“There are many examples of remarkably gifted elders who seem to refute the law of senile decline and even the devastating traces of illness. Disraeli said that old age was unknown to many people. They retained the faculties of mind and feeling until the last day of their lives. Plato died with a writing cane in his hands at the age of eighty-one. Cato learned Greek after sixty years, according to other indications even eighty years, in order to read Greek playwrights in the original; Cicero composed his beautiful "Treatise on Old Age" at the age of sixty-three, a year before his violent death. Galileo completed his Dialogues on Movement at the age of seventy-two. He was busy with his student Torricelli continuation of this work when he died in the seventy-eighth year. The minds of these people grew, expanded and deepened over the years. "Bad is that wine," said Lord Geoffrey, "that sours with time."

Among older people who have learned new languages ​​to supplement their education or for fun, we see Dr. Johnson and James Watt. They wanted to see if their mental faculties had dulled over the years. Johnson learned Dutch at seventy-one and Watt German at seventy-five. Both of them mastered these languages ​​completely and were convinced that their abilities did not suffer in the least from time. Thomas Scott began studying Hebrew at the age of fifty-six, and Goethe was sixty-four years old when he began to study oriental literature. He died at the age of eighty-three, retaining to the end all the freshness of thought and imagination.

Lord Camden, in his advanced years, having left the post of Lord Chancellor, learned Spanish with the aim of reading novels in that language, after he had already read English, French and Italian novelists. Alexander von Humboldt wrote the last page of his "Cosmos" in the ninetieth year and died a month after its completion. The aged Leopold von Ranke continued to work eight hours a day until the ninety-first year of his life, and his last compositions were almost as good as his first.

One writer said that after forty years the brain is not able to perceive new impressions; however, older scientists who are far beyond that age may take comfort in the fact that Dr. Priestley until the age of forty not was familiar with chemistry. In a letter to Sir in the year sixty-eight, Dr. Priestley says: not made not a single experiment on air, and even then set about it without prior acquaintance with chemistry. Oxygen was discovered by him in the forty-first year, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, hydrofluoric, hydrochloric and other gases in subsequent years. Dr. Thomson said of him: "No one has taken up chemistry under more unfavorable conditions than Dr. Priestley, but only a few have taken a more prominent place in this science or introduced into it a greater number of new and important factors."

Most of the great astronomers lived to a ripe old age in full possession of their abilities. Work was for them a divine comfort in old age. They were steadfast in all trials and firm in hope. We have already mentioned Galilee, who dictated his last work, having become blind and decrepit. Hevelius enthusiastically observed celestial bodies until the age of seventy-six, and Copernicus up to seventy. newton wrote a new preface to his Principia at eighty-three. Flamsteed, Galey, Bradley, Masklain and Herschel all lived to old age. And Mrs. Somerville, author of The Mechanism of the Sky, gave the world her latest work, Molecular and Microscopic Science, at the advanced age of eighty years. When Delambre was observed that in the subsequent parts of his History of Astronomy there were too many corrections relating to the content of the previous parts, the veteran of science objected: “My answer will be very short: I began to write this essay at sixty-three; now I am seventy-two, and if I had put off printing my book until there was nothing to add or delete in it, it would never have been published.

Great statesmen and judges for the most part were distinguished by longevity. From this it is clear that a lively interest in the surrounding life contributes most of all to longevity. Gloomy and indifferent people disappear, and active people live long. Exercise of all faculties is essential to health; this is equally applicable to both old and young people. Idleness leads to weakening of the muscles, heart and brain, and to a rapid exhaustion of the mental powers. Dr. Lorda, the famous physiologist from Montpellier, argued that the withering of not the vital, but the mental principle imparts in old age the autumn coloring of the green leaves of life. “It is not true,” he says, “that the mind weakens when the vital force has passed beyond its climax. The mind gains more strength in the first half of that period which we shall call old age. Therefore, it is impossible to determine at what period of life the faculty of judgment declines.

Lords Eldon, Brougham, Lindhurst, and Palmerston were as great in old age as in youth. Eldon died at the age of eighty-six, and his amazing mental faculties betrayed him only shortly before his death. Bruham seemed to have struggled with old age and death for a long time, until finally, in his ninetieth year, he succumbed to its great, governing power. Lyndhurst, on the evening of his ninetieth year, gave a speech in the House of Lords of incomparable clarity, insight and persuasiveness, proving that the decline of his mighty mind was completely unclouded. However, he lived for another two years, retaining clarity of mind and simplicity of thinking to the end. Palmerston, at the beginning of his political career, was one of the youngest representatives of the House of Commons, and he remained to the end the same cheerful, ebullient, unfading hero of parliamentary debates and was a typical statesman. He always either triumphed or fought; work seemed to excite, strengthen and support his vital energy. He was the longest-serving First Minister in this century, with the exception of Lord Liverpool, and in addition he retained to death his amazing popularity. People believed in his stability, truthfulness, honesty and patriotism; he died as first minister in 1865, at the age of eighty.

Judicial administrators were almost as famous for their longevity as legislators. Sir Edward Cock fell off his horse in 1981, hitting sharp rubble, and the horse fell on him. However, after that he lived for more than a year. The last days of his life were devoted to preparing for publication his numerous works on jurisprudence. Sir Matthew Gel relinquished the presidency of the King's Bench at sixty-seven. Mansfield died at the age of eighty-nine, retaining to the end the clarity and strength of his mind. Lords Stowell, Gardwick, Camden and Campbell lived to a ripe old age. Some of the judges performed their duties for so long that they even aroused displeasure among the young members of the judiciary. Lefroy held the position of Lord Chief Justice in the Court of the Irish Bench until the year 1990.

Samuel Smiles, Works in 2 vols. Life and work, or Characteristics of great people, Volume 2, M., "Terra", 1997, p. 159-162.

The biological age of old age is defined by the Regional Office for Europe as 75 to 90 years. The period after reaching the age of 90 is defined as longevity (elderhood).

