently or together with a specialist a preliminary to expert study of material evidence (determining a person’s height by the footprint of a shoe, etc.);

Verification (establishment) of identity according to documents; Use of forensic and operational records, etc.

Features of objects that can be used to identify them are called identification. They are divided into public and private.

General features are inherent not only to this object, but also to all objects of a particular group (species, genus). For example, all axes have a certain size and shape of the blade, any handwriting has elaboration, size, inclination, connectedness, etc. Identification by them cannot be carried out, they serve to narrow the circle of the desired objects.

Particular features are those that are inherent in the objects of one group and characterize the details of each object. For example, particular signs of an ax blade can be nicks, dents, particular signs of a shoe sole - cracks, scratches, patches, etc. They are the basis for identification. Sometimes a particular attribute may be inherent in some other objects of this kind. Therefore, in the identification study, a combination of both general and particular features is used. Each sign is characterized by: size, shape, color, position, features.

Brief conclusions to the second question:

in the process of forensic identification, various objects are examined, which are divided into two main groups: identifiable and identifying;

identification of objects is carried out by a set of features inherent only to it, which are divided into general and particular.

Establishment of group affiliation and diagnostics, their significance

The establishment of group membership in forensic science is, first of all, a study, as a result of which an object belongs to a certain group of already known objects. At the same time (by analogy with identification), installed and installing samples are distinguished.

If during identification one specific object is established from a set of similar objects, then when establishing group membership, the group (species, genus) to which this object belongs is determined.

Establishment of group affiliation is carried out mainly on the basis of common (group) characteristics. With an increase in the number of signs, the circle of objects included in this group narrows (for example, a stain on the clothes of a criminal is left with blood, human blood, belongs to such and such a group, its origin from such and such a place, etc.).

The establishment of group membership also takes place in the process of identification, being its first step, which serves to narrow the circle of objects among which this object should be located.

The establishment of group affiliation is also resorted to in cases where:

1. The features displayed on the identified object are not sufficient to resolve the issue of identity (only group features were displayed, for example, footprints on loose ground).

2. The identified object has undergone changes to a degree that excludes identification (for example, the shoes that left a mark on the scene were then worn by the criminal for a long time, and its signs, which were displayed on the track, changed or disappeared altogether).

3. The mechanism of the formation of traces is such that they do not display signs that individualize a particular object (for example, saw cut marks formed by a file, saw teeth, etc.);

4. When there is only an identifying object, the investigation has an identifying object (trace), but the object whose identity is to be established is unknown or not found.

5. When objects do not have the ability to be displayed on other objects, as not having a stable external form. These are most often bulk and liquid substances. And sometimes there can be solid bodies.

6. When the definition of group affiliation satisfies the objectives of the investigation (for example, determining the homogeneity of the shot found at the scene and seized from the suspect).

Group membership is set for:

1. Determining the nature of an unknown substance. The issue is resolved with the help of chemical, biological and other research methods, when the investigation is interested, for example, what substance formed the stain on the suspect's clothes, or what kind of liquid is in the vial found at the scene.

2. Definitions of the essence and meaning of the subject. In this case, forensic, technical and other studies are carried out in order to resolve issues such as whether this item is a firearm, whether this device is suitable for making moonshine, etc.

3. Attribution of an object to a certain group, to the mass of substances. At the same time, various studies are carried out to determine, for example, the homogeneity of objects found at the scene and seized from the suspect.

4. Finding out the source of origin or method of making an object (for example, counterfeit money).

The group affiliation of an object can be established by an investigator, a court, an operative worker both in a procedural and non-procedural form, an expert only in a procedural form, and a specialist only in a non-procedural form.

Types of establishing group affiliation are similar to types of forensic identification.

For the first time the concept of forensic diagnostics was introduced in the early 70s by V. A. Snetkov. The term "diagnosis" of Greek origin, which means able to recognize, recognition - the doctrine of methods for recognizing diseases and the signs that characterize certain diseases. In the broad sense of the word, the process of recognition is used in all branches of science and technology, is one of the elements of the knowledge of matter, that is, it allows you to determine the nature of phenomena, substances, materials and specific objects. From a philosophical and logical point of view, the term "diagnostics" can legitimately be used in any branch of science.

The essence of forensic diagnostics can be defined as the doctrine of the patterns of recognition of forensic objects by their characteristics (gender of a person by handwriting, distance of a shot by traces of the use of firearms, human growth by footprints, age of records by the properties of strokes, blood types by smeared fat traces, such as firearms by traces on cartridge cases, type of clothing by composition and properties of single fibers, etc.).

Being a special kind of cognitive process, diagnosis differs from identification and identification used in forensic practice.

When diagnosing, an object is established by comparing the knowledge accumulated by science, experience about a group, a class of corresponding objects.

In forensic identification, an object is established by comparing two (or more) specific objects, each of which is individual.

The difference does not exclude the use of diagnostics in the initial stages of identification, moreover, sometimes it turns out to be useful for choosing the most effective method of identification, assessing the significance of the identified features.

Diagnosis can be carried out in procedural or non-procedural forms.

Diagnostics is especially promising in the framework of operational-search activities carried out in the course of solving crimes, as it provides operational workers and other persons with information to build versions of the search for suspects. Finally, such studies make it possible to carry out prompt verification of persons suspected of committing a crime.

Valuable information for the disclosure of crimes, the search for persons who commit them, is provided by diagnostic studies of fibers and other micro-objects - particles of paint, glass, and plant residues.

Thus, the introduction of diagnostic studies into the practice of internal affairs bodies is a very urgent problem.

As repeatedly emphasized in recent years in the works of various authors, the theory of forensic identification is one of the most mature, practical forensic theories. (1) And there is every reason for such assertions. Since the 50s of the last century, all prominent domestic criminologists (and not only them) have been (and many continue to be) engaged in the problems of forensic identification as an effective means of collecting and verifying evidence in criminal proceedings.

Such close attention paid by specialists to this topic (and hence the abundance of fundamental scientific works devoted to it) is due to several reasons. Among them, first of all, it should be attributed that this area of ​​scientific knowledge historically turned out to be the first forensic theory, which acted not as the sum of separate theoretical constructions, but as a systematized, holistic knowledge, as an ordered system of concepts. “Systematization,” as R. S. Belkin noted, “opened up prospects for further research in this area, gave a visual representation of the “blank spots”, unresolved problems and, thus, made it relatively easy to determine the points of application of forces and attract these forces.

As the theory of forensic identification was formed, its important methodological role in forensic science and related fields of knowledge and its great practical importance became more and more obvious. This could not but stimulate interest in the problem on the part of ever wider circles of the scientific community. "(2) Sharing the views of R.S. Belkin, reflected in the above quotation, we are at the same time far from a blissfully enthusiastic, self-reassuring assessment of the state of affairs that has developed in the theory of forensic identification. There is no doubt: a lot has been achieved. But not everything that has been achieved meets strict scientific standards and fully meets the needs of criminal procedure practice. Yes, and "blank spots" have been eliminated only in some part of them, and not along the entire front urgent problems.

Let us dwell only on some of them, which, in our opinion, require a top-priority, deep and impartial analysis. 1. The basis of the modern concept of forensic identification is the fundamental idea of ​​S. M. Potapov, according to which the practical solution of the identification problem is a study, as a result of which a conclusion can be drawn about the presence or absence of the identity of any object. Moreover, "this process," S. M. Potapov wrote, "is a comparative study of the attributes of a thing that are mentally separated in the representation, but precisely those attributes that determine its identity and distinguish it from all other things." (3) Subsequently, the mentioned signs were called identification. (4) There are various classifications of identification features proposed in the scientific literature.

The most common, in our opinion, is their division into external and internal signs. Traditionally, forensic theorists in their works have paid and continue to pay the main attention to the problem of identifying objects by signs of an external order (signs of the external structure of objects - in traceology, signs of a person's appearance - in habitoscopy, etc.). The results of research carried out from the standpoint of this approach have played their main, defining role in the development of general and particular models of identification technologies, principles and conceptual apparatus of the theory of forensic identification.

However, in modern conditions, much of what has been created in this regard, in our opinion, needs to be rethought from the position of involving in criminal proceedings many different, previously unknown objects of research, and the latest achievements of scientific and technological progress. The fact is that the general provisions of the theory, technology, methods of identification in a certain part no longer reflect the realities of today and are not adequate in all of them. The current situation is most clearly seen when looking at the theory of forensic identification from the position of achievements in the field of genoscopic (genotyposcopy) identification, based on original, fundamentally new conceptual provisions (principles, objects, methods, etc.).

Paying attention to this issue, E.P. Ishchenko reasonably states that research in the field of genetic identification will inevitably affect the further development and enrichment of the theory of forensic identification. "The transition from identification by external signs (traces of contact interaction, as well as images imprinted in the memory of eyewitnesses) to identification by internal, essential characteristics (the genotype of a biological object, physical and chemical features of the structure of the surface and volume of objects of inorganic nature), - adds the specified author - will mark a qualitatively new level of development of forensic science, put on the agenda the issue of improving the norms of the current Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation. (5)2.

The new time and new life not only dictate the need to fill in the existing gaps in knowledge, but also often form the task of reassessing those values ​​that previously seemed unshakable, primarily in relation to the subject of our analysis. The foregoing refers to the issue of clarifying ideas about the essence and features of some traditional, but dilapidated from the frequent use of concepts.

In this regard, the issue of developing optimal definitions of forensic identification as a method and process for solving practical problems seems to be very relevant. In most cases, the definitions of these concepts formulated by various authors are based on the ideas of S. M. Potapov. Their essence boils down to the fact that identification as a process of cognition is a system of real actions performed in a certain sequence to establish the fact of the presence or absence of the identity of any material object (person, object, etc.) investigated in criminal proceedings. (6) It is noteworthy that all definitions of this type contain elements of tautology, because to identify in translation from Late Latin means to identify.

In addition, if they are evaluated from the standpoint of logic, they belong to the category of implicit ones, i.e. in need of explanation. First of all, the question of which group includes those objects, the identity of which is established, needs to be clarified. In the scientific literature, this question is given approximately the following answer: a variety of individually defined material formations (in the terminology of R. S. Belkin) are bodies with a stable external structure. (7) This answer is overly general and needs to be specified on the basis of the implementation of a logical operation, for example, limiting the concept as a process of transition from a concept with a large volume, but with less content, to a concept with a smaller volume, but with more content. Some scientists have successfully solved this problem.

One of the authors of this article substantiates the position that to identify or establish an identity means to get an accurate, conclusive answer to the question that the trace (traces) submitted for research was left by this verified object, and not by some other trace-forming object. Recognition of the fact of the absence of identity means obtaining knowledge that the object being checked, the identity of which is assumed, is not the desired one, that in this case some other object unknown at the time of the study acts as a trace-former. (8) In line with the same understanding of the issue lies the position of R. G. Dombrovsky.

"In essence, - he notes, - forensic identification is a specific method of cognition in the investigation of criminal acts. Its task is to find the object that left this trace from the set of possible objects on the left trace." (9) Such statements are based on practical realities, reflect the practice of identification research, serve the purpose of their optimization. Thus, everything that lies outside the scope of solving the problem of establishing the identity of the trace-forming object, in our opinion, has nothing to do with forensic identification.

A clear limitation of the direction and limits of forensic identification seems to be a very important matter of great scientific, didactic and practical importance. Indefinite, blurred boundaries of the target orientation and fields of application of this method inevitably lead to the replacement of other methods of evidentiary knowledge (the method of forensic diagnosis; the method of forensic reconstruction; the method of establishing a common source of origin, etc.), which leads to confusion of concepts, misunderstandings, fruitless discussions, erroneous recommendations and other undesirable consequences that do not contribute to the further development of the doctrine of the methods, techniques and technologies of forensic science. 3. In the theory of forensic identification, it is generally accepted that one of the types of this identification is the establishment of the whole in its parts.

“A kind of individual identification,” write the authors of one of the forensic textbooks, “is the so-called “establishment of the whole in its parts (fragments),” or, in other words, the establishment of the fact that the parts belong to each other in a single whole. When solving this problem, the fragmented parts of the object are combined with each other (fragments, fragments, parts, scraps of paper, etc.) and explore the mutual display of signs of the external structure of parts on matching separation surfaces. (10) We have serious doubts about the validity of this provision. Establishing a whole by its parts is an important, widespread practical task, usually resolved within the framework of forensic research. However, in our opinion, it is not identification, but belongs to the number of reconstruction tasks.

Therefore, its solution is based on provisions developed not in the theory and technology of forensic identification, but in the field of theory and technology of forensic reconstruction. It is also significant that in the very process of obtaining reconstruction knowledge, samples for comparative analysis are not involved, obviously obtained from the object being checked, the identity of which is being established. In addition, what is especially important, this object itself does not participate in this process.

But according to all the canons of the theory of forensic identification, the absence of an identifiable object (at worst, its full-fledged substitute, for example, a photograph of an identifiable person) excludes the very possibility of identification. In addition, the process of establishing the whole in parts is based only on the results of the study of the features of objects of the same order - parts of some unknown at the time of the initial stage of the study of the object.

The studied parts belong to the category of traces-objects: either traces-documents, or traces-substances. According to the mechanism of their formation, they are divided into traces of separation and traces of separation (dismemberment). Other materially fixed objects, presented for direct perception, do not have the subjects of establishing the whole according to the studied parts. The truth of the axiomatic proposition that one part cannot be identical to another (others) hardly needs argumentation, just as it cannot be in relation to identity with the whole being established.

The possibility of identity is also excluded in the system "a set of parts and a whole". The whole can be identical (equal) only to itself and to nothing (no one) else. (So, everything that is contained in a drop of sea water is also contained in the sea. However, a drop can never be in a relationship of identity (the highest degree of equality) with the sea. If only because the sea contains a lot of things that are not in the drop, in including a great many of the same, but not the same drops).

Therefore, the study of parts involves clarifying their connection and relationships with each other and their relationship to some kind of whole. The solution of these problems goes beyond identification. It does not give knowledge of identity or lack of identity. The acquisition of this knowledge formulates a new fundamentally different task of establishing an object that contributed to the formation of parts as products, traces of its destructive impact on the whole. Therefore, to solve the question of belonging to some whole of the indicated objects-traces does not yet mean to establish under the influence of which object the studied parts were formed, that is, to identify the trace-forming objects.

Yes, and this task itself is not posed in this case, since we are not talking about a tool, a means of the mentioned influence, but only about the connection of elements among themselves and their relations to a certain whole that existed up to the moment when the process of destructive impact on its material began. substance. 4. According to the nature of the displays used as means of identification, forensic identification is divided into two types: 1) identification by material-fixed displays; 2) identification by mental images (memory traces). Life, investigative and forensic experience have long proved the validity of the scientific and practical significance of such a division from a logical and factual point of view.

Something else draws attention: a clear discrepancy between the levels of development of these areas of forensic identification. In the structure of many years of scientific research, the place of a clear favorite (as it happened) is occupied by forensic identification by material-fixed mappings. Numerous doctoral and candidate dissertations, monographs, textbooks and a great many other literature are devoted to this topic, in which the most diverse aspects from the field of general theory and certain types and directions of forensic identification in traces of traceological, ballistic and other nature are considered.

This abundance contrasts sharply with what has been done and what has been achieved in the field of the tactical direction of the theory and practice of forensic identification by mental images. Both in large and small works devoted to the theory of forensic identification, identification by mental image is mentioned only in passing, in a few phrases, along with consideration of other issues. So far, not a single serious comprehensive analysis of the numerous problems of this area of ​​scientific knowledge has been carried out. As a result, the study of the relevant literature can lead and often leads the inexperienced reader to the idea of ​​elementarity, simplicity of the corresponding process of cognition, which by no means corresponds to reality.

The provisions do not save, and the impressions do not change, and more or less active developments carried out in investigative tactics, dedicated to the technology of one of the main types of criminal procedural identification by mental image, implemented in the form of such an investigative action as presentation for identification. The quality of these developments for a number of positions is still far from the desired level. To a large extent, this is due to the lack of development of general issues of identification by a mental image, carried out both in the course of the criminal procedural activities of the subjects of criminal prosecution, and outside it, but in an area that is also directly related to the problem of combating crime. In our deep conviction, largely dictated by the trend of increasing the number of cases of erroneous identification, in modern conditions the task of creating a forensic doctrine of identification by a mental image as a system of theoretical knowledge about this process, which, according to a number of provisions, principles, approaches, methods differs significantly from a similar process, which is based on the study of material-fixed traces.

