From the history of the issue

In Russian psychology in the early period of research on creativity, the only source of judgment about the qualities of a creative personality were biographies, autobiographies, memoirs and other literary works containing "self-revelations" of outstanding people - artists, scientists, inventors.

By analyzing and summarizing such material, the most conspicuous signs of genius were identified, expressed in the features of perception, intellect, character, and motivation of activity.

Among the perceptual features of individuals with great creative potential, most often included: unusual tension of attention, great impressionability, receptivity. Among the intellectual ones are intuition, powerful fantasy, fiction, the gift of foresight, the vastness of knowledge. Among the characterological features, the following were emphasized: deviation from the template, originality, initiative, perseverance, high self-organization, colossal efficiency. Features of the motivation of activity were seen in the fact that a brilliant personality finds satisfaction not so much in achieving the goal of creativity, but in its very process; a specific feature of the creator was characterized as an almost irresistible desire for creative activity.

Original criteria for an objective assessment of creative potentials were also proposed: according to P.K. Engelmeyer, technical genius manifests itself in the ability to intuitively grasp the idea of ​​an invention; there is enough talent to develop it; for constructive performance - diligence.

Later, tests were used to study the qualities of a creative personality. The results of a survey of famous chess players were somewhat unexpected; except for clearly visible professional features, no special deviations from the norm were found either in attention, or in memory, or in "combinatorial ability; highly developed

1 Of course, in all periods of the study, such materials were significantly supplemented by the personal opinion of the authors of the studies.

famous chess players turned out to have only the ability to establish logical connections. Thus, this test survey did not reveal any definite qualities of a creative personality.

Something similar was shown by the study of inventors. Their data was not overwhelming compared to the norm. However, within the inventors it was possible to find distinct differences that are strictly consistent with their productivity. The most productive inventors differed from the least productive in both the level of intelligence development and the level of attention development. At the same time, according to the author of the study P. A. Nechaev, these differences are not the most significant. Great inventors and scientists differ from less significant ones not so much in the development of formal intellectual skills as in the structure of their personality. The watershed here runs along the line of perseverance in the implementation of the plans, activity, aggressiveness in protecting one's personality, organizational abilities, etc.

A number of other issues related to the characteristics of a creative personality and, mainly, the personality of a scientist were also put forward. Among them, it should be noted the questions of the typology of the personality of scientists, the classification of scientists, the questions of the age dynamics of creativity, the nature and development of creative abilities, and the education of creative abilities.

So, for example, referring to the typology of scientists, F. Yu. Levinson-Lessing divided creatively unproductive erudite scientists, calling them "walking libraries", and creatively preductive scientists, not burdened by an overabundance of operational knowledge, possessing a powerfully developed imagination and brilliantly reacting for all sorts of clues.

The age dynamics of creativity was considered by M. A. Bloch, who built his conclusions in this area, mainly based on the analysis of foreign literature. He attributed the most favorable age for the manifestation of genius to 25 years.

An analysis of the works of foreign authors regarding the nature and factors of development of abilities led M. A. Bloch to the conclusion that there are no convincing constants in the dependence of genius on innate qualities. No such constants were found regarding the role of the influence of the environment, including schooling. M. A. Bloch, along with the majority of representatives of the early period of research, was deeply convinced that the conscious activity of people in no way can influence the formation of brilliant scientists, inventors, poets and artists.

On the basis of his own research, P. A. Nechaev, referring to the issue of educating technical invention, believed that inventors are mostly people with a favorable natural organization. Many who have not received education have practically achieved little. But education sometimes acts as a brake. Cases of great successes of uneducated talents are known. Therefore, at school, not only the material of instruction is important, but also the form in which it is given.

In "a later period, there was no significant progress in the field of psychology of the personality traits of the creators of science. Individual works that touch on such issues essentially relied on materials from the past.

It is no coincidence, therefore, that at the Symposium on Problems of Scientific and Technical Creativity (Moscow, 1967) all reports presented at the session of the psychology section were grouped in line with the problem of the psychology of creative thinking. Questions of the psychology of the creative personality were not touched upon at all (to a certain extent, such questions were touched upon in reports at other sections, but not on a specifically psychological plane). Perhaps this circumstance did not arise by chance, because at present, for a productive, strictly scientific analysis of the qualities of a creative personality, psychology has not yet developed sufficiently reliable means.

In the last two decades, research on the qualities of a creative personality and creative abilities has gained wide scope abroad, especially in the United States. However, the general description of foreign, especially American, research in the field of the psychology of scientific creativity, which we gave in the introductory section, fully applies to the work of this profile. All of them are narrowly practical, applied, concrete in nature, bypassing the stage of fundamental research.

Apparently, for precisely these reasons, these studies did not cross the qualitative threshold that was achieved by works carried out, say, before the 1930s. Therefore, characterizing modern foreign research, we can only talk about their quantitative growth. All of them retain, in principle, the old problems and, with few exceptions, arrive in principle at the same conclusions. If we compare the Potebnists’ statements about the creative qualities of a person with the conclusions reached in their works by, for example, Giselin (1963), Taylor (1964), Barron (1958) and many other modern researchers in the USA, we will not find a fundamental difference. There is only a change of emphasis and some redistribution of issues that attract the most attention.

In terms of the structural division of the problems, there have also been no changes. This is clearly shown, for example, by the non-speech “specific abilities and mental properties necessary for work in the field of science and technology”, which is very characteristic of American studies, cited by G. Ya. Rosen in the newsletter “Studies in the Psychology of Scientific Creativity in the USA” ( 1966). The author gives this list in the form in which it is indicated in the work of Taylor and other sources (Anderson, 1959): “Extraordinary energy. Resourcefulness, ingenuity. Cognitive abilities. Honesty, directness, directness. Strive for facts. The desire to possess principles (patterns). Striving for discovery. information abilities. Dexterity, experimental skill. Flexibility, the ability to easily adapt to new facts and circumstances. Tenacity, perseverance. Independence. The ability to determine the value of phenomena and conclusions. The ability to cooperate. Intuition. Creative skills. The desire for development, spiritual growth. The ability to be surprised, bewildered when confronted with the new or unusual. The ability to fully navigate the problem, to be aware of its condition. Spontaneity, immediacy. spontaneous flexibility. adaptive flexibility. Originality. Divergent thinking. Ability to quickly acquire new knowledge. Susceptibility ("openness") in relation to new experience. The ability to easily overcome mental boundaries and barriers. The ability to yield, to abandon one's theories. The ability to be born again every day. The ability to discard the unimportant and secondary. Ability to work hard and hard. The ability to compose complex structures from elements, to synthesize. The ability to decompose, to analyze. The ability to combine. The ability to differentiate phenomena. Enthusiasm. The ability to express yourself. (Internal maturity. Skepticism. Courage. Courage. Taste for temporary disorder, chaos. The desire to remain alone for a long time. Emphasizing one's "I". Confidence in conditions of uncertainty. Tolerance for obscurity, ambiguity, uncertainty "(Rosen, 1966).

A similar variegation, indivisibility, globality is characteristic of most of these studies and more narrowly focused on the study of "local" problems, for example, for studies of intelligence (Gilford and others), the typology of scientists (Gow, Woodworth, etc.), the age dynamics of creativity ( Le Mans, etc.), etc.

It cannot be said that these works are psychologically devoid of content. On the contrary, many of them are very informative, valuable, interesting, and sometimes wise. However, all of them are the fruits of common sense - raw materials that should eventually become the subject of fundamental research, pass through the prism of an abstract analytical approach.

The main modern task of this approach is the division of the personality problem into its sociological and psychological aspects. In this case, the specific content of the psychological aspect turns out to be the features of the subject's assimilation of the social conditions of his environment and the psychological mechanisms for creating these conditions. To some extent, this side of the problem is similar to the problem of the relationship between thinking and cognition.

Our psychological analysis of creative abilities is an attempt to implement the abstract-analytical approach we have adopted in relation to this very amorphous problem. The main positive task is to reveal the subject's abilities that are conducive to finding intuitive solutions, their verbalization and formalization.

Critical consideration of the key issues of the current state of the problem (congenital and acquired in creative abilities, general and special talents, specific abilities, development of abilities throughout the life of a scientist, testological study of creative abilities, their education, etc.) reveals, as in previous cases , their structural indivisibility. The application of the abstract-analytical approach creates the basis for the dismemberment of the original concreteness and the study of the psychological level of its organization.

As a fundamental example of such a study, we present an experimental analysis of one of the most important abilities - the ability to act "in the mind" - the internal plan of action (IPA).

Internal Action Plan Research

A general description of the stages of development of the internal plan of action is given by us in the fifth chapter when describing the central link in the psychological mechanism of creativity in the light of the abstract-analytical approach. Identification of the stages in the development of the VPD was taken as the basis for his further research 2 .

In this direction, first of all, the general picture of development was studied: VPD.