As a rule, in youth, a person is not able to imagine what it means to “grow old”. To some people, old age seems to be a state of "half-existence." At the same time, most of all they are afraid of losing physical mobility, vitality, memory and intelligence, flexibility, sexuality and independence. Old age today does not necessarily have to be accompanied by such phenomena. Achievements of modern medicine allow to cope with many problems of a physiological nature. Today's older people can maintain independence, strength and interest in the reality around them.

It should be understood that each person is an individual throughout life, and late adulthood is no exception. Older people are quite different from each other, so they cannot be perceived as a homogeneous group. It would be more correct to divide them into several subgroups: from active citizens who even continue to work or have just retired to weak ninety-year-olds. Each subgroup has its own opportunities and challenges. At the same time, common to many are:

• declining health;
• decrease in income;
• narrowing the circle of communication.

However, older people who do not always have such problems themselves become a problem for others.

Psychological characteristics of an senile person

Old age is the final period of life. In the life cycle system, it plays a special role and is inevitably accompanied by changes in the physical and psychological state of a person. It is quite difficult to determine the chronological boundary of the onset of old age, because the range of individual differences in the appearance of aging symptoms is simply huge.

If we consider the biological phenomenon of aging, then it consists in an increase in the vulnerability of the body and an increase in the likelihood of death. The social criteria for transition to old age are usually associated with the loss of significant roles in society, with retirement, a decrease in status and a narrowing of the outside world. The psychological criteria for this process have not yet been clearly formulated. In order to determine the qualitative differences in the psyche of older people, it is necessary to trace the features of mental evolution taking place against the background of a deterioration in psychophysiology under the conditions of an involutionary transformation of the nervous system.

The idea of ​​old age as a "sunset", hard and inert time of life has always spread in society. Social expectations and mass stereotypes are reflected in numerous proverbs and sayings of the Russian people, including the well-known ones: “it’s time for soap”, “sand is pouring”, “there was a horse, but he rode”. Indeed, no one will deny that in the vast majority of cases, old age is accompanied by losses in the financial, individual and social sphere. Often it leads to a state of dependence, which is often perceived by a person as painful and humiliating. However, one should not forget about the positive aspects of late adulthood, in particular, the generalization of knowledge, experience and personal potential, which help to solve the problem of adaptation to age-related changes and new life requirements. Moreover, only in old age can one appreciate the integrity of such a phenomenon as life, deeply understand its meaning and essence.

Features of old age

The uncertainty of social expectations existing in society today regarding the old person in the family, as well as the negative nature of the “cultural standard” of old age, do not allow us to consider the life of an average elderly person as a full-fledged situation of development.

With retirement, all people inevitably face an important, difficult and completely independent choice in resolving the question “How to be old?”. At the same time, a person’s attitude to his own aging always comes to the fore, because turning the social situation of life into a situation of development is his individually personal task.

A necessary moment of mental development in late maturity can be considered preparation for entering a well-deserved rest. At the same time, it is considered as the development of readiness for a change in social and social position and is as important as professional self-determination or career guidance in youth.

It is not necessary to consider the solution of the universal problem of “experiencing old age” narrowly, as the choice of an aging strategy, because this is not a one-time action, but a process stretched over years, which is associated with overcoming more than one personal crisis.

On the threshold of late maturity, a person must decide for himself the question: should he maintain old social ties or create new ones? It is also worth deciding whether to move on to life in the circle of family interests or purely individual? It is this choice that will be decisive for one or another strategy of adaptation: to preserve oneself as an individual or as a personality.

Accordingly, the leading activity in late adulthood can be directed by a person both at preserving his own personality (maintaining or developing social ties), and at individualization, isolation and “survival” as an individual against the background of a slow extinction of psychophysiological functions. Both variants of aging obey the laws of adaptation, but they provide an absolutely different quality of life, and sometimes even predetermine its duration.

The adaptation strategy, which is called "closed loop" is to reduce interest and claims to the outside world. It manifests itself in a decrease in emotional control and egocentrism, in a desire to hide from others, in a feeling of inferiority and irritability, which are replaced over time by indifference to society. This model is called "passive aging" because it is accompanied by an almost complete loss of social interest.

Alternative adaptation implies not only the maintenance, but also the development of diverse public relations. Often the leading activity in this case is the structuring and transfer of one's life experience. Options for continuing socially significant activities include continuing professional activities, teaching and mentoring, writing memoirs, raising grandchildren, or community service. The process of preserving oneself as a person presupposes the possibility of feasible work and a feeling of “involvement in life”. Such a person, as a rule, has diverse interests and tries to be useful to close people.

Memory and intelligence in old age (after the age of 75)

Features of senile age, as a rule, consist in a decrease in mental activity, which is expressed in a slowdown in psychomotor reactions, a narrowing of the volume of perception and difficulty in concentrating attention. In older people, the processing of perceptual information slows down, reaction time increases and the speed of cognitive processes decreases. At the same time, the mental functions themselves, despite changes in their mobility and strength, remain practically intact and qualitatively unchanged.

Selectivity can only manifest itself in the reduction of activities, while only the most important ones are selected, and all resources are usually concentrated on them. As for some lost qualities, for example, physical strength, they can be compensated by new strategies for performing actions.

Quite often, old age is associated with memory impairment and sclerosis is considered the main age-related symptom of mental aging. No one pays attention if a young man, leaving work, forgets his hat, but if such inattention is noticed in an old man, everyone immediately begins to condescendingly shrug their shoulders and blame their age.

However, the general conclusion of many studies regarding the effect of age-related changes on memory is that it does worsen, but this process is not unidirectional and not homogeneous. Different types of memory (short-term, sensory and long-term) suffer in different ways:

• operative memory is sharply weakened;
• The "basic" amount of long-term memory is preserved;
• mainly mechanical memorization suffers, while logic works best.

Another feature of memory in older people is its selectivity and pronounced professional orientation. In other words, a person better remembers what is significant and important for his past or current professional activity.