Identification of the indicated originality and specificity of patterns of identification by a mental image will allow, over time, more purposefully and productively to carry out applied research in this area of ​​forensic identification. On the other hand, the results obtained will be useful for filling in "white spots", eliminating "black holes", clarifying, deepening, enriching knowledge in the field of general provisions of the theory of forensic identification (general theory), one of the most important components of which is the doctrine of forensic identification according to mental image.

The need for adjustment, clarification of the general provisions of the theory of forensic identification is due to a number of circumstances, including the fact that a number of these provisions (procedures, principles, etc.) are not universal, comprehensive (for their level) character. This refers to those provisions that are actually developed not on the basis of the general laws of the relevant types of identification activities, but reflect only the results of research on identification by material images and can not be applied in all cases, but only in this area of ​​practical solution of identification problems and mainly in the course of forensic examinations. 5. Among the "pain points" of the domestic theory of forensic identification is the problem of the so-called group identification (in the words of M. V. Saltevsky - groupification). Despite many years of discussions, this problem is still hotly debated. The opinions of scientists on this subject are divided: some authors believe that it is legitimate to talk about forensic identification only in the context of establishing the identity of single, one-of-a-kind objects, others tend to believe that, along with individual, there is also group identification as a process of establishing the belonging of the object under study to this or that group (set, class, genus, etc.).

From what has been said above, it is not difficult to understand that we are convinced supporters of the first point of view. It is expressed by very capacious and precise judgments made almost 50 years ago by G.M. Minkovsky and N.P. Yablokov, who, pointing to the inconsistency of the term "group identification", emphasized that "an object can only be identical to itself. In this case, we are talking about the belonging of an object to a certain group, that is, its similarity with some other objects.

Therefore, it is necessary to talk about "the establishment of group membership (similarity of similarity)". (11) To what has been said, it should only be added that in the modern view, what is still defined by some authors as group identification is in fact classification recognition. (12) Identification has nothing to do with it, because any element included in any group of similar elements cannot be identical to any other elements, and even more so to their combination. The inconsistency of the concept of group identification is especially clearly manifested in the analysis of the results of the identification process according to a mental image (identification, recognition).

If this process results in the determination that the object (or person) being checked, presented for identification, is the same, similar to the one that was previously perceived by the subject of identification, then this does not mean at all that the person being checked is the very object whose identity is installed. And it is unlikely that anyone will dare to call this result any identification, since the concepts "similar", "same", as we noted above, are far from being synonymous with what is meant by the words "the same". Forensic identification differs from other types of identification not only in the purpose and scope of the first, but also in other features.

We are talking about a holistic set of certain signs, and not about individual signs, some of which may be characteristic of various types of non-forensic identification. This set is formed by the following circumstances: 1) the objects of forensic identification are individually defined material substances with a stable external structure; 2) forensic identification is carried out according to the appropriate mapping of the stable properties of the identified objects; 3) the scope of application of forensic identification is not limited to forensic research, investigators, other subjects of evidence and participants in criminal proceedings can act as subjects of identification; (13) 4) the solution of identification problems is carried out not only at the stages of preliminary investigation and trial in criminal cases, but also at the stage of initiating a criminal case. It seems that all these provisions should be taken into account when developing general and particular definitions of forensic identification. So far, this has not happened. Among the existing definitions of the phenomenon under consideration as a method and process of cognition, the formulation of NA Selivanov most fully corresponds to the criteria of laconism and concreteness.

In his opinion, identification as a method of cognition is a system of principles and techniques that determine the scientific approach to research aimed at establishing the presence or absence of identity in criminal proceedings. As for identification as a process of cognition, according to N.A. Selivanov, can be characterized as a system of "real actions performed in a certain sequence to establish the presence or absence of identity". (14) The above formulation of the identification method reflects modern ideas regarding the content of the method as a typical information model that includes a system of principles and rules that must be followed when solving any scientific or practical problem.

The definition of the identification process needs to be clarified, since in fact it characterizes not the process, but the method of identification. The fact is that the method as a category of an ideal, individual order "always finds embodiment in objective reality through some rational methods or techniques." (15) It follows that the concept of a process is broader in scope than the concept of a method for solving a problem. The last concept is one, although the most important component of the first.

From this point of view, close to the truth, in our opinion, are the definitions, the authors of which proceed from the understanding of forensic identification as the process of establishing the identity of the object being investigated in criminal proceedings based on a comparative analysis of the features of the identified and identifying objects. (16) However, definitions of this type contain a common drawback, which we have already pointed out: they do not answer the question of the group membership of the identified objects.

In the light of the foregoing, it seems possible to propose the following variants of forensic identification as a method and process for purposefully solving relevant problems in the field of criminal procedure. Forensic identification as a method of cognition is a product of scientific creativity, containing a system of knowledge (concepts, principles, procedures, techniques) about how this or that task should be solved in criminal proceedings related to establishing the identity of an individually defined trace-forming object.

Forensic identification as a process of cognition is a pre-prepared, implemented in criminal proceedings activity of the subject of establishing the identity of an individually defined trace-forming object, based on the provisions of the scientific model of the method of forensic identification. 7. The weak link in the theory of forensic identification is still the problem of systemic characteristics of this theory. The vast majority of researchers silently bypass it. It is touched upon only in the works of individual authors, but not as the subject of a special study, but as an insignificant component of the general complex of issues under study.

So, in the works of B.I. Shevchenko draws attention to the fact that along with the general theory of forensic identification, there is such a less general subsystem of it as the theory of identification in forensic trace science. (17) A similar idea was reflected in the works of V.F. Orlova, who substantiated the position on the existence of a general theory of forensic identification and a theory of identification in handwriting (the theory of graphic identification). (18) Following them, R.S. Belkin came to the conclusion that there are two subsystems in the structure of the theory of forensic identification: the general theory and private, in his words, branch theories of forensic identification.

Justifying his position, he rightly pointed out that particular forensic theories (private in relation to the general theory of forensic science) can be differentiated depending on the degree of generality and the nature of their subject matter. They can be "more general" and "less general". Everything depends on the nature and range of phenomena and processes covered by them, on the volume of the subject area of ​​each. The general theory of forensic identification in this context has a greater degree of generalization than, for example, the theory of trace identification. At the same time, the latter is a more general system than such subsystems of the field as the theory of mechanoscopic identification and the theory of homeoscopic identification. (19) Analysis of the proposed R.S. Belkin's constructions ("general theory of forensic identification - private sectoral theories of forensic identification") shows that it does not have a sign of integrity.

This is indicated by the absence in it of such an important intermediate link as the doctrine of forensic identification by material-fixed reflections and the doctrine of forensic identification by a mental image. There is every reason to believe that the theory of forensic identification, being an integral systemic entity, consists of three parts: 1) the general theory of forensic identification (20) (general level); 2) the doctrine of forensic identification by materially fixed traces and the doctrine of forensic identification by a mental image (the level of the special); 3) branch theories of forensic identification (the doctrine of identification in forensic trace science; the doctrine of identification in forensic speech science; the doctrine of identification in a forensic instrument of reference, etc.) with all their less general components (the level of an individual).

This model can be used as a guide to determine the main directions for further research in the field of theory and technology of forensic identification and to systematize existing and newly acquired knowledge.

Apparently, it makes sense to carry out the mentioned studies in three directions. The first is problems related to the further development of the general theory of forensic identification. The second is the problems associated with the need to clarify, expand and deepen knowledge in the field of forensic identification by material-fixed images and mental images. Third - the problems of development of certain types of branch forensic identification. The general goal of these studies at the present stage is to identify and eliminate contradictions, "white spots", "black holes" and "pain points" that exist in this area of ​​scientific knowledge.

The questions raised by us do not exhaust the whole range of problems of the modern theory of forensic identification. A number of questions remained outside the scope of our study, requiring a special detailed discussion. (For example, the problem of identification principles is directly related to them, as well as the discussion that has unfolded in the literature about whether forensic identification is both a method and a process of cognition, or only serves as a process for solving a cognitive task).

However, what has been considered seems to be sufficient to form a quite definite idea that the theory of forensic identification has not yet become an integral, complete and consistent system of scientific knowledge. There is still a lot to be done on the way of its advancement to an adequate reflection of reality - its objective subject area. It will hardly be possible to achieve this goal without a radical update of the conceptual foundations, clarification of a number of fundamentally important points of the traditional scientific paradigm (21) of forensic identification.

N. A. Selivanov defines forensic theory as a system of concepts, principles, concepts, knowledge about regular relationships, “concerning problems both common to the entire science of forensic science and related to its individual parts. The first represent general forensic theories (teachings), the second - private". According to this author, the theory of forensic identification is one of the general forensic theories. A paradigm is an initial conceptual scheme, a model for posing problems and solving them, as well as research methods that have dominated the scientific community for a certain historical period.

Literature

1. "Criminalistics", ed. R. S. Belkina, M., YL, 1986.

2. "Criminalistics", ed. N. P. Yablokova, V. Ya. Koldina, Moscow State University, 1990.

3. Koldin V. Ya. Identification in the investigation of crimes. M., YuL, 1978.

4. "Criminalistics" ed. I. R. Panteleeva, N. N. Selivanova, Moscow, YL, 1988.

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Plan.

1. The concept of forensic identification

2. Types and forms of forensic identification

3. Establishment of group affiliation in forensics

4. Forensic diagnostics

Bibliography

1. The concept of forensic identification

Any crime is committed in the conditions of reality and, at the same time, inevitably in the environment where this or that crime is committed, various traces (displays) are formed due to the universal property of matter as a property of reflection. And when solving crimes, it often becomes necessary to determine the connection of a person, object (hacking tool) or other object with the event under investigation by traces or other reflections.

The term "identification" comes from the Latin word "identificare" - identical, the same and means establishing the identity of an object (person, thing, phenomenon, etc.).

To identify, to identify - this means by the method of comparative research to establish whether a certain object is not the desired one.

Forensic identification- this is the process of establishing a single specific object according to its various displays from many other objects similar to it in order to investigate and prevent crimes.

It can be seen from the definition that, first of all, identification is a process of research. Since it is a research process, then certain persons participate in it, who establish this single concrete object. They are usually called subjects of forensic identification. They can be various participants in the criminal process: an investigator, an interrogating officer, a judge, an expert, a victim, suspects, etc. Each of them solves the problem of identification in accordance with its procedural status and means permitted by law. For example:

a) the expert, conducting a ballistic examination, determined that the bullet was fired from this pistol;

b) witnesses saw the criminal, remembered his appearance and can recognize him by mental image.

The definition specifies a way to establish a single concrete object - these are various mappings of these objects.

It is known that each object has many properties and features (shape, size, color, composition, etc.).

In forensic identification, not all properties and signs are studied, but mainly their external signs, features of the external structure of objects. These features of the external structure of objects under certain conditions are displayed on other objects. For example, the features of an ax blade (roughness) are displayed in the trace of a cut on a tree, the features of a person's appearance - in the memory of another person, in a photograph, etc.

Thus, object mappings exist in various forms, namely:

Display in the form of mental images that arise in the minds of people as a result of visual or other perceptions (signs of a criminal in the memory of the victim, features of the sound of a shot).

display in the form of a description, drawings made at the time or after the visual perception of objects by the observed themselves or according to their testimony by other persons (investigator, artist, etc.) (orientations, subjective portraits).

display, as a fixation of the reproduction of the developed skills, for example, the skills of writing and handwriting in manuscripts, the way of criminal actions in the environment.

photographic displays and displays in the form of mechanical recordings of human speech, voice (phonograms).

Displaying in the form of parts of objects and particles of a substance (parts of a hacking tool, fragments of a headlight glass at the scene).

· display in the form of various types of traces (traces of hands, feet, hacking tools, vehicles).

Depending on which display was used for identification, the type of identification itself is determined.

2. Types and forms of forensic identification

Depending on the nature of the display of the features of the object, the identity of which is established, there are 4 types of forensic identification:

1. Identification of objects by mental image. It is widely used in the practice of investigating crimes during such an investigative action as presenting for identification.

2. Identification of an object by its description. It is mainly used to search for criminals and stolen items, identify unidentified corpses, as well as in forensic records.

3. Identification of objects by their material-fixed representations (traces, photographs, manuscripts, etc.) is the most common case of forensic identification carried out in the process of forensic examinations.

4. Identification of an object by its parts. It is carried out in cases when it becomes necessary to establish that these parts before the destruction (separation) of the object constituted a single whole. For example, fragments of a headlight glass found at the scene of an accident and seized from the headlights of a car identify this car as a participant in this incident.

The scientific basis of forensic identification are the provisions of the theory about the individuality and relative stability of objects of the material world and their ability to reflect their characteristics on other objects.

Individuality is the uniqueness of an object, its identity, equality with itself. In nature there are not and cannot be two objects identical to each other. The individuality of an object is expressed in the presence of a unique set of features that no other similar object has. Such signs for an object, thing are dimensions, shape, color, weight, material structure, surface topography and other signs; for a person - the features of the figure, the structure of the head, face and limbs, the physiological features of the body, the features of the psyche, behavior, skills, etc. Since the objects of the material world are individual, identical to themselves, they, therefore, are characterized by individual signs and properties. In turn, these signs of objects are displayed on other objects.

The mappings, therefore, are also individual. On the other hand, all objects of the material world are subject to continuous changes (a person gets old, shoes wear out, etc.). For some, these changes occur quickly, for others slowly, for some the changes may be significant, while for others they may be insignificant. Although objects change constantly, but for a certain time they retain the most stable part of their features, which allow identification. The property of material objects to maintain, despite changes, the totality of their characteristics is called relative stability.

The next important prerequisite for forensic identification is the property of reflecting objects of the material world, i.e., their ability to reflect their features on other objects in various forms of mapping, which we discussed above. In this way:

Identification of objects of the material world associated with the event of a crime plays an important role in the process of disclosure, investigation of a crime;

· the scientific basis of forensic identification are the provisions of the theory of knowledge about the individuality, relative stability and ability of objects of the material world to reflect signs on other objects.

Identification can be done in two forms: procedural and non-procedural.

Procedural- these are the forms that are directly provided for by the Code of Criminal Procedure of the Russian Federation. They can be carried out at:

carrying out identification examinations;

Presentation for identification

inspection and examination;

seizure and search.

The results of identification, reflected in the conclusion in the expert's opinion and in the protocol of presentation for identification, acquire the value of evidence.

To non-procedural form refers to identification carried out for operational purposes. These include:

Conducting an expert study (expert's certificate);

Conducting by the investigator independently or jointly with a specialist a preliminary pre-expert study of material evidence (determining a person’s height along the footprint of a shoe, etc.);

Verification (establishment) of identity according to documents;

Use of forensic and operational records, etc.

Features of objects that can be used to identify them are called identification. They are divided into public and private.

Common features are inherent not only to a given object, but also to all objects of a particular group (species, genus). For example, all axes have a certain size and shape of the blade, any handwriting - wear, size, slope, connectedness, etc. Identification by them cannot be carried out, they serve to narrow the circle of the desired objects.

Particular features are those that are inherent in the objects of one group and characterize the details of each object. For example, particular signs of an ax blade can be nicks, dents, particular signs of a shoe sole - cracks, scratches, patches, etc. They are the basis for identification. Sometimes a particular attribute may be inherent in some other objects of this kind. Therefore, in the identification study, a combination of both general and particular features is used. Each sign is characterized by: size, shape, color, position, features.

3. Establishment of group affiliation in forensics

In the investigation of crimes, along with identification, the establishment of group affiliation is also widely used. The establishment of group membership is understood as the definition of the type, class, genus, species, variety or other group to which the given object belongs. It is based on the objective possibility to classify (group) the whole variety of objects and phenomena according to their characteristics. Belonging to a certain group means such a ratio of two or more objects, in which all their most important properties (or signs) are the same and there are no significant differences between them (objects).