By examining a large number of subjects - older preschoolers, younger schoolchildren (the bulk), students in grades V-XI and adults - using a diagnostic technique (in principle, close to the one described by us when characterizing the stages of development of ©PD), it was possible to outline the contours of the overall picture of the development of VPD .

The main characteristics of this picture were: distribution formulas (DF) and average indicators (SP).

Each RF in the analysis of the overall picture of the development of VPD was derived as a result of a diagnostic examination of a group of participants

The experimental material for studying the internal plan of action is described in detail by the author in the book “Knowledge, thinking and mental development” (M., 1967)

students, which includes the full composition of children from several classes of the same year of study in Moscow and rural schools.

The FR indicated the number (expressed as a percentage) of the children of the group who were in the I, II, III, IV and V stages of the development of HP during the survey period. The first term on the right side of this formula corresponded to stage I, the second to stage II, and so on.

For example, the expression FR = (a, b, c, d, e) may mean that out of the surveyed number of students in this group, a% of children were at stage I of the development of HRP, b% - at stage II, c% - at stage III, d % at stage IV and e% at stage V.

SP is the total result of experiments with a particular group of students. It is obtained by processing the data of the corresponding distribution formula and counts! according to the formula

a+2b + 3c + 4d+5e

where a, b, c, d, e are the percentages of children in the group who are respectively at stages I, II, III, IV and V of the development of the internal action plan; 2, 3, 4, 5 - constant coefficients corresponding to the score by which each of the achieved stages is evaluated.

The average indicator (with a five-point system) can be expressed as values ​​from 1 (the lowest indicator; possible if all the children examined in the group are at the I stage of development of the CAP) to 5 (the highest indicator; possible if all the children of the surveyed group are at Stage V of the development of the VPD).

The results of the experiments, characterizing the general picture of the development of the VPD in younger schoolchildren, are presented in Table. one.

Table 1

Number of examined

Distribution in absolute numbers

Examination period

stages

Claso

Beginning of the school year

End of training

table 2

	Number of examined	Stage distribution formula
Class
VIII-IX-X

The accuracy of the overall picture of the distribution of students by stages of development of the internal action plan is directly dependent on the number of children surveyed. (In our work, only the first sketch of such a “picture” was made. Therefore, we do not believe that the quantitative characteristics given here are final. As new survey materials are acquired, these characteristics may change to some extent. However, the fundamental strokes of the picture are correct.

In order to analyze the features of the further growth of the SP, additional surveys of students in grades V-XI were carried out. The results of these surveys are given in table. 2.

Consideration of the change in the SP from the moment children enter school until the end of their studies in the 11th grade reveals that the growth rate of the SP (with small approximations) is proportional to its degree of incompleteness (the degree of incompleteness is understood as the difference between the limiting value of the SP and the achieved value).

These changes can be expressed by the equation

y"=(a-y) lnb. One of the particular solutions of this equation

y = a -b l~ x,

where at- the level of development of the joint venture; X- number of years of schooling; a- the limit of development of the SP, probably associated with the type of education and the individual characteristics of students; b- coefficient, possibly expressing the measure of the training load. On fig. 47 shows a graph of the calculated curve with the values: a = 3.73 and & = 2; dots indicate empirical data 3 .

* We did not strive for high accuracy in the quantitative processing of experimental data, considering the need for accuracy to be premature. A detailed rigorous mathematical analysis of the obtained dependencies also seemed premature to us. In any case, the results of such an analysis should be treated with great caution, since a qualitative analysis of the facts is still at an early stage.

The described data on the characteristics of the general picture of the development of the VPD are not yet quite sufficient for strictly substantiated conclusions. However, these data already suggest a number of hypotheses.

First of all, relying on the regularity of the change in the SP, one can get a certain idea of ​​the general picture of the development of VPD 4 as a whole, not limited only to the period of primary school age. For this purpose, first of all, it is necessary to analyze the equation y = 3.73- 2 1- x On fig. 48 shows the corresponding curve.

The distribution formulas we obtained for the primary grades show that the coefficient of 3.73, which determines

4 -

Rice. 47 Fig. 48

the limit of development of the VPD, demonstrates only the average level of this development (individual differences are leveled here) and does not at all characterize all of its possible variants. Therefore, the exponent shown in Fig. 48 should be considered only as a curve depicting the general type of development (in this case, most closely matching the average empirically obtained data).

Therefore, a = 3.73 in the equation y = a-b 1's cannot be regarded as an absolute limit for all possible characteristics of development. For example, the development of children who reach the highest level of the fifth stage should have a slightly different curve.

If we really take the original curve (y= 3.73--2 1-x) as a known type of development, then, keeping the second coefficient (b - measure of training load) equations y=a-b 1-x unchanged, by analogy with this curve, you can construct a curve characterizing the absolutely limiting possibility of development (a \u003d 6) proceeding according to this type (i.e., a curve with the equation y \u003d 6-2 1-x). In the same way, it is easy to draw a curve illustrating development with the lowest (according to our data) relative limit of development (a = 2).

Let us consider the curve where a=6, i.e., the ideal case of the development of the VPD under our assumptions. This curve shows that the development of the studied ability begins at about five and a half years of age. (y = 0 at x=-1,44).

However, this is not an absolute zero point. This starting point is determined by the features of the scale of measurement we adopted, timed to analyze the development of the VSD in younger schoolchildren (all children who are unable to reproduce their actions in the internal plan, we refer to the I - background - stage of the development of the VPA). Undoubtedly, the development of the VPD also occurs in an earlier period (and the background stage itself is objectively

Rice. 49

Rice. fifty

is a deeply differentiated stage). But we have not studied this period, we do not have our own experimental data about it, there are no criteria for the development of this period and the corresponding measurement scale.

You can, of course, assume that the resulting curve is the upper part of a typical growth curve (having a 5-shaped shape), and plot from the chosen starting point (y=0; e: \u003d -1.14) a curve symmetrical to it (Fig. 49). The curve obtained by this method, despite its complete hypotheticality, is of known interest. It reaches the point corresponding to the time of fetal formation, when at begins to quite pronouncedly tend to its lower limit - absolute zero. None of the other possible curves (for 6 > a > 2) has such reversibility, although all of them, with increasing a tend to this ideal case (Fig. 50). It is impossible not to pay attention to this kind of accident. In addition, the curve (for a = 6) does not in the least contradict those ideas about the pace and qualitative features of the mental development of children from birth to 6 years old that have developed in modern science of the child.

All this gives us reason to take the curve (for c = 6) as an ideal case of development. (At the same time, this ideal case should be considered as a classical norm, since all deviations from this norm (which at the same time represents the limiting possibility) are caused by the reasons for the unfortunate conditions of development.

Thus, the hypothetical curve we have adopted for the ideal case of the development of the VPD is, on the one hand, an asymptote with respect to absolute zero and, on the other hand, an asymptote with respect to the absolute limit of the development of the VPD. It is symmetrical about the bending point, which occurs at about 5.5 years, where the positive acceleration is replaced by a negative one.

The lower part of the curve up to the bend point was constructed by us arbitrarily. We have factual data relating only to its upper part. Therefore, we consider only this part, keeping in force the scale we previously adopted with a relative zero reference point.

The curve shows that, ideally, by the end of the fifth and the beginning of the sixth year of life, the child reaches stage II of the development of the VPD. This is confirmed to a certain extent by the data of reconnaissance experiments with preschoolers. In these experiments, among children of 6-7 years old, we often found those in whom the III stage of development of the HPD was detected. Some of the children of this age were approaching stage IV in terms of the level of development of the VPD. At the same time, we were not able to find children at the age of the first half of the fifth year who could master the conditions of our experimental problem. In the same way, we have not been able to find five-year-olds who would show a sufficiently pronounced ability corresponding to the second stage of development of the VPD.

Further, the curve of the ideal case of SP growth shows that by the time they enter school, i.e., at the age of seven, children can reach the IV stage of development of the HPD. Of the 192 first-graders examined at the beginning of the school year (see Table 1 - FR and SP among junior schoolchildren), 9 people actually ended up at stage IV 5 .

By the end of the first year of study, that is, by about 8 years of age, children are able to reach stage V of the development of the VPD. Of the 219 first-graders examined at the end of the school year, 11 people actually ended up at stage V.

By the end of class V, i.e., approximately by the age of 12, the SP curve asymptotically approaches the limit: approximately 9 / 10 its growth are passed - the ability, the development of which

6 In the same table, one first-grader, examined at the beginning of the school year, is assigned to the V stage of development of the VPD.

the swarm finds its well-known reflection in the growth of the SP, can be considered practically formed (although the increase in the SP continues to a tangible extent even in grades V-VIII).

It should be assumed that in the further mental development of man, the leading place is already occupied by other patterns. This development proceeds primarily along the line of increasing knowledge, along the line of broad mastery of culture and professional specialization.