Describing cognitive changes in old age, it is customary to single out "crystallized" and "mobile" intelligence. The first is determined by the amount of knowledge acquired throughout life, as well as the ability to solve problems based on the available array of information. A characteristic feature of the second is the ability to solve new problems for which there are no familiar solutions. Numerous studies have shown that a significant decline in intellectual performance occurs only after 75 years. At the same time, crystallized intelligence is more resistant to aging processes. Compared to mobile, it decreases not so sharply and not so early. Throughout life, a person's IQ remains virtually unchanged compared to other members of the same age group. This means that people who showed an average IQ in early adulthood are more likely to have the same level in old age.

Although most mental skills are not affected by aging, characteristic psychophysiological changes do occur. Among them:

• slow reaction with faster and greater fatigue;
• narrowing the field of attention;
• deterioration in the ability to perceive;
• reducing the duration of attention;
• increased sensitivity to various extraneous interference;
• difficulty switching and distribution of attention;
• some reduction in memory capacity;
• decreased ability to concentrate and concentrate;
• weakening of the "automatic" organization of the memorized;
• difficulty of reproduction.
• All this should be taken into account when providing practical or advisory assistance to an elderly person.

Many people in old age apply the principle of "defect compensation", which is popularly called wisdom. At the heart of this cognitive property is a crystallized, culturally determined intelligence that is closely related to the personality and experience of a person. Any mention of wisdom tends to imply a person's ability to make informed judgments about life's almost obscure issues.

Motivational-need sphere in old age

The results of recent studies show that the age of aging does not in any way affect the list of human needs. In many ways, the list remains the same as the previous years of life. Only the structure of the list and the hierarchy of needs can change. For example, in the sphere of needs, the need for security, avoidance of suffering, independence and autonomy come to the fore. The needs for self-realization, for a sense of community, love and creativity are relegated to more distant plans.

In the period of old age, age-related developmental tasks can be summarized as follows:

• adaptation to bodily and psychophysical age-related changes;
• maintaining health;
• adequate perception of old age and opposition to negative stereotypes;
• role reorientation, which consists in the rejection of old role positions and the search for new ones;
• reasonable distribution of time for the purpose of more rational purposeful use of the remaining years of life;
• opposition to affective impoverishment (isolation of children, loss of loved ones);
• search for new behavioral forms;
• the desire to comprehend the lived life and inner integrity.

Health in old age

After the age of 75, the likelihood of both mental and somatic diseases is high. During this period, the musculoskeletal mass of a person loses its qualitative characteristics, often a person in old age is completely deprived of the opportunity to walk or move at all. Atrophic processes occur throughout the body. They suffer from blood vessels, the brain, internal organs, which gradually lose their functionality. During this period, the risk of stroke is increased, and its outcome directly depends on the age of the patient.

With age, there is a decrease in the volume and weight of the brain. Against the background of this phenomenon, mental illnesses can develop: atrophic-degenerative and vascular. Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, senile dementia, etc. are considered "senile" diseases.

This textbook is intended for undergraduate and graduate students of the 5th year in the training profile "Psychological support for physical education and C". The manual is compiled in accordance with the State Standard GSE.F.07. (Psychology and Pedagogy) and with the regulation on master's training (magistracy) in the system of multilevel higher education in Russia.

The manual includes five main sections: general psychology, developmental psychology, labor psychology, social psychology and sports psychology.

The purpose of the manual is: to acquaint students with the main sections of psychological science and help them in determining the choice of a scientific direction for research in term papers and theses in the discipline of psychology, as well as when working on a master's thesis.

Book:

Sections on this page:

2.6. Psychology of late adulthood (old age)

The period of late adulthood is often referred to as gerontogenesis, or the period of aging. Most researchers believe that this time in a person's life begins at the age of 60. Some authors believe that in women, the period of late adulthood begins at 55, and in men at 60 years. People who have reached this age are divided into three subgroups: elderly people, senile people and centenarians (Rean, 2003).

There are other age classifications. For example, I. Burnside et al. (1979) divided this age into four sub-periods: 60–69 years old - presenile; 70–79 - senile; 80–89 - late senile; 90 years and older - decrepitude. In this handbook, the time of onset of late adulthood (old age) is 60 years.

The main feature of late adulthood is aging, a genetically programmed process accompanied by certain physiological and psychological changes (Malkina-Pykh, 2004).

Age development tasks

In society, there is a stereotyped perception of old age, on the one hand, as a period of rest, on the other - fading and, perhaps, even half-existence. Therefore, the very phrase “development in old age” may seem strange. However, late adulthood plays a specific role in the system of a person's life cycle, since only during this period can one understand and explain the life of a given person as a whole, its meaning and value for previous and subsequent generations (Yermolaeva, 2002).

From the point of view of E. Erickson's theory, the final stage of the life cycle is the psychosocial conflict "integrity versus despair" (Erickson, 1996). The main need in this period is to be convinced of the value of the life lived. A person must look back and reconsider his achievements and failures. Accordingly, the focus of attention should shift from the future to the past. This becomes possible only when the previous stages have been successfully completed. Late adulthood is characterized by the achievement of a new, complete form of ego identity and wholeness. A person's achievement of wholeness is based on summing up the results of his past life and realizing it as a single whole, in which nothing can be changed. If a person cannot bring his past actions together, he ends his life in fear of death and in despair at the impossibility of starting life anew.

Erickson's theory was later expanded by R. Peck. In his opinion, in order to achieve "successful old age" a person must solve three main tasks, covering three dimensions of his personality.

First, it is differentiation, that is, transcendence versus preoccupation with roles. In the course of professional activity, a person is absorbed in the role dictated by the profession. When he retires, he must define for himself a set of meaningful activities so that his time is completely filled. If a person defines himself only within the framework of his work or family, then the absence of work and the departure of adult children from home will cause such a surge of negative emotions that the individual may not be able to cope.