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Federal state budget educational

Higher Education Institution

Moscow State Law University

Named after O.E. Kutafin (MSUA)"

Institute of Forensic Examinations

Full-time education

Department of Criminalistics

Myskina Ksenia Mikhailovna

"Identification of a person on the basis of written speech"

Course work

student of the 1st group of the 3rd year

Scientific adviser:

PhD in Law, Assoc. Komissarova Ya.V.

Delivery date: __________________

Review date: _________

Protection date: ________________

Grade: _____________________

Moscow
2017

Introduction. 2

§one. The concept of forensic identification. four

§2. General characteristics of written speech. 9

Conclusion. 24

List of used literature.. 25

Introduction

The study of written speech, which is the content of the document and reflects the psycho-physiological and intellectual capabilities of a person, is one of the sections of forensic technology. The complex of speech-thinking skills of an individual is unique, the written speech of each is individual and inimitable, which makes it possible to solve identification problems with its help. This opportunity is widely used by criminalistics. The issue of establishing authorship can become relevant in the investigation of many crimes, and when it comes to such offenses as copyright infringement, public calls for extremist activity or slander, the identification of the person who left the written message is often the strongest evidence.

It is not for nothing that the issues of personal identification on the basis of written speech are covered in some detail both in textbooks and in articles and scientific papers. This topic was touched upon by Granovsky G.L., Vul S.M., Ishchenko E.P., Averyanova T.V., Galyashina E.I. and other eminent scientists.

The purpose of this work is to consider the features of written speech in terms of their identification significance.

To achieve it, the following tasks were set:

– consider in detail the concept of forensic identification;

- give a general description of the concept of "written speech";

- identify the signs of written speech and give their classification;

Accordingly, the paper consistently addresses issues related to the concept of forensic identification, the concept and features of written speech, as well as author's expertise.

The work thus includes an introduction, three paragraphs, a conclusion and a list of references.

The concept of forensic identification

The theory of identification is the basis for all private forensic teachings. As you know, the goal of forensic science is the investigation of crimes, during which it often becomes necessary, with the help of traces, to establish a connection between a person or an object and a criminal event, to identify the object that left it by display.

The word "identification" comes from the Latin "identificare" - "identify". In forensics, to identify an object means “to establish (reveal) its identity with itself in different periods of time or in its different states, using for these purposes the images left by it.” And if in other sciences, for example, chemistry, mineralogy or zoology, the term “identification” refers to the assignment of an object to a certain class, genus, species, subspecies, family, that is, in other words, its classification, then in forensic science we are talking about establishing an identity. Moreover, identity means not just complete similarity, but correspondence only to oneself in the conditions of individuality and uniqueness of the objects of the material world, the presence of stable characteristic features that distinguish these objects from others similar to them. The essence of forensic identification is to identify a specific object on the trail that he left.

The concept of identification can be considered in three different aspects. Firstly, it denotes the purpose and result of the study, secondly, identification can be understood as the process of research itself, a certain system of sequential actions, and, finally, thirdly, identification is a theoretical concept, “including the doctrine of general principles and techniques identification of material objects as a way of establishing the truth in a criminal, civil, administrative, arbitration case.

The theory of identification is based on three basic premises:

1. Uniqueness objects of the material world. This position means that nothing is identical with anything but itself.

2. The presence of an aggregate for each object identification features, that is, individual, sufficiently stable characteristics that distinguish the object from the number of homogeneous ones. To be an identification feature, a feature must meet a number of requirements, namely, it must have such properties as specificity, severity, and the ability to adequately display. In addition, the sign must be relatively stable, that is, not change during the identification period - the time interval that allows identification. Here it is appropriate to mention the term "identification field", which denotes a system of features of an object that are of interest for identification.

Identification signs are divided, first of all, into general and particular. General features are inherent in a whole group of homogeneous objects, and private ones allow you to select a specific single object from this group. Moreover, for the individualization of an object, not one particular feature is required, but their combination, which is called “individual” in forensic science.

Identification features can be qualitative, that is, reflecting the essential permanent properties of objects (color, shape, purpose) and quantitative, which are transmitted by numerical characteristics (the number of grooves in the bore). In addition, they are divided into necessary and random. The necessary features reflect the essence of the object, so without them it would not be what it is. Random signs are acquired over time, during operation, and they do not change the essence of the object. In addition, there are own or acquired, external and internal signs.

3. The ability of matter to reflection. The objects of the material world enter into interaction, during which information is exchanged and numerous diverse traces are formed.

In science, the concept of a trace is distinguished in a broad and narrow sense. Traces in a broad sense are understood as any changes associated with the event of a crime. This includes the appearance and disappearance of objects, changes in their relative position, their structure, properties and states. In a narrow sense, a trace is a material reflection of the external structure of an object as a result of contact interaction.

As for the form of reflection, in the theory and practice of forensic identification, it can be:

- material-fixed, when a feature is fixed in material objects;

- and psychophysiological, in which a mental image is imprinted in the memory of a particular person (witness, victim, accused).

These are the scientific basis of identification. Now let's move on to the consideration of identification objects. In forensics, there are two main groups of them: identifiable and identifying.

People, various material objects, animals, plants, terrain, etc. appear as identifiable (or sought) objects, whose identity is to be established in the process of research on the traces left. Unlike identifying objects, there is only one such object within a specific study.

The identifying objects are those objects with the help of which the identity is established. It can be, for example, a handprint, handwriting, a bullet, etc. They are classified as follows:

A) Trace-perceiving - those objects that were in direct contact with the desired. In forensic identification, they (or copies of the trace taken from them) are considered the most valuable.

B) Sample objects:

1) standard samples used for group identification of an object (samples of various substances, materials, food products, a collection of different types of firearms or edged weapons);

2) free samples that have not arisen in connection with the investigation of a crime and the appointment of an expert examination. They appeared before the commission of the crime and are not related to its circumstances;

3) conditionally free samples that were created in connection with the investigation of a crime, but not in connection with the appointment of an expert examination (for example, the signature of the suspect in the protocol is used as a signature sample);

4) experimental samples created in connection with the appointment of the examination and for its conduct. The need for them arises mainly when it is impossible to directly compare the object and its display. For example, a bullet extracted from the body of the deceased is compared not with a pistol seized from the suspect, but with experimental samples - bullets fired from the same weapon in a specially equipped laboratory.

As for the subjects of identification, their circle is quite wide: they are an expert, an investigator, a judge, a specialist, etc. However, the volume and significance of their actions differ significantly: for example, an expert can carry out identification only in a procedural form, and an investigator - both in a procedural and non-procedural form.

In forensic theory, there are four types of identification:

- according to the material-fixed display (by handwriting, traces of hands or feet, photographs, etc.);

- according to signs of common origin (or whole in part), for example, an explosive device by a fragment. Moreover, the whole is understood not only as monolithic products, but also as sets of things, mechanisms, biological objects;

- according to the description of the signs (identification of a person according to the search orientation);

- according to a mental image (for example, such an investigative action as identification).

In addition to establishing an individual identity, identification tasks include the establishment of group membership, that is, the assignment of an object to a certain set of homogeneous objects. It can both serve as the initial stage of individual identification, and represent a solution to an independent problem. It is necessary to stop at the establishment of group affiliation even if the number of particular signs is not enough for individual identification.

As a variation of establishing group membership, it is worth mentioning the definition of a common source of origin, during which two or more objects are assigned to one group. Comparison occurs both according to the features characterizing the composition and structure, and according to the features of the external structure. An example of such a study can be the solution of the question of belonging of objects to one industrial batch, produced on a certain equipment.

Another common type of identification is the establishment of the whole in parts. The identified object in such a study is the object as it was before destruction, and the identifying object is its parts, moreover, in the state in which they are at the time of the study.

Identification research includes four stages:

1. The preliminary examination stage, during which the expert determines whether everything necessary for the study has been transferred to him, whether the samples provided are suitable for identification and what, in principle, the objects of identification are.

2. At the stage of separate research (or, as it is also called, the analytical stage), the identified and identifying objects are studied separately from each other. The purpose of this stage is to establish as many general and particular features as possible that are necessary for further research.

3. During the next stage - a comparative study - coincidences and differences in the features of the objects of identification are revealed. First, common features are compared, and then, if they match, they move on to comparing particular ones.

4. Evaluation is the final stage of identification research and, perhaps, its most difficult and responsible stage. The difficulty lies in the fact that, along with coincidences, there are always some differences, so the expert has to decide on the identification significance of matching and different features.

Based on this, the result of forensic identification is determined. This may be the establishment of the presence of identity, the establishment of the absence of identity, or the conclusion that it is impossible to solve the problem.

The value of identification for the investigation of crimes is directly dependent on the importance of the circumstances that it helps to establish. Identification allows you to identify the subject of a criminal attack, tools and means of committing a crime, as well as to establish the subject of the crime.

Plan:

1. The concept and meaning of forensic identification.

four; Forms and types of forensic identification.

Literature:

1 Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995. - p. 4-62

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 1-100

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokova Publishing House BEK, 1995. p. 1-46

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU. M, 1996.

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000.

7. Belkin PC. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

8. Belkin PC, Vinberg A.I. Criminalistics. general theoretical problems. M., 1973.

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1983.

10. Belkin PC. The course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3, M., 1977-1979.

1. The concept and meaning of forensic identification.

Forensic identification can be considered in three aspects.

Forensic identification as private scientific

forensic theory is the doctrine of the general patterns of establishing the identity of materially defined objects to themselves in different periods of time, developed and used in order to obtain forensic evidence.

Forensic identification as a study is a process of cognition that allows you to establish the presence or absence of an object's identity to itself according to certain reflections in the outside world, that is, to establish a single object related to a crime.

Forensic identification as a goal and result is the establishment of the fact of the presence or absence of identity, which is evidence in a criminal case.

The following main areas of use of forensic identification can be distinguished:

1. Establishment of single objects in their tracks, and, consequently, the involvement of these objects in the crime. So, following the trace of a cut on the skull of the victim, the fact of using a particular ax to commit a crime can be established. At the same time, the degree of connection of the identified object with the crime event can be quite remote. Thus, the identification of a person by the traces of papillary patterns found on the fragments of a broken shop window only indicates that this person touched the glass, but does not at all prove that he broke the shop window and entered the room.

2. Establishing the identity of objects that left several traces helps in some cases to clarify certain circumstances associated with the crime event. So, for example, the detection, examination and analysis of papillary patterns at the scene of an incident in a number of cases makes it possible to establish the number of criminals, their ways of moving around the premises, knowledge (or ignorance) of the places where valuables were stored, etc.

3. The possibility of establishing a single object with the help of forensic registration (according to records), i.e. establishing the identity of a previously registered person or object with the object being checked.

As a result of identification, a single object should be established. However, the establishment of the group membership of an object is also of great practical importance. Theoretical provisions that allow determining the belonging of an object to a certain group (group membership) are adjacent to the theory of identification, partially included in it, but do not completely merge with it.

2. Scientific basis of forensic identification.

It is necessary to distinguish between such concepts as "property" and "attribute" of material objects. Both of these concepts are combined into the "property feature" system.

The classification of signs in forensics is carried out on various grounds. Depending on the scope of the properties of the object displayed in the trace, signs can be general and particular. So, the length of the sole of the shoe will be a common feature, and the length of the outsole and heel will be private. Depending on their significance for an individual complex of signs, signs can be group and individualizing. The group feature will be the shape of the sock that appears in the footprint and is characteristic of all shoes of this model. An individualizing sign will be the display in the trace of a partially worn heel shoe.

The scientific foundations of the theory of identification include the following provisions:

1. All objects of the material world are individual, that is, they are identical to themselves.

2. All objects of the material world are relatively stable and at the same time changeable.

3. All objects in the process of their existence are in constant interaction, contact with other objects.

3. The object of forensic identification.

All objects are divided, first of all, into identifiable (identified) and identifying (identifying). In turn, the identified objects are subdivided into sought and checked ones. And identifying objects are divided into investigated (also called traces or objects of unknown origin) and samples for comparison (objects of known origin).

4. Forms and types of forensic identification.

There are two forms of forensic identification: non-procedural and procedural.

From the moment the fact of a crime is established, employees of the operational-search apparatus conduct a targeted search for the offender, witnesses, victims, as well as any factual data relevant to solving the crime. In the course of such actions, criminal investigation officers identify wanted persons by their photographs, subjective portraits or descriptions, which, in essence, is identification. In some cases, the check during the search for forensic records also has the character of identification research. As a result of all these actions, only official documents are compiled - certificates, reports, etc., which do not serve as a source of evidence from the point of view of the criminal process. This form of identification is non-procedural.

The procedural form of identification studies is used much more widely. There are two varieties of this form. So, the investigator, presenting a person or an object for identification to a witness, victim, suspect or accused, essentially identifies this or that object imprinted in the memory of the identifying person with the object presented for identification.

Another kind of procedural form of identification is the conduct of identification examinations.

Types of forensic identification are currently classified according to the properties (features) of the identified objects, as well as the nature of the identified objects.

By properties (signs) of identifiable objects, forensic identification is divided into identification by signs of external structure; by functional-motor complexes organically inherent in the identified object; by structure, composition of the object:

Identification of objects by features that characterize their external structure.

2 Identification by functional-motor complexes, 3. Identification by the structure or composition of objects. According to the nature of the identifying object, the same cases of identification can be divided into five other groups: according to material-fixed mappings; by parts of the whole; in a mental image; description of symptoms:

along scent trails.

Identification of objects by their material-fixed mappings.

2. When identifying the whole in parts.

3. Identification of objects by mental image.

4. Identification of objects according to the description of their features.

5. Identification of objects by their smell traces.

Lecture 2. Forensic technique (general provisions)

Plan:

1. The subject, system and tasks of forensic technology as a branch of the science of forensic science.

2. Subjects, forms and legal grounds for the use of forensic technology.

3. Technical and forensic tools and methods used to detect, fix, seize and study evidence.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995. - p. 87-100

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 145-178

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Publishing house BEK, 1995. - p. 46-68

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU, M, 1996.

26-34

8. Belkin R.S. Vinberg A.I. Criminalistics. general theoretical problems. M. 1973.

L., 1975.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk, 1988.

14. Selivanov N.A. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M, 1982.

1. Subject, system and tasks of forensic technology as a branch of the science of forensic science

Under forensic technology is understood, on the one hand, a section of the science of forensic science, on the other hand, a set of technical means used in the process of detecting, investigating and preventing crimes.

The scientific provisions of forensic technology are based on the knowledge and use of the laws of natural, technical and other sciences (physics, chemistry, biology, anthropology, etc.), as well as on private forensic theories and teachings (for example, the theory of identification, the doctrine of the mechanism of trace formation, about skills, etc.).

Technical and forensic means include various devices, apparatus, equipment, tools, fixtures, materials, kits and complexes of technical means.

The general provisions of forensic technology determine its concept and content, as well as the content of the branches that make up this section of science, the sources of forensic technology, its connection with other parts of forensic science and other sciences.

The branches of forensic technology include: - forensic photography, filming and video recording; - forensic trasology; - forensic weapons science; -forensic documentation or forensic examination of documents; forensic gabitoscopy. Forensic odorology is a forensic study of odors used to identify individuals, objects, various traces, etc.

Forensic phonoscopy and vocalography is a forensic science about the methods of using recorded sounds to detect and prevent crimes.

2. Subjects, forms and legal grounds for the use of forensic technology

Most often, technical and forensic means, techniques and methods are used by persons directly involved in the disclosure, investigation and prevention of crimes. These include: operatives, investigator, investigator, head of the investigative department, forensic technician, forensic expert, forensic prosecutor, prosecutor. These persons use forensic techniques and special knowledge when working with evidence in the field of criminal procedure.

Forensic techniques in their work (this is especially characteristic of recent times) are also used by employees of internal affairs bodies who are not related to the investigation of crimes - traffic police inspectors, district inspectors, employees of the passport and visa service, etc., as well as other law enforcement agencies: customs committee, tax authorities, State Security and others.

Forensic technique and special knowledge can be applied in two forms: procedural and non-procedural.

The procedural form of application of technical and forensic means, techniques and methods is understood as their use in the production of investigative actions by authorized persons or the use of the help of knowledgeable persons as specialists. But the most widely technical and forensic tools and special methods are used in the production of examinations, when it is possible to use stationary, high-precision tools and methods by persons with special knowledge and skills. The facts and conditions for the use of forensic technology and special knowledge are subject to mandatory recording in procedural documents (protocols and their annexes, expert opinions).