Such features of mental development, of course, leave a certain stamp on the characteristics of the VPD. However, we did not investigate this side of the issue. Our task was limited to registering the level of development of the VPD by analyzing the features of thinking in the conditions of the most simplified specific task (practical, cognitive). The tasks presented in our methodology, of course, cannot be considered as simple as possible in this sense; therefore, we emphasize only our desire to use the simplest (in a practical or cognitive sense) tasks. In fact, the complexity of these problems in the indicated sense is determined by the subject side of the experimental material, in which we managed to embody the general idea.

Thus, we did not specifically study the development of the ability to consciously self-program actions. It was important for us to state the very fact of the emergence of such an ability. It is this feature of the development of the VPD that is displayed by the upper part of the SP curve (at o=6). The absolute upper limit of the growth of SP corresponds to the moment of the appearance of such an ability (with the measure of accuracy that is determined by the specific material that embodies the idea of ​​the experiment). The further development of the VPD is characterized by its other aspects and patterns, which we have not studied.

It is important for us to emphasize in this regard only one fact that we have noticed: “in principle, a child whose internal plan of action has reached the fifth stage of development is potentially capable of mastering knowledge of any degree of complexity, of course, if the logical genesis of knowledge is correctly presented to him. adequately operate with any knowledge acquired by him.Of course, speaking of potential ability, we mean only the security of learning success from the side of the development of the student's HPE and do not touch upon other important aspects of learning here. on its basis, it is impossible to predict the development of the VPD of a particular child.6 However, it is sufficient

6 We do not have facts confirming or completely refuting the possibility of developing CAP in adults Clarification of this issue - ■ the task of a special study clearly reflects the general picture of this development - its most typical forms.

According to the data presented in table. 6, the SP now reaches the absolute limit level only in the group constituting 5-8% of all examined. The development curves of SP show that the later the child passes the inflection point, the lower the level of SP rises by the time his growth fades. Therefore, not even the entire group, constituting 18% of the subjects who are, according to Table. 1, by the time they complete their education in primary school at stage V, they reach the absolute limit of EP growth. More than half of the group (the subgroup reaching stage V later than completing the first grade) may have a SP below the absolute limit.

These figures show a great possibility of further development of intellect in a very large number of students. However, such an opportunity can be realized only if the mechanisms of the development of HSD are revealed, and the factors determining it are identified.

To identify the leading factors in the development of CSD in our study, the study of the influence of various types of schooling on this development and the analysis of the reasons for the delays in the formation of the ability to act "in the mind" in individual schoolchildren, which opened up the possibility of directed organization of the desired changes, became of decisive importance.

The general picture of the development under consideration already indicated the close connection between the development of the VPD and the characteristics of education and upbringing: first-graders were distributed over all its stages, therefore, age (maturation) was not of decisive importance during this period. The data of the differential picture spoke of the same thing: in some children, rapid jerks forward were observed, significantly outstripping the course of the average development curve; in others, on the contrary, attenuation of the growth of the indicator of the initially relatively highly developed VPD was found.

The presence of such breakthroughs undoubtedly indicated the well-known possibility of deliberate stimulation of the desired changes, the possibility of rational management of the mental development of schoolchildren.

Our surveys have shown that by the end of the first year of study, the largest number of children in Moscow schools reaches the III stage of development of the GPA. Therefore, the development of the VPD of children who are at this point in the II and especially in the I stages, is a case of delay. A special analysis of such cases is of interest for revealing the conditions and identifying the causes that determine the shift in development. Comparison of the characteristics of the activities of children with a delay

development of the VPD, with similar activities of their more developed peers, and analysis of the results of such a comparison led us to identify a number of reasons for the delay.

The most common group of such causes is the ordinary underdevelopment of the VPD, associated with the peculiarities of the tasks of the activities of children at preschool age. Most often it is found in rural schools.

The first of the reasons for such a group is found in children who did not find themselves in situations where they had not only to achieve some practical result, but also to explain how, in what way this result was achieved, that is, to solve theoretical problems. At preschool age, they carried out only direct verbal instructions from adults, or imitated them, but did not solve creative theoretical problems under the guidance of adults, in the process of verbal communication with them.

A characteristic symptom in such cases is the peculiarities of the speech of children. They use speech only in situations of practical tasks and are unable to talk about how they themselves performed this or that action. Or, even more prominently, such a child is unable to teach another child (excluding direct imitation, "direct demonstration") the action that he himself has just performed, and in a number of cases quite successfully. If he is given a ready-made verbal formulation of what he has done, he cannot repeat immediately and with sufficient accuracy.He needs several repetitions and a fairly significant period of time for the mechanical memorization of the formulation.The subject is aware only of the result of his action and does not consciously control its process.

In general, the speech of such schoolchildren is very poor and, in comparison with their peers who have reached higher stages of development of the VPD, is clearly underdeveloped. The vocabulary is not rich. The construction of phrases is often incorrect.

The second reason is the lack of cognitive motives necessary for the student. Children willingly come to school, they are not in a hurry to go home. But in the classroom they are passive, they very rarely raise their hands, they are indifferent to both relatively successful answers and failures. Schoolchildren in this category have almost no experience of specific mental work. Trying to act “in the mind”, trying to think is an unusual and undesirable work for them. Children try to avoid solving problems in their minds. They are not captivated by entertaining tasks that require reflection. In most cases, such students either do not accept the educational tasks that are set before them at all, or they are guided by them for a very short period of time, and then "lose the task."

Closely related to the second and third reason - the lack of necessary arbitrariness. Sitting in the classroom, the children do not make noise, but at the same time they are not focused on the lesson: they constantly turn around, look in their neighbors' notebooks, under their desks, play with notebooks, pencils, etc. The teacher's questions take them by surprise. In most cases, almost every student in this category can notice the whole complex of the listed reasons, although sometimes any individual defect is exaggerated.

In general, the overall development of these children is low. But at the same time, they have a well-developed so-called practical intelligence. In terms of practical actions, they are very quick-witted and are not inferior to their peers who have reached higher stages of development of the VPD, and sometimes even surpass them.

The reasons for the delay in the development of the internal plan listed above are relatively easy to eliminate. There are no special obstacles for the development of the VPD of such children in the school environment. It is only necessary to pay special attention to the development of speech, to use didactic games that stimulate intellectual work as widely as possible. It is also important to understand that in phylogenesis all specific human features developed in mutual communication between people, and in ontogenesis, especially in relations between a child and an adult, including in school conditions, such communication is by no means always mutually active. However, the development of the VPD presupposes precisely such interactivity. The teacher should be able to create situations in which not only he teaches the child, but also the child "teaches" him and in the course of such "teaching" solves (under the indirect guidance of the teacher and with the help of the teacher) creative tasks. Of decisive importance is also the teacher's ability to find the necessary forms of the simplest theoretical problems, the solution of which is necessary to "draw out" the inner plan of the child. Unfortunately, until now this is happening quite spontaneously and belongs to the field of "pedagogical art".

The author of this work succeeded in inducing, in a comparatively short period of time, a sharp shift in the development of HPA in the children of the experimental class of one of the rural schools by means of appropriate guidance on the activities of the teacher.

At the beginning of October, the indicators of the first classes of this school were as follows:

experimental: RF = 87, 10, 3, 0, 0; SP=1.16;

control: RF = 95, 0, 0, 5, 0; OD = 1.15.

In February of the same year (during the next survey), the following indicators were obtained:

experimental: RF=14, 76, 10, 0, 0; SP=1.96;

control: FR = 85, 5, 5, 5, 0; SP=1.30.

Thus, out of 25 children in the experimental class, who at the beginning of the school year were at the I stage of development of the VPD, by the middle of the school year, 21 people reached stage II (in the control class - only two students).

However, 4 people of the experimental class, who were in equal conditions with their comrades, remained at stage I. Consequently, those general means of causing shifts that have just been mentioned turned out to be insufficient and ineffective for these children. Similar cases of developmental delay | BPD were also in the Moscow school.

A group of children with a sharp delay in such development was subjected to a special experimental study, as a result of which another group of causes was established.

a -/b

Rice. 51. Method of counting squares

a- the starting point of the first move. 1, 2 - cells to be bypassed; 3 - the final point of the first move of the subject and the starting point of the next one; b - the actual order of counting for the subjects G lack of a number of important skills of orientation in time and space

This group is characterized by the absence in children of a number of important skills of orientation in time and space. These children, like the previous group, also lack the development of cognitive motives necessary for the schoolchild, and sufficient arbitrariness. However, the underdevelopment of speech typical of children in the previous group is not on the contrary, outwardly speech can be highly developed, while the "practical intellect" turns out to be underdeveloped.

Children of this category, knowing the direct count, do not know how to count backward, they cannot choose from the cubes placed in front of them in one row the one whose serial number is indicated by the experimenter. They are unable to count a group of randomly placed cubes. Many do not know where the right side is, where the left side is, etc.