The second is body transcendence versus body absorption, a dimension that has to do with the ability of the individual to avoid focusing too much on the increasing ailments, pains, and physical ailments that come with aging. According to Peck, older people should learn to cope with deterioration in well-being, distract from painful sensations and enjoy life primarily through human relationships. This will allow them to "step" beyond the preoccupation with their body.

Thirdly, it is the transcendence of the ego versus absorption. The ego is a dimension of particular importance in old age. Older people should understand that although death is inevitable and perhaps not too far away, it will be easier for them if they realize that they have contributed to the future through raising children, through their deeds and ideas. People should not indulge in thoughts of death (or, as R. Peck puts it, should not plunge into the "night of the Ego"). According to Erickson's theory, people who face old age without fear or despair transcend the near prospect of their own death by participating in the younger generation, a legacy that will outlive them.

Like Erickson's stages, none of Peck's measurements are limited to middle age or old age. Decisions made early in life act as the building blocks of all adult decisions, and middle-aged people are already beginning to solve the problems of coming old age (Craig, 2003).

The question of leading activity in the period of late adulthood remains open for discussion and study. A. Leaders (1998) believes that the leading activity of a person in the period of late adulthood is a special "internal work" aimed at accepting one's life path. An elderly person comprehends not only the current, but the entire life lived. A fruitful, healthy old age is associated with the adoption of one's life path. For an elderly person, the possibilities of serious changes in his life path are almost exhausted, but he can work endlessly with his life path internally, in an ideal plan.

N.S. Pryazhnikov (1999) considered the problem of the social situation of development and leading activity in late adulthood, focusing not so much on chronological development as on the socio-psychological specifics of each of the identified periods.

Elderly, pre-retirement age(from about age 55 until retirement) is primarily an expectation, or, at best, preparation for retirement.

Social development situation:

Waiting for a pension. For some, retirement is perceived as an opportunity to start resting as soon as possible, for someone - as the cessation of an active working life and the uncertainty of what to do with their experience and still considerable remaining energy.

The desire to educate, prepare a worthy replacement at work.

The production nature of the main contacts. At the same time, in some cases, colleagues may expect this person to leave work as soon as possible, and the person himself feels this; in others, they do not want to let the person go, and he himself secretly hopes that his pension will come later than for many of his peers.

Relations with relatives. On the one hand, a person can still provide for his family to a large extent, including grandchildren (and in this sense he is “useful” and “interesting”); on the other hand, he foresees his imminent "uselessness", when he will stop earning a lot and will receive his "miserable pension".

Leading activity:

The desire to have time to do what has not yet been done (especially professionally), to leave a good memory of yourself at work.

The desire to pass on my experience to students and followers.

When grandchildren appear, people of pre-retirement age seem to be “torn” between work, where they want to realize themselves as much as possible, and raising their grandchildren, who are no less important to them as a continuation of their family.

By the end of the pre-retirement period (especially if there is a high probability of leaving work), there is a desire to choose an occupation in retirement, to somehow plan your future life.

Retirement period(the first years after retirement) is, first of all, mastering a new social role, a new status.

Social development situation:

Old contacts with colleagues are still preserved at first, but in the future they become less and less pronounced.

Basically, contacts are maintained with close people and relatives. Accordingly, they require special tact and attention to the still “inexperienced” pensioners. Gradually, retired friends or even other, younger people appear, depending on what the pensioner will do and with whom he will have to communicate. For example, social pensioners immediately find new areas of activity for themselves and quickly acquire new “business” contacts.

Usually, relatives and friends tend to ensure that the pensioner, “who already has a lot of time”, is more involved in raising grandchildren, so communication with children and grandchildren is also the most important characteristic of the social situation of pensioners.

Leading activity:

First of all, it is a search for oneself in a new capacity, a test of one's strength in a variety of activities (in raising grandchildren, in the household, in hobbies, in new relationships, in social activities, etc.). A pensioner has a lot of time, and he can afford to spend it searching for self-determination through trial and error (although this happens against the background of the feeling that “life is getting smaller and smaller every day”).

For many pensioners, the first time in retirement is the continuation of work in their main profession (especially when such an employee receives a pension and a basic salary together); in this case, the working pensioner has a significantly increased sense of self-worth.

Increasing desire to teach or even shame younger people.

The period of old age(a few years after retirement and until the moment of a serious deterioration in health), when a person has already mastered a new social status for himself.

social situation:

Communication mainly with the same old people.

Communication with family members who either exploit the old man's free time, or simply "patronize" him.

Some retirees find new contacts for themselves in social activities (or even in continuing professional activities).

For some pensioners, the meaning of relationships with other people is changing. Some authors note that many connections that were previously close to the old man gradually lose their former intimacy and become more generalized.

Leading activity:

Leisure hobby. Quite often, pensioners change one hobby after another, which somewhat refutes the idea of ​​their "rigidity": they still continue to search for themselves, to search for meanings in different types of activities. The main problem of such a search is the “disproportion” of all these hobbies in comparison with the previous (“real”) work.

The desire in every way to confirm one's self-esteem according to the principle: "As long as I do at least something useful for others, I exist and demand respect for myself."

For some older people during this period (even when their health is still quite good and there are no reasons to “say goodbye to life”), the leading activity may be preparation for death, which is expressed in initiation to religion, in frequent walking to the cemetery, in conversations with loved ones about will.

Longevity in the face of a sharp deterioration in health significantly different from old age without much health problems. Therefore, it makes sense to highlight the features of just such a variant of old age.

social situation:

Basically - communication with relatives and friends, as well as with doctors and roommates (on inpatient treatment or in a nursing home).

Leading activity:

Treatment, the desire to somehow fight diseases.

The desire to comprehend, often - to embellish your life. A person, as it were, clings to all the best that was (and that was not) in his life. In this state, a person wants to leave behind something good, meaningful, worthy and thereby prove to himself and others: “I did not live in vain” or repent of something unworthy.

Longevity in relatively good health(over 75-80 years old).

social situation:

Communication with close and dear people who even begin to be proud that a real long-liver lives in their family. To some extent, this pride is selfish: relatives believe that their family has a good heredity and that they will also live long. In this sense, the long-liver is a symbol of the future long life for other family members.