The non-procedural form of application of forensic technology and special knowledge is implemented: in the course of operational-search activities; when receiving advice from specialists; when conducting preliminary research by forensic specialists; when checking forensic records; in the work of the passport and visa service, the inspectorate for minors, district inspectors, etc.

3. Technical and forensic tools and methods used to detect, fix, seize and study evidence

Forensic technology is material means, devices, tools, devices, their sets and kits used to detect, seize, fix and study traces of a crime and other material evidence.

Forensic technology is very diverse, numerous and largely specialized. Accordingly, these material assets can be classified on various grounds.

Depending on the source of origin, forensic means can be divided into:

Tools developed in forensic science for collecting and examining evidence (devices for making a photo scan of the surface of a bullet, devices and equipment for making composite portraits, fingerprinting tools, etc.);

Means borrowed from other sciences and branches of knowledge, but adapted for the needs of forensic science (special photo installations for photography in the invisible zone of the spectrum);

Funds borrowed from other branches of science and technology and

used without any structural changes (for example, photo, video and audio equipment).

According to the spheres and subjects of application of forensic technology, it can be classified as follows:

Operative-search (cameras with long-focus lenses, sets for making subjective compositional portraits, etc.);

Investigative (powders for detecting traces, impression masses, cameras with normal lenses, etc.);

Expert (microscopes, electron-optical converters, special

photo installations, etc.).

The purposes of using forensic technology allow us to classify it

as a technique for:

Collection of evidence (dactyloscopic powders, impression masses, special unified investigative suitcases, etc.);

Fixing the course and results of investigative actions (photo-, video equipment, measuring instruments, etc.);

Evidence studies.

Expert methods are understood as methods for conducting specific examinations, which contain various research methods. Laboratory research methods include such as measurement and comparison, magnification, studies in the invisible zone of the spectrum (in infrared, ultraviolet and X-rays), spectral analysis, chromatography, and others.

Lecture 3. Forensic photography. Cinema and video filming.

Plan:

1. The concept, system and meaning of forensic photography, filming and video recording.

2. Impressive photography.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995. - p. 100

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 178-215

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Publishing house BEK, 1995.-e. 68-116

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - from

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

10. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3. M. 1977-1979.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination L., 1975.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk, 1988.

1. The concept, system and meaning of forensic photography, filming and video recording

Photography (translated from Greek as “light painting”) is a set of methods for obtaining images using light.

Forensic photography and video recording is an industry

forensic technology, which is a set of scientific provisions and photographic means developed on their basis, methods and techniques of shooting used in collecting, examining and demonstrating evidence.

With the help of forensic photography, you can quickly and accurately capture the picture of the scene, the traces found, objects, crime instruments, the course and results of investigative actions. At the same time, such traditional methods of fixation as logging, drawing up plans, diagrams, and sketches are significantly enriched and supplemented.

Forensic photography is also used during operational-search activities, for conducting forensic records. According to the images, the search and identification of criminals is carried out.

Research methods (methods) of shooting help the expert to see invisible traces, restore invisible texts, detect traces of erasures, additions, and conduct comparative studies.

2. Impressive photography

Capturing photography is a system of scientific provisions, as well as methods (methods), techniques and means developed on their basis, used to capture the progress and results of investigative actions, forensic objects, as well as during operational-search activities.

Impressive photography is used when fixing objects that are well perceived visually (for example, when shooting the course and results of investigative actions, shooting faces and objects for registration).

There are such methods (methods) of capturing photography." ordinary black-and-white or color; panoramic shooting; identification shooting; measuring shooting; stereo shooting; macro shooting; telephoto shooting; reproduction shooting.

Orientation shooting is carried out with the aim of capturing a general view of the scene along with the surroundings and the main landmarks.

Shooting can be carried out using the panoramic method, and the shooting point is selected as high and far from the object as possible; as a result, the orientation image carries a large amount of information.

Panoramic shooting is carried out in order to capture the very place of the event without the surrounding environment. The place is removed from different sides depending on the specific conditions. In some cases, measurement methods are used.

Nodal shooting is carried out in order to capture the node (i.e. a separate object, a group of objects, traces and their spatial relative position, which is important for the case) of traces, objects so that it is possible to determine the shape, nature of the surfaces of the object and see the relative position of objects and traces on them. The number of shots depends on the number of objects, traces and their relative position. With nodal photography, various methods of forensic photography can be used.

Detailed shooting is aimed at capturing close-up individual objects or traces that are sources of evidentiary information and subsequently, as a rule, should be withdrawn.

Detailed shooting is carried out in a large-scale way, which allows you to establish the true size of the captured object from the image.

Photographs taken in the course of an investigative action are an annex to the protocol and, together with it, serve as a source of evidence.

In the protocol of the investigative action, during which photographing or video recording was used, it is necessary to indicate: - information about the person who made the shooting, - the list of photographed objects, - lighting conditions, - information about technical means and conditions for their use (camera type, lens brand, sensitivity film, aperture, shutter speed, and other shooting conditions).

Information that participants were warned about the use of shooting

When drawing up photo tables, the pictures are pasted onto the form of the photo table in the sequence corresponding to the course of the investigative action;

If necessary, markings are made with arrows, letters, numbers. All negatives obtained during the shooting are enclosed in an envelope glued to the photo table.

The explanatory inscriptions under the pictures indicate what is shown, from which side, what is marked with arrows. The inscriptions must correspond to the entries made in the protocol of the investigative action. The photo table is signed by the person who made the protocol.

3. Research photography

Research photography is a system of scientific provisions, as well as methods (methods), techniques and means developed on their basis, used to identify and fix invisible or poorly visible objects and their signs in the process of examinations and preliminary

research.

Research photography is used for:

1) Shooting a general view of the objects under study, if it is impossible to use a capturing photograph for this;

2) Detection of invisible and weakly visible features of the objects under study; 3) Obtaining an image for a comparative study of objects; 4) Illustrations in a visual form of the conclusions made by the expert as a result of the study.

Lecture 4. Forensic trasology.

Plan:

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995.-s, 112-119

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M, 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 215-241

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Publishing house BEK, 1995.-e. 116-134

6. Andreev NS, Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - from

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1983.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1980.

14. Selivanov NA. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M, 1982.

1. The concept and meaning of traceology.

The branch of forensic technology in which many material traces of crimes are studied is called trace science. The name of the industry is formed from two words: the French "la tras" - a trace and the ancient Greek "logos" - a word, a doctrine.

In forensics, traces are traditionally divided into two groups - ideal and material.

Ideal traces are a reflection of an event or its elements in the human mind, a mental image of what is perceived.

Material traces are formed as a result of displaying the course of a criminal act and its results on objects of the material world.

Traces in a broad sense are any material change in the situation that arose during the preparation, commission or concealment of a crime.

Material traces in the narrow sense are usually divided into traces-images, traces-objects and traces of matter.

Display traces are traces formed as a result of displaying the external structure of one object on another object during the preparation, commission or concealment of a crime.

Traces-objects are materially formed objects, the occurrence, movement or change of state of which is associated with the preparation, commission or concealment of a crime.

Traces-substances are small amounts of liquid, pasty or powdery substances, whose placement, shape and size reflect the mechanisms of trace formation associated with the preparation, commission and concealment of crimes.

2. Display traces, formation mechanism and classification.

Traces-displays are of the greatest importance in traceology. From the point of view of the mechanism of trace formation. an object that leaves a trace is a trace-forming object; the object on which the trace remains is the trace-perceiving object.

Display traces can be classified in various ways.

Classification of traces according to the trace-forming object. This classification is quite complex and consists of several classification levels. First level: traces of a person, tools and tools, vehicles, animals. These trace-forming objects leave traces with their specific parts. So, a person can leave traces of hands, feet, teeth, lips, clothes; this is the second level of classification of traces according to the trace-forming object. In turn, traces of hands can be traces of fingers and traces of palms, and traces of legs - traces of shoes, legs in socks (stockings) and bare feet. This is the third classification level.

The next classification of traces-mappings is according to the nature (degree) of change in the trace-perceiving object. On this basis, all traces are divided into two large groups: bulk and surface.

Volumetric traces are formed as a result of a change in the trace-perceiving object and have three parameters - width, length and depth. Volumetric traces, in turn, are divided into the following groups:

Traces of deformation are formed with a significant change in a stable and plastic surface (footprint in clay soil);

Molding marks occur when a layer of amorphous, free-flowing trace-receiving substance is compacted on a harder surface (footprint in a hill of cement, on the floor of a room);

Traces of the destruction of the trace-perceiving object as a result of the separation of its parts (traces of sawing, drilling, hewing, etc.);

Traces of partial transfer of a trace-perceiving object are characteristic of

actions of sledge runners, skis, bulldozer blades, etc.

Surface traces have only two parameters, two-dimensional. Such traces, in principle, may have a certain depth, but at present it is either practically not measurable, or it is not essential for solving traceological issues. "Surface traces in traceology are usually divided into three

Traces of layering are formed when part of the surface of the trace-forming

an object (or a substance covering it) and layering it on a trace-perceiving object,

Traces of detachment are formed in cases where part of the trace-perceiving

of the object (or the substance covering it) is separated and transferred to the trace-receiving object, or is destroyed (the trace of the mount sliding along

surfaces of the safe covered with oil paint);

Traces of a thermal or photochemical change in the light perception of an object are formed when the surface of the object is burned or charred (in case of fire, paper, wallpaper, fabrics burn out in the sun).

The classification of traces according to the connection of the mechanical state of objects with emerging traces suggests their division into two groups: dynamic and static traces.

Dynamic traces are formed in those cases when the trace-forming object moves parallel to the trace-receiving surface (traces of sliding, cutting.

sawing, drilling).

Static traces occur when a moving object is at rest, after which it remains motionless or changes the direction of movement (various dents, footprints when walking and running, traces of rolling of cylindrical objects).

Local traces are formed directly under the contact surface of the trace-forming object (traces of hands on glass, footprints in the ground and the vast majority of other traces-images).

Peripheral traces arise due to a change in the trace-receiving surface outside the area of ​​​​contact of the trace-forming object with it (traces of charring of the floor around the canister, burning out of the wallpaper around the photo card in the sun, wetting the asphalt around the standing car with rain, etc.)

Lecture 5 Fingerprinting.

2. Types of papillary patterns.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Under the editorship of A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995.-p. 137-150

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 223-232

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK.

1995.-e. 116-134

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU,

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - p.

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

8. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. Criminalistics. general theoretical problems. M.,

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1983.

10. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3, M, 1977-1979.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk, 1988.

14. Selivanov NA, Soviet criminalistics. System of concepts, M., 1982.

1. The concept and meaning of fingerprinting.

The forensic study of traces of the skin of human hands is devoted to the section of traceology, traditionally called "dactyloscopy" (from two ancient Greek words: "dactylos" - a finger, and "scopeo" - I look, I study), i.e. examining fingerprints. However, individual sections of the inner surface of the human palms, displayed on the furnishings of the scene, can also be used in fingerprint research. It has been established that the lower surface of the feet of a person has a skin pattern similar to the pattern of the inner surface of the hands.

The natural scientific foundations of forensic fingerprinting include the following provisions.

Human skin consists of two main layers: the upper - the epidermis or cuticle and the dermis - that is, the actual skin.

The forensic foundations of fingerprinting include the following provisions: 1. Papillary patterns of the skin of the pads of the nail phalanges of the fingers and toes, as well as patterns on the surfaces of the palms and feet are individual, that is, unique. An individual complex consists of the following groups of features:

Flows of papillary lines;

Details of the structure of the papillary pattern.

Each of these groups of signs is characterized by the number of corresponding signs, their shape, location and relative positions.

All patterns have the above groups of features, but a fourth component is also possible, which, due to its randomness, is especially valuable for identification: these are various defects in the pattern - scars, warts, calluses, areas with lost papillary lines, respectively, taking into account their shape, size, location .

2. The second feature of papillary patterns is their significant

stability Skin relief, including papillary patterns, is formed at 3-4 months of intrauterine development of the fetus and persists throughout life. Age-related changes (great wrinkling of the skin) do not prevent the preservation of the pattern as a whole and all its details. Thus, the identification period of papillary patterns is practically equal to the life span of a particular person. After death, before the onset of significant putrefactive changes in the skin, papillary patterns also remain suitable for research.

The stability of papillary patterns is determined by another feature - their recoverability (regeneration). After various damages to the epidermis and papillary dermis, patterns are restored not only in general, but in all details. When the reticular layer of the dermis is damaged, a scar is formed.

3. The third property of the papillary pattern is its high displayability. Human hands constantly come into contact with various objects. In addition, a person's hands are constantly covered with a sweat-fatty substance, which acts as a trace substance. This makes the papillary patterns special in comparison with such individual elements of the human body as the ears or the iris of the eyes.

2. Types of papillary patterns.

In domestic forensics, patterns are usually divided into three types: arc, loop and curl, sometimes supplemented by a fourth type - “atypical” (“composite”) patterns. Patterns of each type are divided into types.

The simplest in structure is an arc pattern, consisting of two streams of papillary lines and having no deltas. The types of arc patterns include simple, pyramidal, tented, with an indefinite rudimentary center, false loop and loose curl patterns.

The loop pattern consists of at least three streams of papillary lines and has one delta. The center of the pattern flows through a loop-shaped stream, which was the basis for the name of the pattern. Types of the loop pattern of the yaplyugei: simple, curved, half, closed (racquet loops), parallel, double (counter loops) and false curl patterns.

The most complex in structure is the curl pattern, which has at least three streams of papillary lines and two deltas. The types of the curl papillary pattern include simple, spiral, curl - “snail”, loop-spiral, loop-tangles.

Traces of papillary patterns can be traces of substances and traces of reflections.

Traces-substances are formed during tangential movement as a result of layering of sweat-fat substance in the form of a smear, in which the pattern pattern is not displayed.

Traces-displays of papillary patterns are static traces. They are subdivided in fingerprinting into visible, weakly visible and invisible.

There are two groups of visible traces:

Volumetric traces of deformation left on plastic materials (butter, margarine, chocolate, putty, etc.) and displaying papillary lines;

Superficial traces-layers formed by fingers stained with blood,

ink, soot, etc.

The group of weakly visible traces consists mainly of superficial traces-layers formed by sweat-fat substance on smooth shiny surfaces (glass, porcelain, faience).

Lectures 6. Methods for detecting fixation and removing traces.

Plan:

1. Footprints, hacking tools, vehicles.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995. -p. 115-119, 150-160

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 234-236

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. "Publishing house BEK, 1995.-p. 116-134

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - p.

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1983.

10. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3, M., 1977-1979.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination. L., 1975.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk. 1988.

14. Selivanov N.A. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M., 1982.

1. Footprints, hacking tools, vehicles. Traces of shod feet and feet in socks (stockings)

With regard to footprints, the direct object of trace formation can be a bare or shod foot (i.e. shoes) and a leg in a stocking (or sock). It is necessary to identify and analyze, if possible, not individual footprints, but their totality, which in forensics is called a track of traces. It is characterized by the following features: the direction of movement, the line of walking, the length of the steps for the right and left legs, the width of the legs, the angles of the steps for the right and left legs, and the angles of the feet. a) Footprints.

In the footprints of the shoe, an individual complex of general and particular signs of the bottom of the shoe is displayed.

Common features include: the length of the plantar part; the presence or absence of a heel; method of attaching the sole; embossed designation on the intermediate part of the sole; the general degree of wear of the sole and some others.

Private signs can be divided into three groups: those arising in the manufacture of shoes; when wearing shoes; arising from shoe repair.

Traditionally, it was believed that footprints can be exclusively visible, and are found visually in the ground, on the floor, on polished and leather-covered (leather substitutes) parts of furniture.

Recently, work has been carried out to identify latent (weakly visible and invisible) footprints-layers of shoes on such trace-receiving objects as wooden, metal, glass, rubber surfaces, linoleum, etc.