When trying to teach these children a simplified form of the knight's move, the following is revealed. The subject is given a method for counting squares (Fig. 51, a): from the original cell (where the horse stands) count two (in the indicated order) and get to the third. During the countdown, the subjects, as a rule, do not follow the instructions given to them. The counting order (without special training) remains completely random, for example, as shown in Fig. 51.6.

When teaching such subjects notation, the following phenomena occur. The experimenter asks the subject to remember

the name of the cells. He points with a pointer to cell al and calls it: al, then he points and calls cell a2, then a3. After three or four repetitions, the child is able to name three of these cells when the experimenter again points to them with a pointer, without naming them himself. But this is possible only under one condition: if the original order is strictly preserved, i.e. "if the cell al is indicated again, then a2 and a3. If this order is changed and the experimenter indicates, for example, first the cell a3, then a2 and al, then (without special training) the child cannot name these cells correctly.

It seems that the subject forms relatively independent verbal and visual-motor chains, which are connected only at the initial point of the display. The subject's three actions are not connected into a single system, they do not form the necessary structure. The child does not discover the principle of his actions. “Each of the actions is associated with the other “mechanically”, at the level of elementary interaction. Therefore, the possibility of reversibility is excluded. Such a picture never occurs in children with a higher level of VPD.

Compared with the first group of reasons (simple lack of formation of an internal plan of action), the second group has a more complex nature.

If the children of the previous category “practical intelligence” have developed quite enough and the system of basic skills of spatio-temporal orientation, necessary for a given moment of development, has not only developed, but also to some extent generalized, verbalized (children perform those associated with elementary spatio-temporal orientation of the task according to the verbal instructions of adults), then children of this category have “white spots” in the system of necessary skills of spatio-temporal orientation, due to which this entire system as a whole turns out to be unformed.

In normal situations, this does not appear. For example, in "macro-movements", when walking, running, and the simplest outdoor games, the child, like all normal children, behaves adequately to the situation, he orients his body in relation to the surrounding objects quite correctly. However, in “micromovements”, where it is necessary to somehow orient not only oneself in relation to objects, but also these objects themselves, and relative not only to oneself, but also to any other coordinates, such children turn out to be helpless. Consequently, many important skills of this kind of spatial orientation remain not only not verbalized, and, therefore, not generalized, but, probably, they are not formed. Therefore, the child cannot, for example, order the arrangement of a number of objects on the experimental table in order to then count them, etc.

At the same time, as has already been said, the speech of the described children can be relatively rich and relatively correct. On the basis of a conversation with a child, an impression may be formed about his quite sufficient development. However, this impression is clearly superficial. Speech, symbolic, structures in a child in many cases are not correlated with the corresponding direct sensory projections, and therefore are not adequately connected with reality.

Elimination of delays in the development of VPD associated with the causes of the second type is more difficult than in the first case. The fact is that those skills that constitute gaps in the direct experience of the child and which are necessary for building a system of his inner plan are usually not specifically taught. They are acquired spontaneously. Therefore, we do not have more or less sufficient knowledge about what the system of skills of direct space-time orientation should be like. In addition, the “white spots” that have arisen in children are covered by speech layers.

Decisive shifts here can be obtained by filling in the indicated gaps. But first of all, they need to be opened, which requires a special laboratory study.

The lack of scientific knowledge about the sufficient composition of spatio-temporal orientation skills and their system is the main obstacle to the elimination of the delay in development considered here on a broad front. So far, the study of such gaps can only be built empirically.

We do not yet have sufficient experience (observations on children of this category were carried out for only two years) for any justified predictions of the further development of VPD in cases of initial inferiority of the sensory experience of children. It is possible that in the course of subsequent training these problems will be gradually filled in and the conditions for moving through the stages of development of the VPD will develop as if by themselves. However, the information that we have now (the results of separate surveys of lagging students in grades III and IV) is more likely to tell a different story: although these gaps are indeed gradually filled with age, the child's lag behind more developed peers, caused at first by these gaps, is growing. . Already in the first grade, children with gaps in direct experience are, as it were, unsettled. They acquire school knowledge in a different way - most often mechanically, they act differently, they approach the mastery of academic subjects differently and do not actually master them. The break in the links of the system of sensory experience leads to the subsequent disorganization of the entire structure of the intellect; children do not come out of the ranks of the lagging behind. The more neglected these intellectual deficiencies are, the more difficult it is to correct them.

Therefore, the issue of eliminating these gaps already during the first year of study is very significant, despite the fact that today we know only private ways of such elimination, i.e., ways limited to the areas of individual specific tasks,

As an example of attempts to achieve shifts in the stages of HPD development in children of this category, we will describe the work carried out with four Moscow first-graders (the work was carried out in April and May, i.e., during the completion of the first year of study).

Lacking knowledge of the optimal system of space-time orientation skills, we were naturally forced to move in an empirical way. The basis of the concept of each of the experiments was the result of a comparison of the characteristics of the activity of children with delayed development of the CAP with the characteristics of similar activities of more developed subjects. The most significant difference was found in the state (or formation) of the structures of the external plan of action.

As one of the auxiliary means for diagnosing the stages of development of the HRP, we used the time of the latent period of actions, as a result of which the subject showed two points on the nine-cell board, on which the knight can be placed from the initial point indicated by the experimenter.

In intellectually developed adults, this action (looking at the board) is carried out almost instantly. Moreover, as self-observation data show, the necessary cells (in conditions of “looking at the board”) seem to rise in the perceptual field (they take the place of the “figure”, the others are perceived as the “background”). There is no need to count fields. The process of action is not realized. The action is automated and minimized. Even in complicated conditions (without looking at the board), actions are carried out on average in 2-4 seconds.

It is clear that such a circumstance is very favorable for the solution of the problem: the elements of its solution have been turned into automated operations that do not require preliminary conscious organization. The individual actions that make up the decision, although stimulated by verbalio, are organized at the basic level of interaction between the subject and the object, and this is possible, of course, only due to the fact that appropriate structures were developed in the external action plan in the past.

For students finishing grade I and being at the fifth stage of HPD development, the time of the described reaction approaches the reaction time of intellectually developed adults (without looking at the blackboard - 5-7 seconds). In children who have reached stage IV, this time increases, but very slightly (without looking at the board - 6-10 seconds). The subjects of the third stage show already less stable time (without looking at the board - 10-36 sec.).

Since in all cases the reaction time was determined without prior training (the main experiments were preceded by only 2-3 training exercises), we can assume that all the subjects of the above categories have some external structures that provide these actions, and the higher the level of development of the VPD, the better these structures are organized.

The subjects, whose development of HRP does not exceed stage II, are able to solve the problem associated with determining the reaction time, only looking at the blackboard.

For the four subjects studied by us (who are at the first stage of the development of the VPD), this task, under equal other conditions, turned out to be extremely difficult in general. The methods of teaching the solution of this problem, which we used in relation to all other children, turned out to be unsuitable here. The first-graders who remained at stage I by the end of the school year, without special training, could not solve this problem even “looking at the blackboard”. The experimenter's usual verbal instruction, accompanied by a visual demonstration: "You can jump over two cells to the third one," did not organize the subjects' actions in the necessary way - the children could not follow this instruction. They, even looking at the board, could not mentally calculate two cells and select the third: the task was lost and the activity fell apart.

In view of the fact that the development of the internal plan is a very slow process, involving a multilateral and long-term mental upbringing of the child, it is a difficult task to obtain sufficiently tangible and stable shifts in the stages of development of the VPD in laboratory conditions. We limited ourselves to an attempt to achieve only "island" shifts, that is, shifts within the limits of any one situation, and specifically in the situation of our initial experimental problem. However, even achieving this very narrow goal required considerable work.

During four lessons (one hour a day), the subjects were set (within this specific task) and worked out actions with objects corresponding to the concepts of “right”, “left”, “right”, “left”, “closer”, “ further, even closer, even further, in a circle, in a circle from left to right, in a circle from right to left, up, down, one row, two rows ”, “in three rows> \“ along ”,“ across ”,“ sideways ”,“ from edge to edge ”,“ forward ”,“ back ”,“ back ”and many others.

These actions were practiced on a square board divided into 25 cells. A pointer and chips were used. The experimenter gave instructions, and then pointed with a pointer to the nearest cell in the direction in which, according to the instructions, the subject was supposed to move. The latter put a chip in the indicated place. The experimenter indicated the next cell, the subject filled it in with a chip, and so on. After a while, the experimenter gave the pointer to the subject, and he himself was limited to giving a verbal instruction. The subject, according to the instructions, pointed with a pointer to the nearest cell in a given direction, then put a chip in this place and continued to act in a similar way. All mistakes of the subject were immediately corrected, and in the second stage of the experiment, the experimenter ensured that the subject explained the mistake he had made (indicating which instruction his action corresponded to, in which case the mistake made would not be a mistake, etc.). Upon reaching the intended point, the tracks laid out with chips (or rows - in ordering problems) were again considered and discussed. The experimenter asked the subject to answer the questions: “What did you do?”, “How did you do it?”, “Where did you turn?”, “Why did you turn?” etc. At the end of the reverse movements (during which the placed chips were removed), the subject was necessarily asked: “Where were you?”, “How did you come back?” etc.