A healthy centenarian may have new friends and acquaintances. Since a long-liver is a rare phenomenon, a variety of people, including representatives of the media, seek to communicate with such an old man, so the circle of acquaintances of a long-liver may even expand somewhat.

Leading activity:

Quite an active life (sometimes even with the excesses characteristic of a healthy mature person). Forms of manifestation of activity depend on the individual characteristics of a given person. Probably, not only doctor's prescriptions are important for maintaining health, but also the very feeling of health (or "sense of life").

On the one hand, in late adulthood it is very important to realize the need to work to complete what can be completed, and on the other hand, to feel the limits of the possible and accept the imperfection of both oneself and the world around. From this provision follows the most important task of old age - the fulfillment of those life tasks (family or social functions) that were not performed or were not performed well enough during the previous life (Slobodchikov, 2000).

The most difficult task of this period can be called the implementation of inner work in the life-death system. Aging acts as a linking mechanism of life and death (Novik, 1992). An elderly person feels the presence of imminent death, and the experience of this presence is deeply personal, contributing to the feeling of loneliness of the elderly. Indeed, often loneliness in old age is caused not by the objective absence of loved ones, but by the inability to share with them the presence in one’s mind of an imminent departure from life. For many, the fear of death is exacerbated, which is manifested either in the categorical avoidance of the topic of death by older people, or in the constant appeal to it in the form “I would rather die, I’m already tired of living”, etc. It can be assumed that it is old age that should violate the person’s existing the stereotype of death denial, that is, the desire to live as if you will live forever. As noted by J. Rainwater (1992), when a person accepts the inevitability of his own death, then the fear of death disappears by itself. True, she added that it is necessary for a person of any age to realize this fact, since our attitude towards death determines our attitude towards life.

Thus, the period of late adulthood is the result of the entire life path of a person. During this period, the effect of ontogenetic laws of heterochrony, unevenness, stadiality intensifies, which leads to an increase in contradictions in the development of various substructures in the human psyche. Along with involutionary processes, changes and new formations of a progressive nature occur at all levels of a person's organization, which make it possible to prevent or overcome the destructive manifestations of old and senile age. Many factors contribute to active aging. Of the psychological leading, we can consider the development of an elderly person as a socially active person, as a subject of creative activity and a bright personality (Gamezo et al., 1999).

Features of the emotional sphere

The period of late adulthood is characterized by specific changes in the emotional sphere of a person: an uncontrolled increase in affective reactions, a tendency to unreasonable sadness, tearfulness.

Most older people tend to be eccentric, less sensitive, self-absorbed, and less able to cope with difficult situations. Older men become more passive and allow themselves to display more feminine traits, while older women become more aggressive, practical and domineering.

The weakening of the emotional sphere deprives new impressions of brilliance and brightness, hence the attachment of older people to the past, the power of memories. It should be noted that older people experience less anxiety at the thought of death than relatively young people: they think about death often, but with amazing calmness, fearing only that the process of dying will be long and painful.

One of the most common experiences is senile anxiety. Chronic anxiety plays the role of a kind of readiness for frustration, therefore it helps to avoid strong emotional outbursts in really critical situations (Yermolaeva, 2002).

In addition, the experience of concern sharpens the subjective picture of the present, helps to avoid boredom, and is one of the ways to structure time. In this regard, it is easy to explain such a phenomenon as too strong, it would seem, inadequate experiences of older people: rather weak stimuli cause acute emotional reactions in them. This is necessary to overcome social or emotional hunger in a situation of sensory isolation.

Emotional detachment, outwardly manifested as indifference, can also be considered as a protective mechanism. Relatives say about such a person: he hears and sees only what he wants. But emotional detachment helps to avoid the deep suffering that old age is especially full of, including such as the death of loved ones.

In addition to the active use of certain defense mechanisms, age-related situational depression is typical for late adulthood - a uniform and persistent decrease in mood. Subjectively, it is experienced as a feeling of emptiness, uselessness, lack of interest in everything that happens, an acutely negative perception of one's own future. A person is increasingly in a depressed, sad mood without objective grounds for this. Resentment and anxious suspiciousness increase, and negative emotional reactions to certain troubles become quite protracted (Khukhlaeva, 2002).

At the same time, this condition seems normal to the most elderly person, so any help is rejected. The content of age-situational depression is the rejection of one's own aging, and the main traumatic factor is one's own age.

N.F. Shakhmatov (1996) identifies three main options for the manifestation of age-related depression:

Hypochondriacal fixation on painful sensations. A person constantly listens to painful symptoms, vividly discusses them with others. Perhaps an overvalued attitude to medicines and methods of treatment. At the same time, the main content of mental life can be assigned to the chosen method of recovery. To some extent, this is also a protective mechanism, since it allows a person, considering the disease, not to see his own old age. Indeed, when describing their condition, people strive in every possible way to emphasize the dissimilarity of their symptoms with senile manifestations: after all, the disease can have a reverse course, that is, it implies recovery. Accordingly, perceiving the signs of old age as symptoms of a disease, a person denies his own aging.

Ideas about oppression. The attitude of others seems unfair. It seems to a person that everyone around him is oppressed - morally and physically. The main feeling is resentment, and the thought is “everyone wants to get rid of me.” As a rule, it is impossible to prove the absence of harassment in a rational way due to reduced criticality.

The trend towards inventions, indicating its special significance. Here, the elderly person seeks to tell real episodes from his life with an exaggeration of his participation in them, or completely invents them.

If senile anxiety, emotional withdrawal and, to some extent, depression perform a kind of protective function, then the feeling of uselessness contributes to both psychological and biological decay. It is often accompanied by a feeling of insecurity. Unfortunately, these feelings are typical for older people, but often they do not correspond to the real life situation of a person. He can have quite caring relatives, live with them, bring them this or that real benefit, but still feel a sharp sense of uselessness.