For surface dust traces or traces detected with powders, specific means and methods are used. So, white (non-exposed) or black (exposed) developed and fixed photographic paper can be used. This paper, after removing drops of water, is applied with a wet emulsion layer to the trace and rolled with a photographic roller. Sometimes the gelatinous surface of the emulsion layer of photographic paper is additionally treated with a special compound to increase its stickiness.

To fix these traces, a fingerprint film of suitable sizes can also be used.

The traditional substance for making casts of footprints is a gypsum solution, or rather, an aqueous suspension of medical gypsum powder. In cases where the volume trace is filled with water, powdered gypsum is poured into it, and the solution is, as it were, prepared inside the trace (bulk method). If there is little water in the trace, a combined method is used that combines bulk and liquid stages, when a solution is added to the trace.

Paraffin, a solution of perchlorovinyl in acetone, silicone paste (K), low molecular weight rubber SKTN are also currently used as impression masses. For strength, reinforcement is necessarily placed in the cast (for example, a part of a wooden stick, slightly smaller than the trace), to which the string for the tag is attached.

Forensic examination of traces of tools and tools (mechanoscopy)

According to one of the classifications that have in the forensic literature, hacking tools and tools for mechanical impact on the barrier are divided into: impact (hammers and sledgehammers), wringer (crowbars and nail pullers), clamping (vice, pliers, tongs), stabbing (awls), cutting (knives, axes, chisels, chisels, chisels, etc.), cutting (scissors and wire cutters), drilling (bores and drills), sawing and some others.

Complexes of features depend not only on the design of the object, but also on how they are used. Not always tools and tools are used for their constructive purpose: chisels, chisels, screwdrivers are used to squeeze the doors or windows, and the door can be knocked out, for example, by hitting a crowbar, a large wrench or an ax butt.

As a result of the action, which is static in nature, traces (volumetric deformations) are formed, in which an individual set of features is displayed that characterizes the working part of the tool. Traditionally, this complex is divided into general (shape and size of the contact surface) and particular (shape and size of its individual elements, shape, size and location of irregularities of the edges and surface) features.

Dynamic marks are surface skid marks and cut marks,

which are most often left cutting or prying (screwdrivers)

tools.

Surface slip marks often make it possible to establish the shape and dimensions of the working part of the trace-forming object, as well as the features of its trace-forming edge (blade).

To overcome obstacles, gas and electric cutting devices can be used, causing not mechanical, but thermal damage. These damages are slit-like cuts with uneven edges and elements of melting, metal spreading, splashing, soot deposits, metal color changes, etc.

Fixing traces of tools and tools is carried out according to the usual scheme (description in the protocol, drawing up diagrams and plans, photographing, making impressions and casts, removing trace-bearing objects with traces).

The discovery of tools or weapons similar to those used at the scene of the incident on the suspect allows, in addition to diagnostic questions, to appoint an identification examination. At the same time, in addition to the traces seized at the scene, the expert is sent a verified

Forensic investigation of vehicle tracks

(transport traceology).

When investigating crimes, the study of traces is of great importance.

vehicles.

In addition to traces-displays left by wheels on the ground or asphalt, as well as car parts on other vehicles, clothing and body of the victim or objects surrounding the carriageway (pillars, walls, fences), as a result of a traffic accident, traces-objects remain and trace substances. Traces-objects include, for example, fragments of broken headlight glass, fallen off parts of a car, and traces-substances - traces of liquids flowing from car units (fuels and lubricants, coolants, brake fluid), as well as microscopic fragments of glass and paint flakes.

Traces-displays can be volumetric (deformations - traces of wheels on the ground and parts on other vehicles; molding - wheels in bulk substances) and surface (mainly - layers when dirty wheels move on asphalt.

According to the mechanism of formation, rolling traces are static. Dynamic wheel tracks, when the wheels skid along the asphalt surface, are unsuitable for identification, but they allow you to set the speed of the car by the time the braking starts.

The characteristics of car tracks used in transport traceology are borrowed from automotive technology. The track is the distance between the same points of the running tracks of single wheels or between the center lines of paired wheels. The vehicle base is the distance between the front and rear axles of a two-axle

car.

The treadmill is the part of the tire that is in contact with the road and has

drawing for a better grip with it.

The discovery of traces at the scene of the incident makes it possible to obtain preliminary information for putting forward versions and planning an investigation. In particular, the brand (model) of the motor vehicle is established; model of installed (at least on the rear wheels) tires; the degree of wear and features of tires; the presence of damage (for example, a broken headlight), extraneous marks (layers of blood, brain matter, hair, rags of clothing) on ​​the car. In addition, the traces can be used to establish the circumstances of the incident - the direction and speed of the car, the place of collision with a pedestrian, a collision with another vehicle, the start of braking, stopping.

In a number of cases, these issues are put to the resolution of a diagnostic, often complex (trasological and forensic autotechnical) examination.

The discovery of the suspect and the seizure of his car allows you to appoint an identification examination. The wheels of a car are most often provided as samples for a comparative study. However, in some cases (for example, for heavy vehicles), it is necessary to obtain experimental wheel displays, which are provided to the expert.

2. Objects and substances as traces of a crime.

In addition to traces-mappings, traces-objects and traces-substances are studied in traceology. Trasological studies of traces-objects. Currently, trace items include:

Various fragments of objects;

Locks, seals, twists;

Items with technological traces.

Lecture 7. Forensic investigation of edged weapons.

Plan

1. The concept of edged weapons.

2. Classification of edged weapons.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics (Edited by A.V. Dulov). Mn., 1995. - With. 204-236

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. NI. Yablokov. Ed. BEK., 1995 - p. 241-263

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK., 1995 - p. 135-149, 212-223.

5. Criminalistics. Educational - methodical manual. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU, M., 1996

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - With. 60-68.

7. Atlas of firearms. A.B. Bug.

8. Kustanovich S.D. Forensic ballistics. M, 1956.

9. Ustinov A.I. Forensic investigation of the material part of firearms. M., 1971.

1. The concept of edged weapons.

Cold steel is a device designed to inflict serious bodily harm on a person or animal using the muscular strength of a person in close combat.

Design features common to all types of edged weapons:

a) a part (detail) specially designed for application in advance

foreseen damages (point, blade, spike, thickening, impact weight);

b) a device (handle) for conveniently holding an object in the hand,

providing the possibility of causing damage and protecting the hand from

self-harm;

c) mechanical strength of the structure, which makes it possible to use weapons

repeatedly.

With regard to specific constructive types of edged weapons, these features constitute a single complex and are supplemented by features that can be called private.

10. Classification of edged weapons.

Stabbing weapons are swords, stilettos, part of daggers, needle bayonets, historical pikes and "pikes" of modern criminals. They do not have a blade and, due to the point, tear the soft tissues of the body and the fabric of clothing. Until the middle of the 20th century, only one constructive type of combat stabbing weapon survived - needle bayonets.

Piercing and cutting weapons are divided into single-edged (knives) and double-edged (daggers).

Weapons of shock-crushing action are clubs, brass knuckles, handhelds, cue balls, flails, etc., which are often found in investigative practice.

A forensic investigation of damage caused by edged weapons, as well as objects that replace it (household knives, a chisel, an awl, a piece of glass, a stone, etc.), is carried out to determine the nature of the damage, the group affiliation of the trace-forming object and (quite rarely) its trace identification. At the same time, it is taken into account that the display of signs of edged weapons in damage is influenced by its design features, the structure of the trace-perceiving object and the mechanism of trace formation.

The trace-perceiving object for edged weapons most often turns out to be clothing covering the body of the victim. Traces of objects with a cutting edge or point, according to the mechanism of formation, are divided into cut, chipped, chopped, stab-cut injuries and breaks caused by pointed objects.

Lecture 8. Forensic investigation of weapons and traces of their use.

2. Study of firearms and traces of their use.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995. - p. 204-236

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M, 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 241-263

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Publishing house BEK, 1995. - p. 135-149, 212-223

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU. M., 1996.

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - p. 60-68

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

8. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. Criminalistics. general theoretical problems. M, 1973.

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1983.

10. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3, M, 1977-1979.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination. L., 1975.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk, 1988.

14. Selivanov N.A. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M., 1982.

1. The concept of ballistics in forensics.

A weapon in forensic science is a material tool that is structurally and functionally designed to defeat a person or animal, as well as to destroy barriers.

Forensic weapons science, as a branch of forensic technology, studies the principles of design and patterns of action of material means that are functionally intended to destroy a person, animal or barrier, the patterns of formation of their traces, and also develops means, techniques and methods for collecting and researching them for disclosure, investigation and prevention of crimes.

The system of forensic weapons science currently includes the following sections: general part (the concept and classification of weapons); forensic ballistics; forensic investigation of edged weapons and traces of their use; forensic research of throwing (non-firearms) weapons; forensic explosives; forensic investigation of incendiary weapons; methodological foundations for the study of objects with other damaging factors.

forensic ballistics - a section (sub-sector) of forensic weapons science. which studies the design features of weapons and ammunition and the laws of the shot, the means and techniques for collecting and examining these objects and traces of the shot in the detection, investigation and prevention of crimes.

The range of objects studied in forensic ballistics includes: a) small arms firearms and their parts; items that use the gunshot™ principle and are sometimes used to inflict damage (construction and assembly pistols, rocket launchers, etc.); objects shaped like weapons (various signal pistols and scarecrows);

b) ammunition, spent bullets and cartridge cases) traces of a shot on various obstacles.

2. Study of firearms and traces of their use. Forensic investigation of firearms.

A firearm is a device designed for multiple mechanical destruction at a distance of a person, animal or a certain obstacle with a projectile (bullet, shot, buckshot), which receives an aimed directed movement due to the energy of thermal decomposition of a gas-forming substance.

Compliance of a particular object with these criteria is checked by the presence of its design features: a) a barrel with a powder charge ignition chamber; b) locking and c) firing device. The absence of one of these parts removes the object from the number of firearms.

Forensic examination of cartridges, their elements, as well as traces of weapons on cartridge cases and bullets.

Modern firearms are designed for the use of unitary cartridges, which consist of a projectile (bullet, shot), a propellant charge, an igniter cap and a cartridge case. Traces on the cartridge case fired from a firearm are formed as a result of its loading, firing and removal of the spent cartridge case.

The discovery of a cartridge case at the scene of the incident makes it possible, as a result of a preliminary study, to obtain orienting, non-procedural information used to put forward versions and plan an investigation. First of all, this concerns the determination of a weapon sample by traces on the shells. This is done with the help of a forensic specialist, versed in forensic ballistics, in accordance with the following methodology:

According to the design features and markings, it is established which part of the cartridge of which sample (and model) the detected cartridge case is;

It turns out for which models of firearms this cartridge is standard, as well as the possibility of abnormal use of this cartridge;

A complex of traces of weapons is installed on the sleeve, which correlates with the complex of traces left when shooting from standard weapons. The coincidence of the complexes allows you to establish a sample or several samples of weapons, in which, most likely, the cartridge case was fired.

In conclusion, it is necessary to try to find out from the traces the features or defects of the weapon in which the cartridge case was fired.

After initiating a criminal case, this cartridge case can be sent for forensic ballistic examination in order to establish data on the cartridge sample, of which the cartridge case is a part, its payment, the weapon system in which the cartridge case was fired, and the features of a particular weapon.

With the appearance of the suspects and the seizure of their weapons, an identification forensic ballistic examination is assigned based on the marks on the cartridge case.

Bullet marks have traditionally been examined only for projectiles fired from rifled firearms.

Preliminary and expert examination of traces on a bullet fired from a rifled firearm are carried out to resolve the same issues and in the same order as traces on cartridge cases.

With the development of a forensic ballistic technique for identifying firearms by traces on a projectile, it became possible to identify a smooth barrel by a bullet. At present, the fundamental possibility has been established and a method has been developed for identifying a smooth barrel by traces on a multi-projectile, i.e., on a shot or

Forensic investigation of traces of a shot on barriers.

The nature of shot marks on an obstacle is influenced by: the distance of the shot, the phenomena of internal and external ballistics, the mechanical properties of the most common obstacles (glass, tin, wooden boards).

In forensic ballistics, three typical distances are distinguished: 1) point-blank (or close to point-blank), 2) within the action of additional factors of the shot, and 3) outside this action. In relation to a specific damage, the distance can be set in centimeters.

The main factor of the shot is the damaging effect of the projectile on the barrier, i.e. the formation of any damage. According to the degree of change in the trace-perceiving object, all gunshot injuries can be divided into penetrating (with the penetration of the projectile not less than the length or diameter of the projectile) and

superficial.

Penetrating injuries are divided into penetrating and blind. Surface - on tangents, rebound marks and dents, formed from a blow with an exhausted projectile.

To understand the action of additional factors of the shot, it is necessary to consider them in the system: Phenomenon. Additional shot factors. Traces.

The first phenomenon is the recoil of the weapon and its reflex forward return. As a result, when fired at close range or close to the stop, the muzzle of the barrel (the front end of the shutter casing or the skin of the barrel) hits the barrier, which is an additional factor in the shot. From this blow, a trace is formed on the barrier, which is called in forensic medicine and, in relation to the deposition on the body of the injured, a stamp mark.

The second phenomenon is the expiration of powder gases from the bore at high speed. It creates a number of additional factors that are displayed through the following traces.

The mechanical effect of powder gases on the obstacle is displayed in the form of tears of the edges of damage resulting from the spreading of gases over the surface of the obstacle. In this case, textile fabrics, felt, and even dressed leather are damaged.

The next additional factor is the thermal effect on the barrier. Its traces have significant variations - from a slight fall of the pile of a textile fabric to its charring.

Another additional factor is the deposition on the barrier of substances that are part of the powder gases (soot, incompletely burned powders and lubricant particles). Among the phenomena that give rise to additional factors of the shot include the contact of the surface of the projectile with the edges of the damage. The surface of the projectile affects the edges of the damage. This is evidenced primarily by such a trace as a wiping belt (metallization belt). As a result of such exposure, thermal traces are formed on synthetic materials (fabrics) - sintering of the edges

damage.

The formation of traces of additional factors of the shot is significantly influenced by the distance of the shot. This circumstance is used to establish the distance of the shot along the tracks. An exception is the rubbing (metallization) belt, since it is formed at any distance when the bullet surface contacts the edges of the damage.

A preliminary study of traces on the barrier allows us to decide in a non-procedural form the following questions: a) is this damage a gunshot; b) what is the distance of the shot; c) what is the direction of the shot;) what is

the number and sequence of shots (if there are several traces). These same

questions are put to the resolution of a forensic ballistic examination. For their

decision, in addition to the objects themselves with damage, it is necessary to present the weapon from which the shot was fired, and similar experimental cartridges,

especially for setting the distance of the shot.

To fix the traces of a shot, first of all, an object is photographed at the scene of the incident, on which one or another trace of the use of firearms was found. Next, a detailed measuring (large-scale) photograph of the object (bullets, cartridge cases) is made. After that, the objects are inspected, and the results of the inspection are described in detail in the protocol of the investigative action.

Firearms are described according to the following positions: type, sample, model of the weapon (if they are known to the inspection workers), available markings, the position of the firing mechanism, the state of the opening channel when viewed through the light, the presence and absence of the smell of gunpowder from the barrel bore, the presence and nature other marks on the weapon.

The cartridge case is described in the following order: type, material, color and shape, dimensions, attachment method I, the presence of an annular groove or flange on the bottom of the cartridge case, markings, design, primer color, color of anti-corrosion varnish, the presence and location of traces of firearms, as well as other traces.

When describing a bullet, the protocol reflects: its appearance, design, surface color, traces of fastening in the sleeve, markings (if any), the presence and nature of traces of the bore, as well as other traces.

The traces of a shot on an obstacle are described by a set of features: the shape and size of the damage, the nature of the edges of the damage, the presence of a "minus tissue", the state of the damage channel, if it is possible to examine it through the light, the presence and nature of traces resembling traces of additional factors of the shot.

The protocol must indicate the method of seizure and the nature of the packaging of objects.

When examining the scene of an incident involving the use of firearms, drawing up plans for the area or premises is of particular importance, since the plan allows not only to bring together various traces, often located at a considerable distance from each other, into a single system, but also creates conditions for establishing the location of the shooter or the victim in a graphical way.

Lecture 9 Forensic examination of documents.