Starting from the third lesson, part of the experiment was carried out with two subjects at once. Moreover, the subjects in turn themselves performed the function of the experimenter, i.e., one of them (with the help of the experimenter) gave the other a task and controlled its implementation. Under these conditions, a game was staged, which made it possible to introduce very effective stimulating tasks and create the need to act in a speech plan.

For example, each of the subjects was given a board (the same one that was usually used in these experiments), drawn into 25 squares. According to the conditions of the game, it followed that the squares were different sections of the terrain along which one had to go to the point indicated by the experimenter. Only one of the subjects should get to the indicated point - he “moves through the area”, but does not “survey” it all (the cells on the board of this subject were without any marks) and can “get into the swamp”. Another subject “stands on a hillock” and sees the whole area (some of the cells on his board were marked with icons symbolizing a swamp). He must direct the movement of his comrade, say (but not show!), From which cell to which it is necessary to move. Going to the intended point is obliged to strictly follow the instructions of the comrade. If he falls into the swamp marked on the "leader's" board (arbiter - experimenter), because he will be given an incorrect instruction, the "leader" loses. If he falls into the swamp through his own fault, that is, because he incorrectly fulfills the instructions given to him, the “walking” one is considered the loser. If no one makes a mistake, both win. Thus, one of the subjects in this situation had to act according to verbal instructions, and the other, which is especially important, gave these instructions.

In subsequent laboratory exercises, a modified "hopscotch" task was used. The initial action (“jump over two squares to the third” - similar to the knight's move) was worked out by the same techniques that were used in the four previous lessons. Moreover, three subjects were able to obtain unmistakable indications of the final (from the point given by the experimenter) jump point without preliminary calculation of the fields with a pointer and somewhat stabilize their reaction time. After that, the usual coordinate grid (al, a2, a3, s, b2, b3, cl, c2, c3) was given and worked out, which most of the subjects now learned without much difficulty.

Subsequent control experiments revealed a clear shift: 3 out of 4 subjects in the situation of this task shifted from stage I to stage II of development of the ERP.

We continued these experiments, strengthening the motivation of the need to act in the mind by introducing "going" and "leading". The task was used - "pond with waterfowl" 7 . One of the subjects, the one who, according to the conditions of the game, "knew" how to lay the "board", led (using the coordinate grid); the other carried out his instructions. The conditions were about the same as in the case of "wandering through the swamp." Initially, two boards were used. But then the experimenter announced that two boards could not be used: after all, there was only one pond. The “leader” was sent to the next cabin and controlled the actions of the “walker” from there, without looking at the board.

As a result of these experiments, two of the four subjects (S. and Sh.) gave indicators corresponding to the III stage of development of the HPD. One subject was in stage II. It was not possible to achieve shifts in the fourth subject (3.).

Of course, this is not a genuine step in the development of the VPD. This is a local, "island", insufficiently fixed development. At the same time, according to the testimonies of the laboratory staff who observed the children in the classroom, the performance of those two subjects who were locally shifted by us to stage III improved significantly by the time the experiments were completed (especially in mathematics). Prior to this, both subjects were sharply lagging behind. However, the increase in academic success in the classroom turned out to be short-lived: in the new academic year, these children were again among the lagging behind.

As already mentioned, in one of the four subjects studied by us with a sharp delay in the development of VPD, no changes were achieved. What is the reason? In all likelihood, here we have a case of an organic anomaly, in which the means that usually remove functional causes turn out to be ineffective, and the possibilities for the development of the child's CHD are limited 8 .

One of the most interesting tasks on the way of studying the problem of mental development is the development of a specific, analytical-synthetic (primarily psychological-physiological) idea of ​​the internal plan of action. Unfortunately, today's concrete idea of ​​it is very poor.

Many contemporary cyberneticians clearly regard the possibility of developing such a representation today as a pipe dream. They put a "black box" in its place. However, cybernetics are driven to this by the research methods inherent in their science. However, the methods of cybernetics are not the only possible ones. They do not exclude other methods. The initial task of synthesizing the results of abstract-analytical studies of living systems is precisely to open the "black box" of cybernetics. There are no insurmountable obstacles to this. It is important to keep in mind that, in a fundamental sense, the internal plan of action is a subjective model (in the broad sense) of human phylo- and ontogenesis, and in a narrower sense, a subjective model of a specifically human, social in nature human interaction with others, with other people. , products of labor, phenomena of social life, objects and phenomena of all nature accessible to a given person as a whole.

However, the absence of insurmountable obstacles does not at all indicate the ease of the upcoming path. The distance from a principled formulation of a question to its resolution is enormous. Now we can only talk about hypothetical sketches of the analytic-synthetic idea of ​​the VPD. It is possible that many of these primary hypotheses will be quite out of date. But they must be built. The first of them can already become at least indicators of the direction of research.

For the study of the specific structure of the internal plan of action, the hypothesis put forward by IP Pavlov about the interaction of the first and second signal systems is of great importance. Based on this hypothesis, it is already possible to construct the initial

It should be noted that the issue of diagnosing conditions adjacent to a clear defectiveness still remains open. It is quite possible that, in addition to the functional causes we have noted, there are a number of similar causes that give the impression of a defective child, but can be relatively easily eliminated by training.

Even in the presence of a sufficiently pronounced organic anomaly, the question of defectiveness cannot yet be unambiguously resolved: first, it is necessary to investigate the possibilities of compensating for such an anomaly. A model (albeit a very conditional, imperfect one) of the internal plan of action.

In this sense, the revision of views on the motor area of ​​the cerebral cortex carried out by IP Pavlov and his collaborators is very interesting.

By the time of this revision, it was generally recognized only that the stimulation of certain cellular structures in the anterior part of the hemispheres by electric current leads to corresponding muscle contractions, causing certain movements strictly timed to the mentioned cellular structures. Therefore, this area of ​​the cortex was called the "psychomotor center" (later this name was discarded and the term "motor area" was strengthened).

Under the influence of the experiments of N. I. Krasnogorsky, IP Pavlov raised the question: is this center only efferent?

N. I. Krasnogorsky proved that the motor area of ​​the cortex consists of two classes of cellular systems: efferent and afferent, that the physiological stimulation of afferent systems is completely connected with various conditioned reflexes, like all other cell systems: visual, olfactory, gustatory etc.

From this, IP Pavlov came to the conclusion that the afferent systems of the cells of the motor area of ​​the cortex are in bilateral neural connections with all other systems of cells of the cortex. Consequently, on the one hand, they can be brought into an excited state by any stimulus that affects both extra- and interoreceptors; on the other hand, due to the two-way connection, the excitation of an efferent motor cell can lead to the excitation of any cortical cell that has a connection with this afferent cell. In addition, the afferent systems of the cells of the motor area of ​​the cortex more often and sooner enter into communication with all other cellular systems than they do with each other, “because,” said I. P. Pavlov, “in our activity, this afferent cell works more than others. Whoever talks, walks, constantly works with these cells, while other cells work randomly ... sometimes we are irritated by some kind of picture, sometimes by hearing, and when I live, I am constantly moving” 9 .

The ideas put forward by IP Pavlov were further confirmed and developed substantially. It is now generally recognized, for example, that the simplified scheme, according to which the activity of analyzers during perception was considered mainly from the side of centripetal conduction of excitation, should be replaced by the idea of ​​the perception of a stimulus as a continuous reflex activity of the analyzer, carried out according to the principle of feedback. The efferent fibers going from the centers to the receptors are now open in all the sense organs. Little of. It is recognized that the cortical sections of the analyzers themselves are built on the principle of afferent-efferent apparatuses, not only perceiving stimuli, but also controlling the underlying formations.

Pavlov expanded and deepened the understanding of the nerve center, showing that the latter is a territorially widespread formation that includes various elements located in various parts of the central nervous system, at its different levels.

All this is fully applicable to the motor analyzer. The afferent-efferent components of the analyzers functionally belong to him. The last consideration is also confirmed by the position on the relationship in the work of the entire system of analyzers, proven by numerous studies.

The afferent-efferent nature of the analyzers indicates that the apparatus of any sensation, any perception is not only its receptor, sensory component specific for this analyzer, but also a component that is functionally the same for all analyzers and is included in the motor area. By the way, any other idea would be obviously absurd: if the products of mental interaction provide orientation of the subject in the surrounding world, which, like any other orientation, is ultimately carried out by external movements, then the connection of any sensory element with the motor element must undoubtedly take place, otherwise this sensory element loses its function, becomes meaningless.