There are two possible sources of this feeling. The first is when a person ceases to be needed by himself and projects this feeling onto others. The second is human weakness. He needs constant confirmation of his need in order to feel his existence: "I am needed - therefore I exist." With retirement, the number of ways to be needed decreases due to a decrease in material wealth, physical strength, and this can be perceived as a threat to the integrity of the person's "I". As you can see, both sources are interconnected.

According to some data (Petrovskaya, 1996), the level of fears in late adulthood increases because, on the one hand, they accumulate throughout life, on the other hand, the approach of the end poses a threat. It is clear that the main one is the fear of death, which can take various forms: fear of loneliness, illness, the future, and even unrealistic fears (for example, of persecutors).

The fear of death can be projected onto the environment, which in this case is seen in a negative context. At the same time, verbal indications of the desire for death such as “healed already” indicate not the absence of fear, but just the opposite.

The problem of the fear of death is difficult enough to discuss. Individual differences in attitudes towards death in older people are due to their life values, adaptation to life, and health status. Death is feared by people who have not accepted old age as an inevitable stage of life, not adapted to it. People tormented by serious illnesses are afraid of dying as a period of increased suffering and helplessness. Some older people, who are physically healthy, have plans for the future, and feel in control of their own lives, still worry about death. However, most of the evidence suggests that people who are psychologically well adapted and have achieved personality integrity (as understood by E. Erickson) report a low level of fear of death (Craig, 2000).

In late adulthood, as in other ages, people differ in the degree of expression of fears, their origins and ways to overcome them.

Some researchers believe that many of the behaviors traditionally attributed to older people - harsh reactions, a tendency to think, isolation, criticism of the environment - can be interpreted as ways to deal with fears and anxiety.

The next important problem, which is closely related to the emotional state of a person, is the problem of psychosomatic diseases. Modern psychosomatics is based on experimental evidence that emotions can decisively influence the functions of organs. Tensions that arise between a person and the outside world are pathogenic factors and cause certain diseases (Khukhlaeva, 2002).

In addition to psychosomatic manifestations, a reaction to the rejection of one's own old age can be suicide. According to the data given by E. Grollman, despite the fact that people over 65 make up only 11% of the total population, this age group accounts for 25% of all suicides. In his opinion, the true frequency of suicides at this age is much higher. “Older people mask their suicidal intentions by literally starving themselves, overdosing, mixing up or not taking the medicine on time” (Badchen, Kagan, 1997). The situation is complicated by the fact that many of the features that indicate suicidality are similar to signs of depression, and by the fact that late adulthood is characterized by a decrease in the general background of mood and the predominance of negative emotional states: anxiety, sadness, fear, anger, resentment. The possibility of obtaining pleasure from what used to bring happiness is lost. Hopelessness, guilt, self-judgment and irritability seize the person. People feel undesirable, useless and come to the conclusion that life has no meaning. Therefore, the problem of recognizing the state of depression in the elderly and providing them with timely support is especially important.

Old age is the age of loss. Compared with young people, late adulthood is more likely to experience severe losses and losses, and there are fewer opportunities to compensate for them. The first loss may be the death of a spouse, close family member or friend. For older people, it becomes obvious that life is not unlimited, limited, there is little time left. Older people have to put up with the fact that at their age they constantly have to deal with the death of people close to them. Deep, comprehensive research into the experience of grief in older people has concluded that, despite an increase in the number of losses and sources of grief, in late adulthood, people do not experience grief as hard as young or middle-aged people (Kalisz, 1997).

In this regard, the problem arises whether in this case the cleansing "work of grief" is carried out in full. The Kübler-Ross model (cited in Kociunas, 1999) is often used to describe the process of mourning - the alternation of the stages of denial, anger, compromise, depression, adaptation. It is believed that the normal reaction of grief lasts up to a year. Immediately after the death of a loved one, acute mental pain occurs. In the process of mourning comes bitterness. After the first reaction to the death of a loved one - shock, denial, anger - there is an awareness of the loss and humility with it. A typical manifestation of grief is longing for the deceased.

Of course, grief patterns vary significantly depending on the person's personality, age, gender, cultural background, and relationship with the deceased. Experiences of grief from the loss of a spouse (wife) by an old person do not always manifest themselves in an external acute reaction, but plunge into the deeper layers of the soul, where the “work of grief” is enriched by the acquisition of new meanings of life - preserving a loved one in memory for oneself, preserving the memory of him for others and the unconscious ensuring the immortality of the deceased through its continuation in other people (Yermolaeva, 2002).

It is impossible to ignore the experience of grief by an elderly person who has lost his child. Here the emotional impact is usually very high. The loss of dreams, hopes, some expectations for an elderly person is incomparable with the loss of children. This, as it were, means for him the deprivation of the right to live on. Although there is no logical explanation for such an opinion, it is always present in the mind. Old people who have lost children, under the weight of hopelessness and loss, feel deceived by time.

In some cases, older people who live apart from their children do not feel this loss so acutely, especially if they manage to turn their attention to other children or grandchildren.

Loneliness at any age can cause a variety of emotional, behavioral and social problems. It is widely believed that loneliness is more pronounced in old age. However, many studies reject this general notion and find that experiences of loneliness are more acute in adolescence. Having studied a large number of studies on the problem of loneliness, D. Perlman and L. Peplo (Peplo et al., 1989) noted that three ideas were present in all of them.

First: by definition, loneliness is the result of a lack of human relationships. Second A: Loneliness is an internal and subjective psychological experience and cannot be identified with actual isolation. Third: most theories (with the exception of existential) define loneliness as an unpleasant experience, a state of distress, from which (at least at first) they seek to get rid of.

Psychodynamic and phenomenological approaches consider that experiences of loneliness are pathological. On the contrary, interactive and cognitive approaches consider this state to be normal.