Lecture plan:

2. Technical study of documents.

3. Forensic investigation of typewritten texts.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995. - p. 236-260

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M. 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 285-305

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Publishing house BEK, 1995.-e. 169-196

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU. M. 1996.

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - p. 76-91

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

8. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. Criminalistics. general theoretical problems. M.. 1973.

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1983.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination. L., 1975.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk. 1988.

14. Selivanov N.A. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M., 1982.

1. The concept and system of forensic examination of documents.

Forensic examination of documents is a branch of forensic technology that studies the signs of writing, types and methods of changes in documents, develops and improves methods for examining and examining documents in order to detect and investigate crimes.

A document in forensic science is a material object that records information about any occurred or alleged facts or circumstances that are relevant to a criminal case.

According to the substantive nature, documents are distinguished: authentic (the content and details of which correspond to reality); false or fake (the content or details of which do not correspond to reality).

In turn, original documents can be divided into valid (currently legally valid) and invalid (no longer legally valid).

Forged documents are divided into documents that have an intellectual forgery (the content of the document is deliberately false) and material forgery (when a completely forged document is made or the content of a genuine document is changed, or some of its details are corrected).

Allocate full and partial forgery of documents.

A complete forgery is the production of a document in its entirety with all its details or its letterhead, seal impressions, stamp, signatures in it.

Partial forgery - making changes to the content or individual details of a genuine document.

The details of the document are understood as its officially established constituent elements that give the document a legal character. In the absence of any of them, the document can be invalidated.

Forensic examination of documents consists of the following sections:

Forensic examination of the letter;

Technical study of documents;

Forensic investigation of typewritten texts and texts made using various printing devices.

2. Technical study of documents

Technical examination of documents is a kind of forensic examination of documents, which develops and improves methods, techniques and means of examining documents in order to establish their authenticity.

The objects of this type of research are: fake documents, forms of documents, seals and stamps; document material (paper, dyes, adhesives); damaged documents - torn, burned, crossed out and faded texts (their content is established).

Particular importance is attached to the study of the details of the document. In the absence of any of them, the document can be invalidated. The details include: a standard form, photograph, signatures of officials and the owner of the document, series and number of the document, date of issue and validity period, seals and stamps, security net, watermarks, last name, first name, patronymic of the owner.

As previously noted, there are two types of document forgery - full and partial.

The methods of complete forgery include: making a document in its entirety or its form; entering false data into the document; forgery of the signature of the person certifying the document; forgery of seals and stamps.

The methods of partial forgery of documents include:

Erasure - mechanical removal of part of the text;

Etching and washing - removing text with chemical reagents and various

solvents;

Addition - the introduction of new words, phrases or individual characters into the document;

Replacing parts of the document - pasting individual sheets; photo plywood;

Replacement of sheets, etc.

The methods of forging blank documents include: drawing them; production using homemade clichés; photo reproduction; production with the help of multiplying equipment; using printing and computer technology.

The main way to establish signs of forgery of a blank document is to compare it with samples of genuine blanks. At the same time, attention is drawn to: the accuracy of reproduction of watermark drawings, protective grids, emblems, signs of a typographic font; color of dyes; paper quality.

Signs of replacing a photograph (part of a photograph) include: the presence of division lines of a photograph, differences in background density, mismatch of images in certain areas of the photograph; wrinkling of the emulsion layer, traces of glue in the photograph, blurring of the dye of the print (stamp); violation of the integrity of the surface layer of paper around the photograph: mismatch of circle lines, size, pattern, color, color intensity of parts of the print on the photograph and document; the absence of a gap in the lines of the print on the border of the photograph and the document; exceeding the size of the photo compared to the size of the frame, sticking the photo on the frame line; the absence of prints on the photograph; discrepancy between parts of embossed prints or strokes of a mastic print on a photograph and a letterhead, etc.

Signs of erasure: violation of the structure of the upper layer of paper (weakening or disappearance of paper gloss, ruffled fibers); reducing the thickness of the paper (increasing its light transmission in the place of erasure); damage to the ruler, protective grid and other printed elements of the form; remnants of strokes of deleted text; streaks of dye in the strokes of the newly written text.

Signs of forgery of prints of seals and stamps: non-standard font; different size and graphic design of the letters of the same name in words; non-coincidence of the axes of the letters with the radius of the circle; uneven spacing between circle lines, words, emblems; lack of symmetry in the image of print elements; broken line lines; sinuous strokes of oval elements; grammatical errors; unequal inclination of the axes, etc.

Signs of etching (washout): splashes of the coloring matter of the protective mesh; the presence of stains, discoloration of the paper, loss of gloss; surface roughness, increased brittleness, paper damage; blurs from washed-out records; the presence of discolored or discolored strokes; remnants of strokes of the original text; dye blurs of newly written strokes and their difference in color and shade from the strokes of the rest of the text.

Signs of overwriting and reprinting: differences in strokes in color and color intensity; differences in stroke structure; differences in the placement of records in relation to each other, graph lines, lines, document edges; differences in sizes and patterns of typewritten characters of the same name; differences in the spacing between letters and lines, violations of the lines of a line, parallelism of lines, vertical arrangement of characters; the presence of a repeated imprint of the sign; differences in general and particular features of the used printing devices; traces of test prints in the form of a double image of signs; differences in the intensity of coloring of signs of individual parts of the text; non-parallelism of lines, different position of the longitudinal axes of characters relative to the vertical; illogical abbreviations of words, some of them protruding beyond the edges of the document; uneven spacing between lines, words and letters within words; differences in general and particular features of handwriting; the presence of a stroke of the strokes of the main text, their thickening and doubleness, etc.

Signs of replacement of sheets or part of a sheet, its fragments: different thickness of paper in different parts of the document; the presence of painting the lines of the protective grid, graphing, linting; discrepancy between the strokes of the records, the line drawing of the protective grid, other images on the border of gluing (joining); violation of the order of page numbering or mismatch of numbers to each other; the difference in the types of typographic font, in the pattern of the protective grid, the shape and size of the ruler; inconsistency of sheets to each other in size, quality of paper and the degree of its deterioration; additional punctures in the places of attachment of sheets; differences in the color or shade of the dye strokes; differences in signs of handwriting, typewritten texts.

Signs of signature forgery: the presence on the front side of extraneous Strokes in the form of recesses, dye residues, and on the reverse side - a relief-convex image of the signature; tortuosity of lines, their angularity, breaks of strokes or their thickening; the presence of drawing elements; weak intensity, heterogeneity or vagueness of the color of the strokes; the lack of strokes of clearly defined edges; swelling and warping of the surface layer of the document (from the moisture of the copying material); the difference in the color of the luminescence of individual sections of the signature and the document.

Signs of violations of the laminating layer: significant (non-standard) thickness of the document; the presence of a second layer of paper under the photograph; damage to the surface of the blank along the edges of the photograph; the presence on the surface of the laminate of folds, cracks, bubbles, dull areas, bifurcation of the laminate; the presence of foreign inclusions under the laminate, blurring of dyes of the blank, text, damage to sections of paper; the difference in the intensity of the luminescent glow of different sections of the document.

The objects of technical examination of documents also include, as already noted, damaged documents and documents whose text is made using cryptography (colorless or slightly colored solution) or encrypted, as well as records made on carbon paper and formed by pressed strokes. The main task in this case is to establish the content of the document.

Damaged documents include: flooded, smeared, crossed out, or faded text; documents torn apart; burned in whole or in part.

To determine the content of flooded, smeared, crossed out or faded texts, the following methods are used: visual examination of the document in direct, oblique lighting and in transmission, as well as using a magnifying glass or microscope; photographing using photographic materials of various color sensitivities and light filters (color separation photography); contrast shooting (used to enhance the contrast of document strokes); study of text in infrared rays, infrared luminescence, ultraviolet rays, ultraviolet luminescence; diffuse copying method based on recopying the coloring matter of text strokes onto specially processed photographic paper, etc.

To establish the text in torn documents, first of all, it is necessary to restore the document itself. To do this, scraps of a torn document must be sorted by color, paper quality, its ruler, protective grid. First, the sheet frame is assembled, for which shreds with even edges are selected, the remaining shreds are combined with them along the break line. It is best to collect the document on glass; then the top of the document is covered with a second glass, after which it is examined and photographed.

To identify poorly visible records in crumpled, chewed, as well as text in burned documents, basically the same methods are used as in the study of flooded, crossed out, washed away and poorly visible texts.

3. Forensic investigation of typewritten texts

The objects of research in the summer case will be: documents made in a typographical way, typewritten texts, documents made using personal computer printers, fax machines, copying and duplicating equipment.

The most important factor for combining these objects into one group is the commonality of the mechanism for the formation of printed characters and methods for their study. Thus, the mechanism of formation of printed characters is characterized by the features of the printing mechanism and the font of the printing device. These features form a set of features that are divided into general and particular. Common features include: printing mechanism pitch, line spacing, character set, font brand

The step of the printing mechanism is determined by the horizontal distance between adjacent characters.

Line spacing - the distance between the bases of adjacent lines. Texts are selected that are made after 1 interval, when the line spacing is less than the height of a lowercase letter 1.5; 2; 2.5; 3 intervals.

The set of characters for various printing devices differs depending on the type and model of this device (for example, on typewriters, the number of characters ranges from 84 to 92).

A font brand is determined by its size and configuration and has a corresponding numeric number or name.

In addition, in various printing devices, common features also appear that characterize the method of applying a dye that forms characters (there are matrix printers; printers with a monolithic type carrier; inkjet printers; thermal printers; laser printers). Depending on this, signs are distinguished that characterize the type of printer device. These features include: stroke width; microstructure, the presence of gloss in the strokes; the nature of the edges of the strokes; the presence of halos around strokes, signs; the presence of traces of pressure; the presence of magnetic properties of the substance of strokes; the ratio of the coloring matter to various solvents (water, acetone, alcohol); glow of paper and strokes in infrared luminescence; the presence or absence of certain characters that are structurally provided for by this printing device, etc.

Particular features include the features of the printing mechanism and font, displayed in the text: the displacement of individual characters both vertically and horizontally; misalignment of signs along the vertical; uneven intervals; uneven color intensity of signs; violation of parallel placement of characters in a line; distortion of sign elements; lack of cut-offs; differences in the sizes of individual elements of the same sign, etc.

In addition, there are signs that characterize the executor of a text made on one or another type of printing device: the ability of the person who executed this text to work on this printing device (observance of typing rules, use of the entire keyboard, etc.); features that appear when using a printing device (location of individual text elements, margins, paragraphs, page numbering, etc.).

Special mention should be made of the study of documents made by typographical method and using operational printing.

There are three ways of printing: high (when the image is applied by protruding sections of the printing plate), flat (when the printing and blank elements are in the same plane), deep (when the printing elements are recesses filled with ink).

Operational printing is a kind of flat printing (documents made using a rotator, rotaprint, electrographic apparatus, etc.).

Printing with all the above methods is made from specially made printing plates, clichés, matrices and printing sets (letterpress). In this regard, the objects of study will be not only documents, but also typographical forms, clichés, typographical set - all that with which the document was made.

Depending on the object and objectives of the investigation, the expert may be asked questions of an identification nature, for example: whether the text of the document received for examination was executed on a printing device found on the suspect; the disputed document was made using one or different printing forms; one or different seals (stamps) are imprinted on the document; whether this seal is imprinted on a document, etc. Diagnostic questions may also be raised, for example, to what type, type, model does the printing device on which the document is made belong; what type of printing was used in the manufacture of the document form; whether the document has been subjected to any changes (cleaning, etching, washing off, rewriting, reprinting), if so, in what way and what is its original content; whether parts of the document were replaced, if so, how and in what way; whether the photo card has been replaced; what is the content of faded, flooded or strikethrough texts; what was done earlier the text of the document or the signature (impression of the seal, stamp); how the print (stamp) on the document was reproduced, etc.

Lecture 10. Forensic study of the letter.

Plan

Literature:

1. Criminalistics (Edited by A.V. Dulov). Mn., 1995. - With. 236-260

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK., 1995 - p. 285-305

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK., 1995 - p. 149-160

5. Criminalistics. Educational - methodical manual. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU, M, 1996

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. -With. 76-91

7. Orlova V.F. The theory of forensic handwriting identification. M., 1973. Forensic-technical examination of documents. Ch. 1-6. M: VNIISE, 1972-1978.

1. General and particular signs of writing.

Forensic research of writing is a section of forensic research of documents, which studies the patterns of formation, development and functioning of written speech and handwriting, develops methods for studying written speech and handwriting in order to identify the executor of the manuscript, establish authorship, as well as other facts relevant to the investigation and judicial proceedings.

Writing is a means of capturing a person's thoughts with the help of specially created conventional signs. Written speech reflects the semantic side of the letter. Handwriting is a system of habitual movements fixed in a manuscript, the formation of which is based on a writing-motor skill.

The signs of written speech, reflecting the semantic side of the letter and determining the level of proficiency in written speech, as already noted, are divided into general and particular.

The general features characterizing written speech as a whole include: features that reflect the degree of development: a) stylistic; b) lexical and c) grammatical skills.

The signs that characterize the degree of development of stylistic skills are determined by the style (manner) of presentation and the general construction of written speech.

The style of presentation is most often divided into: official business, scientific, industrial and technical, journalistic, literary and artistic, colloquial and everyday.

The general construction of written speech (architectonics) is characterized by the presence or absence of a logical connection between the individual elements of the text and is determined by the correctness, completeness and consistency of the presentation of thoughts; the presence or absence of paragraphs; the predominant type of proposals; the presence of symbols, abbreviations, corrections.

In addition, common stylistic features include accentuation skills - highlighting the main provisions in various ways (underlining, in a different font, spacing, etc.), using exclamation marks, ellipsis, brackets in the text.

The degree of development of lexical skills is determined by the general vocabulary of the performer (author) of the text.

In turn, lexical features that characterize the vocabulary are divided into two groups. The first group of such signs is the use by the executor (author) of the text of common words used by all or the majority of speakers. The second group includes words of limited use, characteristic of a particular team or a particular social group of people. These words include:

The degree of development of grammatical writing skills is characterized by the performer's mastery of the rules of the Russian language and is determined by the number and nature of errors per 5-7 pages of handwritten text; distinguish between high, medium and low literacy.

Particular features of written speech are manifested in individual lexical, grammatical and stylistic skills characteristic of a particular handwritten text executor (author).

Lexical individual skills include: incorrect use of words, expressions due to a lack of understanding of their meaning; repetition of the same words (poverty of vocabulary); the use of superfluous words; incorrect use of phraseological units; signs of the author's vocabulary (use of certain words, professionalisms, dialectisms, etc.)

The grammatical individual skills of the performer of the text include: repetition of homogeneous spelling and punctuation errors; misuse of verbs, pronouns, etc.

Stylistic individual skills are characterized by the style of presentation, the peculiarities of the construction of written speech, accentuation, characteristic of a particular performer (author).

2. General and particular signs of underlining.

The next subsection of the forensic examination of writing is the forensic examination of handwriting. Handwriting is a system of habitual movements in the execution of written characters, which is characterized by individuality and relative stability, which make it possible to identify the executor of the manuscript.

The individuality of handwriting is understood as a set of features of the writing and motor skills inherent in a given person. Relative stability means the persistence of individual characteristics in handwriting for a long time, and often throughout life.

A- common features of handwriting include features: characterizing the spatial orientation of movements; reflecting the degree and nature of the formed writing-motor skill; reflecting the structure of movements along the trajectory.

Among the general features of handwriting that characterize the spatial orientation of movements (sometimes they are called topographic features) are: the placement of the text as a whole; placement of independent fragments; the presence or absence of fields; the shape of a line of writing in a line; placement of movements when performing punctuation marks; red line size; the size of the intervals between lines; spacing between words, etc.

General signs of handwriting, reflecting the degree and nature of the formation of the writing-motor skill. These signs are characterized by the development of handwriting and the degree of complexity of movements when performing individual characters and the structure of the handwriting as a whole.

The development of handwriting is determined by the level of mastery of the technique of writing and is characterized by the pace and coordination of movements. Depending on this, a low-developed handwriting, medium-developed and highly developed handwriting are distinguished.