Thus, the apparatus of any, even the simplest, unconscious perception is based on a two-way neural connection between the nervous formations specific for a given analyzer and the corresponding formations of the motor center.

The motor area of ​​the cortex, especially its afferent part, thus acts as an apparatus that unites and at the same time generalizes the work of the entire system of analyzers as a whole. Its generalizing role is already clear from the fact that quite often the stimuli coming from the receptor components of various analyzers, having the same psychological meaning, are associated with each other due to the fact that they turn out to be conditions of the same activity, are included in the same same activity. This is the basis of the generalization mechanism. Thanks to this mechanism, externally dissimilar conditions can actualize the same modes of action that correspond to the internal essential generality of these conditions.

It follows from this that the system, which I. V. Pavlov called the only signal system of animals and the first - of man, should be understood precisely as an interacting system. One of its components is composed of receptor, sensory formations of analyzers; the other - from the formations included in the motor area. To understand each of the components of this system, it must be considered precisely as a component of the system. Therefore, it is impossible to correctly comprehend, for example, the work of the eye, considering it in isolation from the apparatus of the motor region that unites the entire system.

On the same basis, it is obvious that all inter-analyzer relations, the so-called inter-analyzer connections, also cannot be understood by ignoring the work of the moving center, since the real connection in the work of various analyzers is established precisely in it - in the moving center.

What we have described can be attributed to the apparatus of the simplest form of mental interaction. The emergence and development of the highest form of such interaction is associated with the complication of the apparatus corresponding to it, with the restructuring of the entire concrete system. At the same time, a new motor center is added to the original motor center that unites and generalizes the work of the entire system of analyzers - a new uniting and generalizing apparatus capable of analyzing and synthesizing not only the primary information that comes from the receptor components of the first signal system, which is carried out by the motor center corresponding to this system. center, but also the products of the work of this nerve center. These products now themselves act as a source of information.

The new unifying and generalizing apparatus is specifically represented by the so-called kinesthesia of the speech organs, which, according to I.P. Pavlov, is the basal component of the second signaling system. It acts as a component of a new interacting system, the second component of which is the motor center of the level of the first signal system.

The evolution of the nervous system clearly illustrates the process of formation and development of this new, more complexly organized interacting system. At the level of animals, the premises of the new unifying and generalizing apparatus were included in the general interacting system, which constitutes the apparatus of elementary mental interaction, as an equal, “equal-sized” member. The change in the conditions of mental interaction, associated with the formation of the social environment, entailed the need to transform the mode of interaction, which led to the corresponding differentiation and reintegration of the subject's internal system. The result of this differentiation and reintegration was the isolation of the kinesthesia of speech organs, which acquired a new, qualitatively unique function.

The interconnection of both interacting systems is obvious. They have one component (the motor center of the level of the first signal system) in common: if the primary information entering the analyzers through their receptor components is combined, generalized, transformed and used to orient the subject through the motor center of the level of the first signal system, then this unifying and generalizing the apparatus, in turn, is an integral part of the second signaling system. The available processed, generalized information in it, obtained as a result of recoding the entire complex of primary stimuli at the level of the primary motor center, becomes a source of information analyzed and synthesized at the level of the second signal system through the secondary unifying and generalizing apparatus - kinesthesia of the speech organs.

Let us illustrate this by the example of the relationship between the apparatus of perception, representation and concept.

As already mentioned, the apparatus of perception is based on the nerve connections of the receptor formations of the analyzers with the formations of the primary motor center (the systems created by these connections are the primary subjective models of reality). The two-way connection of these formations already contains the potential possibility of representation: the excitation of the corresponding motor elements of the system of the apparatus of perception should lead to the reproduction of its sensory trace - an image. However, within the elementary form of interaction for such reproduction of an image stimulated by the central component of the system, there is no special mechanism - the representation here is possible only as part of perception, with peripheral stimulation, and therefore, at the level of animals, potentially existing representations cannot be fully realized.

With the emergence of the second signal system, the situation changes. The formations of the motor center that are part of the perception apparatus, under certain conditions, enter into a two-way neural connection with the formations of speech kinesthesia, which in turn correspond to the word - the sign model of an object. This creates the possibility of the appearance of the simplest forms of superstructural-basal models - the reproduction of traces of former perceptions: the impact of the sign model excites the formations of speech kinesthesia, associated in the course of the subject's previous activity with the corresponding formations of the motor center; hence, according to the principle of feedback, the excitation spreads to the sensory components of the analyzers, which leads to the reproduction of a trace of a previously perceived object, i.e., to a representation.

Thus, if the system of nervous connections between the receptor formations of the analyzers and the formations of the motor center of the level of the first signal system, under the condition of peripheral stimulation, is the basis of the perception apparatus, then the same system, under the condition of central stimulation, turns out to be the basis of the representation mechanism. The entire originality of representation, in contrast to perception (in the sense in which this originality is determined by the characteristics of the apparatus) depends precisely on the originality of stimulation. The system of primary connections between the motor centers of the first and second signal systems forms the basis of the apparatus of the concept.

As has been repeatedly emphasized, the internal plan of action turns out to be inextricably linked with the external one. It arises on the basis of the outer plane, functions in close connection with it, and is realized through the outer plane. As it develops, the inner plan largely restructures the outer one, as a result of which the outer plan of human activity differs significantly from the analogous single plan of animals. In a person, it becomes to a large extent a symbolic speech plan.

The mechanism of the VPD is determined by the regularities of its connections with the mechanism of the external plan. The functioning of the VPD mechanism is directly dependent on the organization of the structure of the external plan. At the same time, while functioning, the VPD also restructures the structure of the external plan. The structures of the VPD, as it were, descend into the structures of the external plan, thereby creating more extensive opportunities for joint functioning.

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Creativity is not a rare privilege of outstanding personalities. Most people create something new in their daily life. Each person creates his own ideas and puts them into public use. In turn, he draws ideas from his social environment, renews and enriches his views, skills, knowledge and culture with new elements.

The differences between people in this respect are only quantitative, they determine a greater or lesser socially significant value what a person creates.

creativity — this is a special ability to rebuild the elements in the field of consciousness in an original way so that this restructuring provides the possibility of performing new operations in the field of phenomena. This definition assumes the existence of two "fields" − fields of consciousness, and fields of phenomena, that is, the physical environment from which a person receives information. All people create, at least in childhood. But for many, this function atrophies pretty soon; for some, it is not only preserved, but also developed, it is the goal and meaning of their whole life.

Science is a means of creating new knowledge. Therefore, when solving scientific problems, the realization of human creative possibilities requires the possession of the necessary knowledge. Scientific creativity is available only to professionals, specialists who, with the help of imagination, create images and concepts that have universal value.

All science can be conditionally divided into "primary" and "secondary". The first is the area of ​​obtaining fundamental knowledge. To the second - the sphere of development and practical (applied) use of fundamental knowledge. Both spheres closely interact with each other and cannot exist without each other.

For geophysics, the lack of understanding by the academic and ministerial authorities of the fundamental importance of this interaction turned out to be far from harmless. Geophysical science was artificially divided on a departmental basis into fundamental (academic research institutes) and applied science (branch research institutes of Mingeo and Minnefteprom). This separation has become one of the reasons for the current crisis in Russian geophysics.

When analyzing creative activity, it is important to distinguish between such concepts as "creation" and "productivity". A productive scientist, without having a high creative potential, can be an excellent systematizer, shaping and developing ideas and hypotheses proposed by other specialists into a certain system (this is the area of ​​"secondary" science). A scientist with great creative potential may be unproductive in terms of the number of scientific papers he has created. But one can point out many scientists who simultaneously combined high creative potential with high productivity (Euler, Gauss, Helmholtz, Mendeleev, N.I. Vavilov, L.D. Landau, I.E. Tamm, N.V. Timofeev-Resovsky, V .P. Efroimson, A.A. Lyubishchev).

The personal qualities of a creative person are those that allow this person to differ from other people.

These include:

Productive self-awareness;

Intellectual creative initiative;

Thirst for knowledge and transformation;

Sensitivity to the problem, novelty;

The need for non-standard problem solving;

Criticality of the mind;

Independence in finding ways and means of solving problems.

The key to the development of personal qualities of a creative person is the high motivation of creativity.

For psychology, the creative motivation of the search (ideas, images, plots, scenarios, etc.) is one of the central problems. Its development is important for the correct interpretation of the fundamental questions of the formation of people in science, technology and art and for the rational organization of their work. For the purpose of better orientation in the hierarchy of different motivational levels, psychologists divided motivation into external and internal.