Thus, loneliness is an ambiguous concept for late adulthood. It has nothing to do with life in seclusion. According to the results of American researchers, the elderly, who are able to do without outside help in everyday life, are better than the young, adapted to life alone. The experience of loneliness is associated with a cognitive assessment of the quality and satisfaction of people with their social connections (Malkina-Pykh, 2004).

Elderly people who have found for themselves an adequate type of activity that interests them and is rated by them as socially significant experience loneliness less often, because through their work they communicate with a family, a group of people, and even with all of humanity (when it comes to continuing work or writing memoirs). ).

The heterogeneity and complexity of the feeling of loneliness in late adulthood find expression in its dual nature.

On the one hand, this is a painful feeling of a growing gap with others, fear of the consequences of a lonely lifestyle, on the other hand, it is a clear tendency to isolate oneself from others, to protect one's peace and stability from the intrusion of outsiders. This trend can be seen as the only possible way to secure independence and peace of mind. Often these opposing tendencies - the painful experience of loneliness and the desire for isolation - combine to determine the complex and conflicting feelings of an older person. In the gerontological literature, many authors refer to one well-known example, when an old woman, having enclosed her dwelling with a high fence and got a vicious dog, complained bitterly about her loneliness (Shakhmatov, 1996).

Features of the structure of self-consciousness

In late adulthood, there may be a violation of the identification of a person with his name due to partial replacement of it with "grandmother" or "grandfather". Since even in maturity the name becomes the bearer of status and social role, through the use of the generalized name “grandmother” (“grandfather”), a person accepts the social status of an old person in its stereotypical expression. On the one hand, this means a decrease in social status, on the other hand, it is a kind of marker of age (Khukhlaeva, 2002). Therefore, social groups in which he is called by his first name or first name and patronymic are of particular importance for an elderly person. Then he himself gets the experience of perceiving himself as an intrinsically valuable person.

The claim to recognition retains its significance in late adulthood. However, at this time, the number of external sources of recognition decreases. Professional success is often made impossible, appearance and sex appeal change. The social group in which the claim to recognition can be realized is narrowed.

As a defense against persistent deprivation of the claim to recognition, its retrospective character may appear, based only on the professional or sexual successes of youth, former beauty, etc. Sometimes this manifests itself in the so-called identification with one's generation, i.e. characteristics. As a rule, the presence of only a retrospective claim to recognition indicates that the elderly person does not accept his present. As we have already said, such rejection performs some protective functions.

The question of the need for self-recognition of older people is interrelated with the problem of choosing an aging strategy. In older people with a constructive aging strategy, the need for self-recognition is of particular importance and has a positive character, since it serves as an incentive for development. At the same time, external assessment may become less significant than one's own assessment of oneself, the struggle for public recognition ceases, which often provides an opportunity for significant creative growth.

Attitude to the past and future in old age largely depends on the attitude to the present. The life balance of a person - the assessment of the life he has lived - does not depend more on real successes and failures in the past, but on the perception of the current life situation (Suslovskaya, 1996). If the actual life situation is perceived positively, then the assessment of the life lived will also be positive. Accordingly, the future is seen as bright and joyful only for those older people who are satisfied with the present life.

Some researchers believe that people who have developed good adaptive abilities during their past life are more inclined to use active methods of adaptation. There is a relationship between personal characteristics and the success of adaptation to age-related changes. If we consider good health, long life expectancy and satisfaction with this life as the criterion of success, then the "" of a successfully adapted elderly person will be as follows (Khukhlaeva, 2002):

Congenital high intelligence, good memory.

Love for others and the desire to help, care, benefit.

Love for life in all its manifestations. The ability to see beauty and feel the joy of life.

Optimism and a good sense of humor.

Continued ability to create.

The ability to bring something new into your environment.

Freedom from anxiety, worry.

Combining all the phenomena to which it is necessary to adapt in late adulthood, they can be called in one word - loss (Kisker et al., 1999). In women, it begins with menopausal experiences as a kind of loss of sexual identity. This is followed by a loss of sexual attraction. In men, especially acute feelings are manifested in connection with the loss of a job. Along with this, there come losses associated with the deterioration of the physical condition, with the death of loved ones, etc. Thus, the essence of adaptation to late adulthood should be to accept losses, to agree to losses if they cannot be avoided.

Currently, there is a widespread opinion about the desexualization of older people, that in many ways they cease to follow gender roles. However, sexuality itself in late adulthood retains its significance. Sex life in late adulthood is not something exceptional. Moreover, there is a correlation between satisfaction with sexual life and satisfaction with life as such, which is also inherent in the period of youth. Satisfaction with sexual life entails not only a positive attitude, it is directly related to physical health. And inexhaustible sexuality, on the contrary, is manifested in a greater frequency of diseases.

The self-concept of the period of late adulthood and old age is a complex formation in which information is “recorded” about the multitude of self-images that arise in a person in the most diverse versions of his self-perception and self-representation. This is the selective memory of the individual, reflecting events in such a way as not to violate the basic personal positions (Rean, 2003).

Social stereotypes affect the subjective relationship of a person not only to society, but also to himself. They especially affect the self-perception of older people, since the evaluation criterion in their self-concept was formed in other social conditions. However, most older people, due to the age characteristics of their psyche, find it difficult to accept a new form of a new social position that is largely unacceptable to them, which is reflected in the system of their relationships with others and leads to a significant change in the self-concept.

Many characteristic features of late adulthood are due to the widespread negative stereotypes in society of perceiving old people as useless, intellectually degrading, helpless people. The internalization of these stereotypes lowers self-esteem, because older people are afraid to refute existing patterns by their behavior (Rean, 2003).

Of course, among the elderly there are many people who have retained their activity (including social activity) due to their vitality and fortitude. Apparently, this is due to the general positive sign of their self-concept, with its focus on creative self-affirmation.

Physiological processes occurring in late adulthood can only partially affect the self-concept of a person, especially when, for some personal reasons, a person’s attention is fixed on such manifestations of his body. To some extent, this may be due to the personal formation, which in modern medical and psychological vocabulary is referred to as the “internal picture of the disease”, and in fact is the psychosomatic aspect of the self-concept.