The degree of complexity of movements is determined by the level of possession of technical and graphic skills and the peculiarities of writing and motor skills when performing written signs. In accordance with this, they distinguish: simple handwriting, simplified, complicated.

General signs of handwriting, reflecting the structure of movements along the trajectory, are characterized by shape, direction, inclination, size and acceleration, coherence, pressure.

Particular features of handwriting characterize the features of the execution of written characters, their elements and the connection between them by a specific person, i.e. they reflect the features of the writing and motor skills of this person. It is the particular features that mainly make it possible to identify the executor of the manuscript by handwriting.

Particular features of handwriting include: the form of movements; their direction; length; connectivity of written characters and their elements; number of movements (determined by comparison with existing standard prescriptions), etc.

Private signs are characterized by the greatest degree of stability and remain basically unchanged throughout a person's life. True, some changes in the handwriting of a particular person can still be observed. They are explained by both objective and subjective factors. These changes can be divided into natural and intentional. Natural changes in handwriting (and writing) are determined both by unusual writing conditions (changed posture of the writer, unusual writing material, unusual writing instrument, insufficient lighting) and by the internal state of the writer (age-related changes, various diseases, functional state - fatigue, intoxication).

Intentional changes in handwriting consist in the cursive disguise of the writer's handwriting, imitation of the typeface, change of the writing hand, imitation of the handwriting of another person.

The objects necessary for conducting a handwriting study include, first of all, the studied handwritten document (documents) and samples of the handwriting of the alleged performers. In this case, the selection of samples for a comparative study is of great importance. In forensics, free and experimental samples of handwriting, as well as conditionally free samples, are distinguished.

Free handwriting samples include handwritten texts made out of connection with a criminal case and, as a rule, before its initiation (personal and official correspondence, statements, questionnaires, autobiographies, etc.)

The main requirements for free samples of handwriting: reliability (certainty) of origin, i.e. the execution of the document by the verified person, and not by another person; compliance with the document under study - the samples must be close in time of writing, form and content, executed in the same language, the same type of paper and similar tools; sufficiency of samples in quantitative terms - 2-5 pages of handwritten text and 10-15 signatures.

Experimental handwriting samples are handwritten texts specially made by the alleged perpetrators at the suggestion of the investigator in accordance with the requirements of the criminal procedure legislation. Obtaining experimental samples is carried out on the basis of the decision of the investigator and is drawn up in a protocol.

Rules for obtaining experimental samples: the conditions under which the samples are performed should be familiar (usual) for the writer, however, if necessary, samples are taken in unusual conditions for the writer (with a change in posture, an unusual writing instrument, etc.) or with a deliberate change in handwriting (imitation of a typeface, execution of a text with a change in the writing hand, etc.); samples, as a rule, are performed under dictation, while a special text is compiled, which includes words and phrases from the manuscript under study; the analyzed text should not be shown to the executor of the samples; samples are obtained with a gap in time on different sheets of paper; the volume of experimental samples should be at least 5-10 pages and at least 5 pages of signature samples, 10-20 on each page.

The following questions are posed before the handwriting examination: which of the persons indicated in the decision made handwritten notes (signatures) in the document under study; who signed on behalf of a certain person - by himself or by another person; what gender is the handwritten text written by; the text was executed under normal or unusual conditions; whether the handwritten text is written in a distorted handwriting; whether the author of the document is a specific person; what are the characteristic data of the author of the text (native or predominant language, place of formation of speech skills, literacy level, profession, etc.).

Lecture 11. Forensic habitoscopy.

Plan:

1. The concept of gabitoscopy.

2. The system of elements and signs of the external appearance of a person.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A. V. Dulova. Mn., 1995. -p. 169-181

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

3. Criminalistics, Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 305-324

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov.

Publishing house BEK", 1995. - pp. 223-235

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU.

6. Andreev I.S. Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn.. 2000. - p. 68-76

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

8. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. Criminalistics. general theoretical problems. M. 1973.

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1983.

10. Belkin R.S. Course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3, M., 1977-1979.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination. L., 1975.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk. 1988.

14. Selivanov N.A. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M, 1982. 1. The concept of giaboscopy.

Gabitoscopy is a branch of forensic technology that studies the patterns of imprinting a person's appearance in various displays and develops technical and forensic tools and methods for collecting, researching and using data on appearance in order to detect, investigate and prevent crimes.

The external appearance of a person is defined as an external appearance, a set of information about a person, perceived visually. Such information is used in the process of detecting and investigating crimes, in particular, for: searching for unknown persons who have fled the scene of unsolved crimes, if there is information about their appearance; search for well-known persons who are hiding from the investigation or court, or who fled from the place of punishment; search for the missing; identification of living persons and deceased (deceased) citizens.

These tasks are solved during operational-search activities and investigative actions, conducting forensic records, conducting examinations and research.

2. The system of elements and signs of the external appearance of a person

The appearance of a person can be represented as a system of elements, i.e. details, parts highlighted during its visual study. Elements of the external structure of the head, face, torso, limbs; functional manifestations of a person (posture, gait, facial expressions, etc.); general physical data (gender, age, anthropological type, etc.); details of garments and small wearable items are forensically significant.

Elements of a person's external appearance can be conditionally divided into general (the largest - face, head, etc.) and private, component parts of the general (nose, mouth, auricles, etc.)

The whole system of elements and signs of a person's appearance is traditionally considered in relation to the classification, which is based on the belonging of the elements of a person's external appearance and their signs. Elements and signs of the structure of the human body, manifestations of its vital activity are called their own. They are peculiar to the person himself, to his appearance, and inalienably belong to him. Accompanying elements include complementary elements and signs of a person's external appearance. They are not elements of the structure of the human body or a manifestation of its vital activity, but allow us to judge to some extent about our own elements and characteristics (gender, age, habits, gait, etc.).

Own elements and their signs are divided into general physical, anatomical

and functional. The accompanying elements and their features include clothing, small wear items, items used to decorate the appearance (or parts of them) and their features.

The general physical elements of the external appearance of a person include gender, age, anthropological type. General physical signs are manifested in anatomical, functional and related signs, in the general structure of the figure, facial features, in some features of functional manifestations, in clothing and other attributes. Therefore, general physical elements and signs are often also called

complex.

Gender, age - are determined “by appearance” (for example, 20-23 years old), because The calendar period of a person's life does not always correspond to age.

Anthropological type is determined by the totality of anatomical features of appearance, in forensic practice - often in comparison with well-known ethno-anthropological groups (for example, it looks like a Chinese, Georgian, etc.).

Anatomical elements and signs. The anatomical elements of a person’s external appearance include parts of his body that are distinguished during observation (study) (the figure as a whole, head, face, neck, shoulders, chest, back, hairline, wrinkles, spots, folds, traces of various injuries and operations).

They are characterized by features: shape, contour, configuration, size,

positions, colors.

Shape, contour, configuration - determined in accordance with geometric shapes or lines (triangular, sinuous, etc.) and common objects (almond-shaped, pear-shaped, etc.). Ter "shape" has a universal meaning, the term "outline" is used to characterize external graphic elements, and "configuration" is used to describe elements whose thickness is not significant.

Size - this concept is used to denote quantitative characteristics both in absolute and in relative sizes: length, width, height, thickness, etc.

3. Displays of the external appearance of a person

Displays of the external appearance of a person, used in the practice of solving and investigating crimes, are usually divided into subjective and objective.

Subjective reflections include: a mental image; description; subjective portrait. Subjective displays are photographs; films; video images; x-rays and programs; masks and human footprints, etc.

In forensic practice, arbitrary and systematized

(ordered) description.

An arbitrary description is a description given by an eyewitness in words and

expressions used in everyday speech.

Information about the signs of the appearance of a criminal or another person, obtained in the process of a free account of an eyewitness, should be clarified.

A systematized (ordered) description is a description using the verbal portrait method. There are many different definitions of a "verbal portrait", but basically they boil down to the following: a verbal portrait is a systematic, scientifically based description of a person's appearance according to a certain methodology using special standardized terminology.

Description by the method of verbal portrait should be made subject to

the following rules:

Signs of appearance are determined in relation to the "normal" position of the body

person:

Elements of appearance are characterized both full face (front) and in profile, and with

need and from other angles;

The description is compiled sequentially: from the general to the particular; from top to bottom, first general physical, then anatomical, functional and related elements and signs;

Special signs stand out.

Objective mappings

The most complete and objective information about a person's appearance can be recorded through photography. Depending on its conditions, the nature of the ongoing operational-search activities and investigative actions, the types of information storage devices where the images will be placed, signaletic or operational photography is used.

Signaletic (identification) photography is used to fix the signs of the appearance of persons subject to registration, registration, identification, etc. It is produced according to special rules.

To fix the functional features of appearance, it is most expedient to use filming (at present it is rarely used) and video recording.

X-rays and fluorograms also reflect information about the appearance. Along with the structure of the skull and the bones of the skeleton, they fix the contours of the external structure of the body, especially the face and head.

Masks and casts are used to fix the signs of the appearance of the dead, the dead, if the post-mortem changes are insignificant. They are received on behalf of the investigator or an employee of the body of inquiry by specialists in the field of forensic medicine.

Before receiving a negative casting (mold), the face is cleaned, and if necessary, its toilet is carried out. Then a positive casting (mask) is obtained from the mold. Models are also made from other elements of the external appearance (brush, ear, etc.).

A special type of display is the reconstruction of the face from the skull, which is used to record information about the signs of appearance when human skeletal remains, including the skull, are detected. The technique of facial reconstruction from the skull, proposed by the anthropologist M.M. Gerasimov, is based on the existence of certain relationships between the structure of the bones of the skull and the thickness, as well as the shape of the soft tissues.

Lecture 12. Micro-objects and traces of human odor.

Plan:

1. The concept of micro-objects, their classification.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995.-s. 160-164

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEC, 1995.

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEC, 1995.-s. 197

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU. M, 1996.

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - p. 57

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1983.

10. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3, M., 1977-1979.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk. 1988.

14. Selivanov N.A. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M, 1982.

1. The concept of micro-objects, their classification

The so-called micro-objects (micro-particles of materials, substances, fibers, soil, as well as micro-traces) are of great help in the detection and investigation of crimes - the smallest objects and traces causally associated with the event of crimes. If the remaining traditional traces of a crime (hands, shoes, etc.) are quite often destroyed by a criminal at the scene, then such actions, as a rule, are unsuccessful in relation to micro-objects. Trying to destroy some microtraces, the criminal will certainly leave others.

Microobjects are material objects associated with a crime event, the search, detection, seizure and study of which, due to their small size and mass, is difficult or impossible with the naked eye. These actions can be carried out by special technical means that provide the ability to work with small amounts of a substance.

The main feature of micro-objects is the difficulty or impossibility of searching and detecting them with the naked eye, fixing, removing and examining them without special technical means. This sign quite definitely delimits this class of objects from other traces found at the scene of incidents.

2. Means and methods for collecting micro-objects.

Detection, fixation and seizure of micro-objects are carried out in the process of investigative inspection, less often - search, seizure, examination, verification of testimony on the spot.

The subjects of work with micro-objects are the investigator, the person conducting the inquiry, as well as specialists in the field of forensic technology, forensic medicine, biology, chemistry, physics and other sciences who have the necessary skills.

All technical means necessary for working with micro-objects, as a rule, are included in a set of a special suitcase. It includes five groups of funds.

The first group - tools designed to search, detect and inspect micro-objects. This is an ultraviolet illuminator, a set of magnifiers, a portable microscope, a magnet (magnetic brush), sticks made of organic glass and ebonite, an electric torch.

The second group is the means used to remove micro-objects: a micro-dust collector with a set of nozzles and removable filters, brushes, sticky PVC film, glass capillaries, syringes - tubes.

The third group - tools for working with micro-objects: a set of tweezers, a knife medical saw, a set of scalpels, probes, scissors, a knife, a tape measure, subject and cover edema.

The fourth group - means intended for packaging and storage of micro-objects. It includes polyethylene containers and bags, glass boxes, tracing paper, adhesive tape, packages with clean filters for the micro-dust collector. The fifth group is auxiliary means.

In addition to a special suitcase, there is a small set of technical means for working with micro-objects at the scene, conventionally called "Drop".

It consists of a set of magnifiers, a permanent magnet, a neutral adhesive film, a brush, an electrostatic stick, a set of tweezers, scalpels, dissecting needles, glass slides, test tubes with lids, capillaries, plastic bags, paper (tight tracing paper, parchment). The same set is available in a unified suitcase.

During the inspection of the scene, the detection and fixation of micro-objects is a top priority, since they can be accidentally destroyed or moved to another location.

3. Forensic odorology.

Forensic odorology is a developing branch of forensic technology that studies the patterns of formation of human odor traces, and develops means and methods for their detection, seizure, storage and use in order to detect, investigate and prevent crimes.

The smell of a person is individual and under certain conditions can be stored for decades. Until now, it has not been clarified which components (their ratio) determine the stability and individuality of the smell. However, it has the ability to stay on the surfaces of objects that a person has come into contact with for a long time, which predetermined the forensic significance of the odor trace. In addition, like micro-objects, odor traces are not perceived by a person, which means that in most cases they remain at the scene.

The main means of collection and conservation of the smell trail include: pieces of a bike or flannel (adsorbent) measuring 10 x 15 cm; aluminium foil; glass jars with a capacity of 0.5 l with hermetically sealed lids; packing material, rubber gloves; tweezers, large scissors, spatula, spray bottle with water. These funds can be packed in a special traveling suitcase. The listed products must be clean, without impurities of foreign odors. Rubber gloves, jars, lids are washed in hot soapy water and dried in an oven. Flannel or flannel napkins are washed, dried at a temperature not exceeding 70 "C.

The removal of odor traces is carried out before the start of the active part of the inspection of the scene. Objects that usually contain odor traces include: spots of dried blood, particles of the human body that have separated and dried without putrefactive processes; belongings (worn clothes, shoes), cigarette butts, instruments of crime or objects that have been in contact with the body of a living person for at least half an hour; footprints, shoes.

The collection of odor is carried out by means of prolonged contact (1-1.5 hours) of the adsorbent with the subject-carrier of the trace. For this purpose, a clean flannel flap is removed from the jar or packaging foil using tweezers, applied to the place where there is supposedly an odor trace, and pressed tightly with a piece of foil. If the trace is removed from a flat, horizontal surface, then the adsorbent must be pressed by some kind of load. Then, after completion of the collection, the adsorbent is placed in a jar and tightly closed. All these actions are described in the protocol of inspection of the scene, to which the seized objects are attached.

Material evidence, which contains sweat-fat substance, traces of blood, etc., can be objects of various examinations and at the same time they are sources of individual smell. In such cases, the smell is extracted from these objects in the laboratory using special equipment.

When a suspected person is identified, the preserved smell is used to conduct an odorological sample (research) using detector dogs, whose exceptional biosensory capabilities are not yet available for experimental methods. Such a sample allows you to establish the presence of a smell on certain objects from the scene of the incident and, which is very important, the smell belongs to a particular person being checked.

The results of odorological examinations are currently not generally recognized as evidence, but they are very important for solving crimes and identifying the persons who could have committed them. In some cases, the courts consider the results of odorological examinations as evidence.

Lecture 13 Forensic accounting.

Plan 1. The concept of criminal registration, its purpose and tasks.

Literature:

1. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1977.

2. Criminalistics (Edited by A.V. Dulov). Mn., 1995

3. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M, 1991.

5. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed.

BEK., 1995

6. Criminalistics. Educational - methodical manual. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU,

8. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics//Forensic tools, techniques and methods. T. 3. M, 1979.

9. Vasiliev A.N. Investigative tactics. M., 1976. Ratinov A.R. Judicial

psychology for investigators. M., 1967. Selivanov ON. Ethical-tactical

issues of investigation//Issues of combating crime. Issue. 38. M., 1983.

1. The concept of criminal registration, its purpose and tasks.

Forensic accounting is the activity of the internal affairs bodies, expressed in the concentration of systematization of storage and issuance of objects causally related to crimes or information in them in order to use them in solving investigations, as well as preventing crimes.

Criminal registration is a combination of various types of accounting for certain objects that have fallen into the scope of the criminal process or internal affairs bodies, carried out by fixing and concentrating characterizing these objects.