By “external” motivation, they usually understand motivation that comes not from the subject-historical context of creative activity, not from the demands and interests of the logic of its development, refracted in the motives and intentions of an individual researcher-creator, but from other forms of his value orientation. These forms (thirst for fame, material advantages, high social position, etc.) can be extremely significant for him, can be represented in the very depths of his personality, and yet they are external in relation to the developing science (technology or art) in which the creator lives with all his affections, passions and hopes. Ambition (the desire to achieve leadership in public life, science, culture, careerism, etc.), for example, can serve as a powerful engine of behavior that characterizes the very core of personality. Nevertheless, it is an external motive, since the creative activity motivated by it acts for the creator in the form of a means of achieving goals that are outside, for example, for the process of development of scientific thought going its own ways. It is known that external approval, expressed in various types of recognition and honors, is an important incentive for many creative people. Non-recognition of scientific merits on the part of colleagues and scientific organizations brings great grief to the scientist. G. Selye recommends that scientists who find themselves in a similar situation treat it philosophically: “It is better for people to ask why he did not receive high ranks and positions than why he received them.” A peculiar kind of ambition is love for a woman as an external motive for creativity. Some prominent people considered this feeling a strong stimulant of creativity. For example, A.S. Pushkin wrote: "The sweet attention of women is almost the only goal of our efforts." This point of view was shared by I.I. Mechnikov. Dissatisfaction with one's position also serves as an important motive for creativity (N.G. Chernyshevsky). Both dissatisfaction with one's position and the desire for self-expression can be incentives for the creative activity of the same person. This idea was clearly expressed by A.M. Gorky: “To the question: why did I start writing? - I answer: by the strength of the pressure on me of “a tedious poor life” and because I had so many impressions that “I could not help but write. A significant place among the motives of creative activity is also occupied by the moral and psychological side of this activity: awareness of the social importance and necessity of ongoing research, a sense of duty and responsibility for the nature and use of the results of scientific work, awareness of the close connection of one’s activity with the work of a scientific team, etc. Of particular importance in the moral motivation of scientific and any other creative activity is the sense of moral duty of creative individuals to their people and humanity. Creators must constantly remember the humane orientation of their activities and refuse to work, the possible tragic consequences of which are known in advance. Many of the greatest scientists and representatives of art of the 20th century spoke about this more than once. - A. Einstein, F. Joliot-Curie, I.V. Kurchatov, D.S. Likhachev and others. One of the external motives is social facilitation - an increase in the speed or productivity of a creative personality due to the imaginary or real presence of another person or group of people (without their direct intervention in the activity), acting as a rival or observer of his actions. One of the powerful stimuli of creativity can be considered boredom. According to G. Selye, creative people are intensively looking for "spiritual outlets". And if they have already acquired a taste for serious mental exercises, everything else in comparison with this seems to them not worthy of attention. The most unattractive incentives for creativity include envy and the desire to acquire large material wealth, high positions and high-profile titles. There are two types of envy among creative workers. The first is "white envy", in which the recognition of someone else's success turns out to be an incentive for the individual to be creative and strive for competition. It is this envy of A.S. Pushkin considered "the sister of the competition." "Black envy" pushes the individual to commit hostile actions in relation to the object of envy (Salieri's syndrome) and has a destructive effect on the very personality of the envious person.

The internal motives of creativity include intellectual and aesthetic feelings that arise in the process of creative activity. Curiosity, surprise, a sense of the new, confidence in the correct direction of the search for a solution to the problem and doubt in case of failure, a sense of humor and irony - these are examples of intellectual feelings. Academician V.A. Engelhagdt believed that the innate instinctive power of creativity is the desire to reduce the degree of ignorance about the world around us. He considered this instinct to be akin to the thirst-quenching instinct. That is why it is fair to say that it was not the scientist who gave his life to serve science, but science served to satisfy his need for creativity. The same can be said about the poet, and about poetry, and in general about any creative person and his creations. The experience of many talented people shows that the need for creativity, for the creation of something new and original, is in the almost instinctive need of a person. For example, I.S. Turgenev, according to his biographer, took up the pen under the influence of an inner need that did not depend on his will. L.N. Tolstoy said that he wrote only when he was not able to resist the inner attraction to writing. Similar statements can be found in Goethe, Byron, Pushkin and many eminent scientists. Curiosity, the ability to enjoy every small step, every small discovery or invention is a necessary condition for a person who has chosen a scientific profession. The thirst for knowledge, or the instinct for knowledge, is the main difference from animals. And this instinct is highly developed in creative individuals (L. S. Sobolev). The work of a scientist is a source of great pleasure. According to Academician N.N. Semenov, a true scientist is attracted by his work in itself - regardless of remuneration. If such a scientist were not paid anything for his research, he would work on them in his spare time and would be ready to pay extra for it, because the pleasure he receives from doing science is incomparably greater than any cultural entertainment. The one to whom scientific work does not give pleasure, who does not want to give according to his abilities, that is not a scientist, this is not his vocation, no matter what degrees and titles he may be awarded. Material security comes to a real scientist by itself, as a result of his faithful attachment to science (N.N. Semenov, 1973). Curiosity, love for the truth of a scientist is largely due to the general level of development of science, his own life experience, public interest in a particular problem on which the scientist is working. The most important thing, without which even high professional qualities do not lead to success, is the ability to rejoice and be surprised at every small success, every solved riddle and treat science with the reverence that A. Einstein spoke of: “I am content with being astonished I conjecture about these mysteries and humbly try to mentally create a far from complete picture of the perfect structure of everything that exists. Since the time of Plato, the feeling of surprise (“mystery”) has been considered a powerful motive for all cognitive processes. The desire for the mysterious, the unusual, the thirst for a miracle are inherent in a person in the same way as the desire for the beautiful. A. Einstein said about this: “The most beautiful and deepest experience that falls to the lot of a person is a feeling of mystery.” A pronounced sense of mystery underlies all the deepest trends in science and art. Being creative, people often experience aesthetic satisfaction , which, as a rule, increases their creative energy, stimulates the search for truth.Creativity includes not only knowledge, but also beauty, aesthetic enjoyment of the process itself and the result of creative work.Penetration into the world of the unknown, revealing deep harmony and an amazing variety of phenomena , admiration for the opening beauty of the known laws, a feeling of the power of the human mind, consciousness of the growing power that a person acquires over nature and society thanks to science, give rise to a gamut of feelings and strongest human experiences that are deeply included in the process of creative searches of scientists: satisfaction, admiration, delight, surprise (from which, as Aristotle said, all knowledge begins). The beauty of science, as well as art, is determined by the sense of proportionality and interrelationship of the parts that form the whole, and reflects the harmony of the surrounding world. In order to make fuller use of the aesthetic motives of scientific creativity, their role in the revitalization of science, it is important to learn how to consciously influence them, to promote their unimpeded and socially beneficial development. The strengthening and development of ties between scientists and the world of art and literature can play an enormous and in many ways irreplaceable role. The famous mathematician GG.S. Alexandrov noted that music had a huge influence on his development as a scientist in his younger years. It was precisely at those moments when, returning from a concert, he experienced some especially good state, valuable thoughts came to him. Similar statements are known. Einstein, who noted the exceptional role of fiction in stimulating new scientific ideas.

Both types of motivation are so closely related to each other that their separate separate analysis is often very difficult. The unity of motivation is manifested in the very fact of the existence and development of a person's natural inclination to creativity, in the need for self-expression. External motives can serve as an engine of creative activity only through internal motivation, which is created as a result of a contradiction within the cognitive field between what is already formalized in the form of socialized knowledge and what should be formalized by a given subject of creativity in order to claim advantages expressed in terms of external motivation. Obviously, external attributes and external benefits in themselves cannot serve as a criterion for success in science, although it is often their appropriation that becomes the dominant motive for the activities of many scientists.

To the means of increasing T.m. in a creative team is not only the use of material and moral incentives and promotions in status. It is also important to create conditions for self-actualization of the scientific worker's creative abilities, to open up prospects for him. Among the factors of great motivational significance, it is necessary to single out the motivations of the scientist, which are acquiring an important role in modern conditions, associated with the implementation of the results of scientific research (especially fundamental ones) into practice, etc.

Summarizing the above, two groups can be distinguished creative motives :

· external (the desire for material benefits, to secure one's position);

· internal (pleasure from the creative process itself and aesthetic satisfaction, the desire for self-expression).

Last update: 30/11/2017

In his 1996 book Creativity: The Works and Lives of 91 Famous People, psychologist Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi suggested that "Of all human activities, creativity comes closest to providing the integrity we all hope to have in our lives."

Creativity allows us to expand our outlook, to do new and exciting things, and things that bring us one step closer to reaching our full potential.

So what makes a person creative? Are humans born this way, or is it something that can be developed in the same way as muscles?
Csikszentmihalyi suggests that some people have what he calls creative traits. While some people are born with them, incorporating some of the practices into your daily routine can help unlock your creative potential.

1 Creative People Are Energetic But Focused

Creative people have a lot of energy, both physical and mental. They can work for hours on one thing that attracts them, but at the same time remain enthusiastic. This does not mean that creative people are hyperactive or manic. They spend a lot of time in peace, calmly thinking and pondering what interests them.