Tasks of criminal registration:

1. Providing ATS with information about a certain category of persons.

2. Assistance in the search and identification of criminals.

3. Assistance in the search for missing and unidentified corpses.

4. Providing information that a number of unsolved crimes were committed by one and

the same face.

5. Providing information that the objects found during the search were previously

stolen or lost.

Objects of forensic information:

2. Missing, corpses.

3. Animals.

4. Physical evidence.

Ways of criminal registration:

1. Descriptive.

2. Fingerprint.

3. Photographic.

4. Cinema, video.

5. Collectible.

Accounting Forms:

1. File cabinets.

2. Magazines.

3. Collections.

4. Cinema, video films.

5. Photo albums.

2. Types of forensic records.

Criminal registration groups:

1. Centralized accounting (collection accounting).

2. Centralized-local accounting.

3. Local accounts (City Department of Internal Affairs, ATC).

Forensic accounting in the internal affairs bodies: a) Main information center, information center:

Alphabetical and dactyloscopic registration of persons who committed a crime;

Missing, corpses;

Identified and lost rifled firearms;

Stolen and seized numbered items;

Stolen and seized antiquities and fine arts;

AIPS "Road traffic";

AIPS "Signal";

AIPS "Passport".

b) Forensic records of forensic departments:

Bullet casing;

counterfeit banknotes;

False documents made on duplicating equipment:

Tax accounting of the Sled system;

Fingerprints seized from the scene of unsolved crimes;

Fake drug prescriptions and handwriting samples of accomplices in crime, c) Forensic records in the City Department of Internal Affairs:

Composite portraits and file cabinets for persons representing operational

Stolen and loose livestock;

Stolen non-numbered items;

chemical traps;

Initiative.

Lecture 14. Forensic tactics: subject and method.

Plan:

3. General provisions of the tactics of individual investigative actions. Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995. - p. 261-272

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 362-374

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov.

Publishing house BEK, 1995.-e. 250

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU,

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000. - p. 97-105

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M., 1966

8. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. Criminalistics. general theoretical problems. M., 1973.

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1983.

10. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3, M., 1977-1979.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination. L., 1975.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk, 1988.

14. Selivanov N.A. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M., 1982.

1. The concept and content of forensic tactics.

Forensic tactics is the third branch of forensic science. It can be defined as a system of scientific provisions and recommendations developed on their basis for conducting individual investigative actions.

Forensic tactics as a branch of forensic science consists of two parts:

1. General provisions of forensic tactics. It outlines the concept, essence and content of forensic tactics and the subsections that make up this section of science, the sources of forensic tactics, its relationship with other sections of forensic science and other sciences, as well as the basic concepts used in forensic tactics - such as tactical and forensic technique and recommendation, tactical and operational-tactical combination.

2. The tactics of individual investigative actions (investigative examination, interrogation, search, etc.); it is an essential part of forensic tactics. Forensic tactics does not consider procedural actions, but only investigative ones, i.e. those that are directly aimed at collecting and examining evidence. Procedural actions, such as the filing of charges or the choice of a preventive measure, are studied only by the science of the criminal process.

The main sources of forensic tactics are:

The norms of criminal procedure legislation regulating the general procedure for investigation and trial in criminal cases, as well as the conduct of individual investigative and judicial actions;

Experience in detecting and investigating crimes. This is the most important source of forensic tactics;

Provisions of other sections of the science of criminalistics: general theory;

forensic technology; organization of disclosure and investigation of crimes; forensic methodology;

The position of other sciences - first of all, the science of criminal procedure, as well as

criminology, criminal law, forensic psychology, etc.

Forensic technique is the most rational and effective way of action or the most appropriate line of conduct when collecting, examining and using evidence in order to detect, investigate and prevent crimes.

Tactical and forensic techniques can be defined as methods of preparing and conducting individual investigative actions.

In recent years, new concepts have appeared in forensic tactics - in particular, the concepts of tactical and operational-tactical combinations (or operations). Tactical combinations are combinations of certain investigative actions carried out in order to solve a specific intermediate task of the investigation (for example, detaining a criminal or a group of criminals, detecting property acquired by criminal means and subject to confiscation, etc.)

Operational-tactical combinations are combinations of investigative actions and operational-search measures carried out with the same goals.

The general provisions of the tactics of all investigative actions include: 1. The legality of the investigative action.

2. Unity of leadership in carrying out this action

3. Activity and purposefulness of the investigator.

4. Staging.

6. The need to use appropriate technical and forensic tools.

7. The use (if necessary) of the assistance of specialists, as well as employees of the apparatus of inquiry and other services and divisions of the Department of Internal Affairs.

Forensic versions and investigation planning.

Plan

Literature:

1. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1977.

2. Criminalistics (Under the editorship of A.V. Dulov). Mn., 1995.

3. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

4. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK., 1995

5. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK., 1995

6. Criminalistics. Educational - methodical manual. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU, M., 1996

7. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000.

8. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics//Forensic tools, techniques and methods. T. 3. M., 1979.

9. Vasiliev A.N. Investigative tactics. M, 1976. Ratinov A.R. Forensic psychology for investigators. M., 1967. Selivanov ON. Ethical and tactical issues of investigation//Issues of combating crime. Issue. 38. M., 1983.

1. The concept of a forensic version. Types of versions, their construction and verification.

The forensic version is an assumption based on factual data about the nature or individual circumstances of an event that has signs of a crime, accepted for verification by an investigator or other authorized person when deciding whether to initiate a criminal case, investigate or trial a case. From the standpoint of logic, a version is a kind of hypothesis, which is a form of thinking, with the help of which the transition from probable knowledge to reliable is carried out.

The investigative version is put forward and checked by the investigator in order to clarify the essence of the event and all its circumstances, i.e. they can be either public or private. Operative-search versions are put forward by an operative officer who, on behalf of the investigator, checks certain circumstances in a criminal case that is being processed by the investigator. Operative-search versions can only be private.

An expert version is an expert's assumption accepted by him for verification during the production of an expert study. It can only be private. Finally, the judicial version is the assumption of the court, accepted by it for verification when considering the case.

Forensic versions are put forward not only on the initiated criminal case, but also before its initiation, in the process of checking by the investigator or the worker of inquiry of the information received by him about the crime committed. Versions that arise in the course of conducting a preliminary check by an investigator or an operative and deciding whether to initiate a criminal case are a special kind of forensic versions. They can be called preliminary or verification. When deciding on arousal

In a criminal case, the results of checking preliminary versions are of decisive importance, and after the initiation of a case, they often form the basis of investigative and other versions.

Version checking consists in finding factual data that confirms or refutes the version. The necessary data is obtained in a procedural way, i.e. as a result of the investigation. Versions are also checked by conducting operational-search measures, but such a check is only of a preliminary, indicative nature, and its results require confirmation by the evidence collected in the case.

In the process of investigation, all possible versions are built and tested. At the same time, no version, even an unlikely one, should be left unchecked. Versions are checked, if possible, simultaneously, in parallel, although in practice this possibility does not always exist, and checking of some versions has to be postponed for some time. In such cases, the most probable version is naturally checked first.

It is impossible to ensure a targeted verification of all versions, completeness, objectivity and comprehensiveness of the investigation if the investigator does not plan his work.

2. The concept, meaning and principles of planning.

Investigation planning is defined as a thought process that consists in determining the content and procedure for establishing all the circumstances of the crime committed and exposing the perpetrators in strict accordance with the requirements of the law and with the least expenditure of time and effort.

There are three main principles of planning

1. Specificity.

2. Individuality.

3. Dynamism (continuity).

In addition to the plan for the investigation of the case, plans are drawn up for the most complex and responsible investigative actions.

Lecture 15. Tactics of inspection and examination.

2. Inspection of the scene.

3. Features of the examination of the corpse.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics. Ed. A.V. Dulov. Mn., 1995. - p. 290-306

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M., 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK, 1995. - p. 390-413

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Publishing house BEK, 1995. - p. 250-287

5. Criminalistics. Teaching aid. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU. M, 1996.

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov N.I. Criminology course. Mn.. 2000. - p. 115-127

7. Belkin R.S. collection, research and evaluation of evidence. M, 1966

8. Belkin R.S. Vinberg A.I. Criminalistics. general theoretical problems. M.. 1973.

9. Belkin R.S., Vinberg A.I. history of Soviet criminalistics. M., 1983.

10. Belkin R.S. The course of Soviet criminalistics. T. 1-3, M, 1977-1979.

11. Krylov I.F. Essays on the history of criminalistics and forensic examination. L., 1975.

12. Panteleev I.F. Theoretical problems of Soviet criminalistics. M, 1980.

13. Obraztsov V.A. Criminalistic classification of crimes. Krasnoyarsk. 1988.

14. Selivanov NA. Soviet criminalistics. Concept system. M., 1982.

1. The concept, types and general rules of the investigative examination.

An investigative examination can be used as an investigative action, which consists in the direct identification, study and fixation by the investigator of various material objects and traces on them that may be relevant to the case, their signs, state, properties and relative position.

There are several classifications of types of investigative examination. So, the object differs: inspection of the scene; initial external examination of the corpse at the place of its discovery (or simply examination of the corpse); examination of objects; examination of documents; inspection of animals; inspection of premises and precinct areas that are not the scene of the incident.

A special type of investigative examination is the examination of living people (certification).

Types of investigative examination can also be classified by time and volume. The initial and repeated examinations differ in time, and the main and additional examinations differ in volume.

In accordance with the law, an investigative examination is always carried out in the presence of attesting witnesses. The investigator has the right to involve the suspect, accused, victim or witness in the examination. He may also invite a person with special knowledge (specialist) to participate in the examination. When examining a corpse, the participation of a specialist - a forensic physician, and in his absence - another doctor, is mandatory.

2. Inspection of the scene.

Inspection of the scene is the most complex and time-consuming type of investigative inspection, which is of great importance for the investigation of crimes. This is an urgent investigative action, which consists in the direct study and fixation by the investigator of the situation at the scene of the incident, traces and other objects in order to obtain factual data relevant to the case.

It is necessary to distinguish between two different concepts - the scene of the incident and the scene of the crime. The scene of the incident is a room or area within which traces of a committed crime were found (stolen property, a corpse or parts of a corpse, a weapon hidden by a criminal, etc.). The crime itself could have been committed in a different place. The scene of the crime is the premises or area of ​​the territory where the crime was directly committed, although traces of this crime may be found in another place or in several places. In some cases, the scene of the crime and the scene of the crime coincide, but may not coincide.

An inspection of the scene of an accident can be carried out at any stage of the investigation, but should always be carried out immediately - as soon as the investigator has decided that an inspection is necessary. Therefore, it is called an urgent investigative action.

The general task of examining the scene is to establish what happened at that place. To answer this question, the investigator must first solve a number of particular tasks: establish the place, time and other circumstances of the event under investigation; identify, study and fix the traces left by the criminal, other traces, as well as material evidence; identify changes in the disposal and properties of individual objects before and after the event under study; identify and fix the so-called negative circumstances.

Negative circumstances are any factual data relevant to a case that cannot be explained based on the original version.

The following stages of inspection of the scene of the incident are distinguished: preparatory; working (or research); final.

3. Features of the examination of the corpse

The corpse is the central object at the scene. The course and results of its inspection are reflected in the protocol of inspection of the scene. If the corpse is examined in the mortuary, a separate protocol for the examination of the corpse is drawn up. A separate protocol is also drawn up when the examination was preceded by the exhumation of the corpse.

Examination of a corpse can provide the most important information - about the identity of the victim, about the causes of death, the method of its infliction, the time of occurrence, and the mechanism of the event.

The inspection consists of two stages - a general inspection and a detailed inspection. You can also talk about the static and dynamic stages of the examination of the corpse.

When examining a corpse in a static state, the gender of the corpse is recorded: the age of the deceased (approximately); his physique; corpse posture; his position at the scene of the incident relative to some permanent landmarks; external signs; body length; condition of the skin; the state of clothing (in relation to the posture of the corpse); possible instruments of death; other objects near the corpse.

After a general examination, the body is lifted, transferred to another place and the bed of the corpse (the place where the corpse lay) is examined. Previously, the bed of the corpse is outlined in chalk or indicated in other ways.

A detailed examination is accompanied by undressing, which is carried out in a certain sequence. This stage of examination aims to reveal all the features on the body of the corpse, injuries and cadaveric phenomena. If the identity of the deceased is unknown, the features are recorded with the utmost care, including moles, the structure of the dental apparatus, etc.

With regard to damage, the following is indicated: their location; in indisputable cases - the nature of the damage (for example, "chopped wound"); their sizes; appearance. All cadaveric phenomena (body temperature, rigor mortis, desiccation, cadaveric spots, putrefactive processes) are also identified and described.

Before and during the inspection, the corpse is photographed.

Lecture 16 Tactics of interrogation and confrontation.

1. The concept, general rules and types of interrogation.

2. Preparation for interrogation.

3. Interrogation of witnesses and victims.

4. Interrogation of the suspect and the accused.

5. Confrontation.

Literature:

1. Criminalistics (Edited by A.V. Dulov). Mn., 1995. - With. 306-326

2. Obraztsov V.A. Fundamentals of criminalistics. M, 1991.

3. Criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK., 1995 - p. 445-468

4. Workshop on criminalistics. Textbook, ed. N.P. Yablokov. Ed. BEK., 1995 - p. 316-342

5. Criminalistics. Educational - methodical manual. ON THE. Selivanov. Ed. MNEPU,

6. Andreev I.S., Gramovich G.I., Porubov I.I. Criminology course. Mn., 2000.

7. Karneeva L.M., Vasiliev A.N. Interrogation tactics. M., 1970.

8. Karneeva L.M. Features of tactics of interrogation of minors. Volgograd,

9. Karneeva L.M., Soloviev A.B., Chuvilev A.A. interrogation of the suspect and

accused. M., 1969.

10. Leei A.A., Pichkaleva G.I., Selivanov I A. Obtaining and verifying evidence

investigator. M., 1987.

11. Porubov N.I. Scientific foundations of interrogation at the preliminary investigation. Minsk,

1978. 1. Concept, general rules and types of interrogation.

Interrogation at the preliminary investigation is an investigative action that consists in obtaining and fixing, in accordance with the procedure established by law, the testimony of witnesses, victims, suspects or accused about facts known to them that are relevant to the case under investigation.

In accordance with the law on criminal procedure, the interrogation is carried out, as a rule, in the office of the investigator, but may be carried out in another place if the investigator finds it necessary.

All persons summoned for one case are interrogated separately, and the investigator takes measures in his power so that before interrogation they cannot communicate between

Before interrogating a witness or victim, the investigator is obliged to ascertain the self-identity of the person being interrogated, then explains to this person his duties and warns against receipt in the protocol of criminal liability for refusing to testify and for giving knowingly false testimony. The investigator explains to witnesses under 16 years of age that they must truthfully tell everything they know about the case.

At the beginning of the interrogation of the witness, the investigator reveals his attitude towards the accused and the victim and the necessary information about the identity of the interrogated. Then the witness is invited to tell everything that he knows about the circumstances of the event, in connection with which he was called for interrogation. After such a story, the investigator may ask the interrogated questions, and leading questions are not allowed.

When interrogating witnesses under the age of 14, and at the discretion of the investigator - up to 16 years, a teacher is called. If necessary, the legal representatives of the minor or his closest relatives may also be called. Before the beginning of the interrogation, these persons are explained their rights and obligations, about which a note is made in the protocol. They are present during interrogation and may ask the witness questions. The investigator has the right to reject the question asked, but this question is recorded in the protocol.

When interrogating the accused, the investigator must first ask whether he pleads guilty to the charge, and then offers to testify on the merits of the charge. After listening to his story, the investigator, if necessary, asks the accused questions.

The types of interrogation at the preliminary investigation differ depending on:

1) the procedural status of the person being interrogated (interrogation of a witness, victim, suspect, accused);

2) the age of the interrogated person (interrogation of an adult, minor, minor);

3) the composition of the participants (without the participation of third parties, with the participation of a defense counsel, an expert,

specialist,

parents or legal representatives of a minor, a teacher,

translator);

4) places of interrogation;

5) the nature of the investigative situation (non-conflict or conflict).