2 Creative people are smart but also naive

Creative people are smart, but research has shown that having a lot is not necessarily correlated with higher levels of creative achievement. In the famous study of gifted children by Lewis Terman, it was shown that children with high IQ perform better in life in general, but those who had a very high IQ were not creative geniuses. Very few of those who participated in the study later demonstrated high levels of artistic achievement in life.

Csikszentmihalyi noted that studies have pointed to an existing IQ threshold of around 120. Above average IQ can increase creativity, but an IQ above 120 does not necessarily lead to greater creativity.

Instead, Csikszentmihalyi suggests that creativity involves a certain amount of both wisdom and childishness. Creative people are smart, but they are able to maintain their sense of curiosity, wonder, and the ability to see the world with fresh eyes.

3 Creative People Are Playful But Disciplined

Csikszentmihalyi notes that playful behavior is one of the hallmarks of creativity, but this frivolity and excitement is also reflected in the main paradoxical quality - perseverance.

When working on a project, creative people tend to show determination and perseverance. They will work for hours on something, often staying up late into the night until they are satisfied with their work.

Reflect on what you think when you meet someone who is an artist. At first glance, this is something exciting, romantic and charming. And for many, being an artist means experiencing a sense of excitement. But being a successful artist also requires a lot of work, which many people don't see. However, a creative person understands that real creativity involves a combination of pleasure and hard work.

4 Creative people are realist-dreamers

Creative people love to dream and imagine the possibilities and wonders of the world. They can plunge into dreams and fantasies, but still remain in reality. They are often called dreamers, but this does not mean that they are constantly in the clouds. Creative types from scientists, artists to musicians, can come up with creative solutions to real problems.

“Great art and great science involve a leap of the imagination into a world that is different from the present,” Csikszentmihalyi explains. “The rest of society often sees these new ideas as fantasies that have nothing to do with current reality. And they are right. But the whole point of art and science is to go beyond what we now think is real and create a new reality.”

5 Creative People Are Extroverted And Introverted

While we often fall into the trap of categorizing people as exceptional or introverted, Csikszentmihalyi suggests that creativity requires bringing both of these personality types together.

Creative people, in his opinion, are extroverted and introverted. Research has shown that people tend to be either more extroverted or introverted, and these traits are surprisingly stable.

On the other hand, creative people tend to show signs of both types at the same time. They are sociable, and at the same time quiet; social and secretive. Interaction with other people can generate ideas and inspiration, and seclusion in a quiet place allows creative people to consider these sources of inspiration.

6 Creative People Are Proud But Humble

Highly creative people tend to be proud of their accomplishments and successes, but still remember their place. They have great respect for those who work in their field and for the impact that the achievements of predecessors in this work have had. They can see that their work is often different compared to others, but that's not what they focus on. Csikszentmihalyi notes that they are often so focused on their next idea or project that they don't record their past accomplishments.

7 Creative people aren't weighed down by rigid gender roles

Csikszentmihalyi believes that creative people resist, at least to some extent, the often overly rigid gender stereotypes and roles society tries to impose. He says that creative girls and women are more dominant than other women, although creative boys and men are less and more sensitive than other men.

“Psychologically, a bisexual person actually doubles his response repertoire,” he explains. "Creative people are more likely to have not only the strengths of their own gender, but also the traits of the other sex."

8 Creative People Are Conservative But Rebellious

Creative people are, by definition, “outside the box” thinkers, and we often think of them as non-conformists and even a little rebellious. But Csikszentmihalyi believes that it is impossible to be truly creative without accepting cultural norms and traditions.

He suggests that creativity requires both a traditional approach and an open mind. To be able to appreciate and even accept the past, but at the same time is in search of a new and improved way to do what is already known. Creative people can be conservative in many ways, but they know that innovation sometimes comes with risks.

9 Creative People Are Passionate Yet Purposeful

Creative people don't just enjoy their work - they passionately and passionately love what they do. But a simple passion for something does not necessarily lead to a lot of work. Imagine that a writer is so in love with their work that they don't want to edit one sentence. Imagine that a musician does not want to change a place in his work that needs improvement.

Creative people love their work, but they are also objective and willing to criticize it. They can detach from their work and see places that need tweaking and improvement.

10 Creative people are sensitive and open to new experiences, but happy and joyful.

Csikszentmihalyi also suggests that creative people tend to be more open and sensitive. These are qualities that can bring both reward and pain. The process of creating something, coming up with new ideas and taking risks often leads to criticism and contempt. It can be painful, even devastating, to dedicate years to something only to be rejected, ignored, or ridiculed.

But being open to new creative experiences is also a source of great joy. It can bring great happiness, and many creative people believe that such feelings are worth any possible pain.

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1. Worthy goal - new (not yet achieved), significant, socially useful. Fifteen-year-old student Nurbey Gulia decided to create a super-capacity battery. He worked in this direction for more than a quarter of a century. I came to the conclusion that the desired battery is a flywheel; began to make flywheels - on their own, at home. Year after year he improved the flywheel, solved many inventive problems. He stubbornly walked towards the goal (one stroke: AS 1048196 Gulia received in 1983 - according to an application made back in 1964; 19 years of struggle for the recognition of the invention!). In the end, Gulia created super-flywheels that surpassed all other types of batteries in terms of specific stored power.

2. A set of real work plans to achieve the goal and regular monitoring of the implementation of these plans. The goal remains a vague dream unless a package of plans is developed - for 10 years, for 5 years, for a year. And if there is no control over the implementation of these plans - every day, every month.

Ideally, we need a system (described by D. Granin in the book “This Strange Life”), which was followed by the biologist A.A. Lyubishchev. This is a regular accounting of hours worked, a systematic fight against time losses.

In most cases, plans include the acquisition of knowledge necessary to achieve the goal. Often this knowledge is outside the existing specialty - you have to start from scratch. M.K. Čiurlionis, having conceived the synthesis of music and painting, went to an elementary art school (and by that time he was a highly qualified professional musician): together with teenagers, they mastered the basics of painting.

3. High efficiency in the implementation of the plans. There must be a solid daily "production" - in hours or units of production. Only auxiliary work - compiling a personal card file - takes about three hours a day. Card file V.A. Obruchev contained 30 pounds (!) Neatly written sheets of notebook format. After J. Verne, I remind you, there was a file cabinet of 20,000 notebooks.

4. Good problem solving technique. On the way to the goal, it is usually necessary to solve dozens, sometimes hundreds of inventive problems. You need to be able to solve them. Biographers of Auguste Piccard write: “The invention of the bathyscaphe is fundamentally different from many other inventions, often accidental and, in any case, intuitive. Piccard came to his discovery only thanks to a systematic, thoughtful search for a solution”... Of course, there was no TRIZ at the time of Piccard, but the creator of the stratospheric balloon and bathyscaphe was able to see technical contradictions and had a good set of techniques, even by modern standards. It is no coincidence that many problems solved by Piccard in their time have become firmly established in TRIZ problems as learning exercises.

5. The ability to defend your ideas - "the ability to take a punch." Forty years have passed from the dream of descent under water to the real descent of the first submersible. Over the years, Auguste Piccard has experienced a lot: lack of funds, mockery of journalists, resistance from specialists. When, finally, they managed to prepare the bathyscaphe for the “Great Dive” (descent to the maximum depth of the ocean), Piccard was almost 70 years old, he was forced to refuse personal participation in the dive: the bathyscaphe was led by his son Jacques. Piccard, however, did not give up. He began work on a new invention - the mesoscaphe, an apparatus for studying medium depths.

6. Efficiency. If there are five qualities listed above, there should be partial positive results no longer on the way to the goal. The absence of such results is an alarming symptom. It is necessary to check whether the goal is chosen correctly, whether there are serious miscalculations in planning.

The structure of the technology for developing the creative potential of the individual includes the following main components:

1. Preliminary diagnostics of the level of creative development;

2. Motivation (represents one of the leading areas of work);

3. Organization of creative activity. Certain conditions must be created to promote the development of the creative potential of the individual, its implementation.

4. Quality control of creative activity. Considerable attention should be paid to the control process. When using the methodology, the main attention should be directed to the process of organizing creative activity and creating certain conditions conducive to its effective implementation.

5. Identification of the compliance of the results obtained with the planned ones. Objective and reflective analyzes of the effectiveness of the work performed. Identification of difficulties and problems in re. The process of developing creative potential and the transition from reproductive to productive activity is clearly visible when considering the three types of creativity identified by G.S. Altshuller and I.M. Vertkin. Creativity of the first type (the simplest one) refers to the application of a known solution to a known problem. To creativity of the second type - a new application of a known solution or a new solution to an old problem, that is, a solution by means that are not accepted, not familiar in this area. With creativity of the third type, a fundamentally new solution is found for a fundamentally new problem. For the development of society, according to the authors, any kind of creativity is important. But its first type directly implements progress, while the second and third ones solve the problems of the distant tomorrow.