Self-concept in late adulthood is driven by a person's desire to integrate his past, present and future, to understand the connections between the events of his own life. The conditions that contribute to the effective integration of a person's life include: the successful resolution of normative crises and conflicts by an individual, the development of adaptive personal properties, the ability to draw useful lessons from past failures, the ability to accumulate the energy potential of all stages passed.

In late adulthood, a person focuses not only on his inherent attitudes and subjective attitudes to the world, but also on the manifestation of previously hidden personal properties and positions. Unconditional acceptance of oneself and congruence to oneself allow one to exclude from the personal set a lot of already exhausted and utilized individual defenses (which is the main principle of ensuring spiritual well-being at any age).

An important condition for a fruitful life in late adulthood is a positive anticipation of the future (a positive self-image of old age can be modeled in youth). A prerequisite for this is the successful resolution of normative crises, life tasks and conflicts in previous life stages.

The continuation of progressive development in late adulthood is also facilitated by the productive attitude spontaneously manifested in older people to evaluate their lives (as well as everything that happens in the world) according to the criterion of success, achievements, happy moments. From this optimistic perspective, defeats and mistakes are interpreted as painful but necessary life lessons that eventually lead to victories. At the same time, self-esteem remains positive.

Features of communication

Communication in late adulthood, compared with other age periods, is of particular importance. Many researchers believe that the presence of a pronounced social interest in a person and his involvement in broad social ties correlate not only with a slower rate of aging, but also with physical health (Khukhlaeva, 2002).

There is a point of view that by old age a person partially loses the ability to make deep contacts and the circle of his communication necessarily narrows. The communication of older people, on the one hand, is a continuation of the main tendencies of communication of youth, on the other hand, it is determined by the success of adaptation to old age, i.e., satisfaction with the present. If in the course of life a person has developed mature contacts with others, then in old age he will retain the ability to satisfy the need for emotional contacts. Those who failed to achieve intimacy in communication in their youth, or who entered into frequent conflicts with others, are more likely to suffer from a lack of communication in late adulthood.

In communication, a pronounced need to realize one's significance manifests itself. She can be satisfied with the feeling that you are needed by the family, children, grandchildren, the opportunity to serve other people with her professional and life experience, as well as her remaining abilities. This need in its noblest form takes on the character of a creative need, a need for self-realization (Yermolaeva, 2002).

Marital relationships in late adulthood are complex and ambiguous. During this period, marriage begins, to a greater extent than before, to determine the circle of communication, the direction of activity, to serve as a source of comfort, support and emotional closeness. Spouses often help each other. At the same time, both partners benefit, because both acquire love, support, status, receive money and information. On the other hand, increased ambition, “sharpening” of personality traits, deterioration of character in general, and a decrease in social control complicate communication between elderly spouses. Their lonely life together, impoverished by impressions, devoid of joint goals and concerns, is often overshadowed by mutual insults, claims against each other, disappointment in the mutual lack of attention and care.

In late adulthood, many people report an increased emotional connection with siblings. In difficult times, they often settle together, console and support each other, look after each other during illness. In communication, they revive common memories of childhood and youth - this gives them joy, consoles them during periods of loss. However, these relationships are often emotionally unstable, and they are characterized by the same problems as the communication of older spouses (Craig, 2003).

Due to the heightened sensitivity to manifestations of attention and care in late adulthood, the role of friendship may increase.

The feeling of abandonment, deepened by the loss of many social roles, can be compensated for by friendly participation with attention. The increased talkativeness of the elderly can be explained by the lack of information load and social communication. The latter, however, is largely satisfied in friendship. Friendly communication is supported by a common interest, social status, a common focus on the past and the similarity of the level of communication, which is not always possible to achieve in contacts with family members. Friendship in old age can be a full-fledged emotional relationship that arose either in a past joint activity or during a long cohabitation and a strengthened common style of coping with the hardships of old age, common destinies, and a similar cultural level (Granovskaya, 1997).

Many psychological features of late adulthood can be explained by the fact that the loss of activity in older people, who in their youth closely followed their parental scenarios, is a consequence of the fact that their parents did not provide a scenario for old age. A person is now free to choose scenarios for himself, but he does not know how to do this, while maintaining the attitude that it is dangerous to choose for himself; therefore, all forms of activity, including those leading to communication, cease (Bern, 1999).

Due to objective factors in the period of late adulthood, the importance of intra-family contacts increases. There is a loosening of the connection between a person and society due to the cessation of work, the death of friends and relatives, and the restriction of physical activity. If the previous milestones in life corresponded to the gradual expansion of the circle of contacts (kindergarten, school, university, work), now, on the contrary, its narrowing is observed.

It is intra-family communication that becomes an important source of meeting the needs for security, love and acceptance. Through the family, many satisfy the claim to recognition. The family provides a person with the opportunity to manifest a variety of feelings, helps to avoid emotional monotony, that is, a situation of sensory deprivation.

Intergenerational conflicts are becoming common. In those families in which parents have always been only in the parental position, never allowed themselves to get out of it, a change of roles can occur: children will take on a parental guardian-prohibitive role. "Many older people are asking for help to avoid the dictates of grown children" (Satir, 1992). And some adult children are surprised to learn that their parents do not want to follow their advice at all.

Thus, conflict in communication in late adulthood increases in those people who were not capable of mature intimacy in previous years. They also have a lack of communication, loneliness. The rest show a tendency to deepen ties with others, there is a feeling of closeness even to strangers, a desire to provide more help and support.

Psychosocial development

The development of the "I" of an elderly person as a family member is associated with the functions of grandparents. The main functions of grandparents can be divided into family - promoting the stability of the family family, and social - the accumulation and transmission to the next generation of fortitude, life values ​​(ethical, social). Thus, the ancestral generation has a special status, determined by the laws of the social development of society. However, as mentioned earlier, it receives such a status only in fully functioning families. Any family disharmony primarily affects children and the elderly; it deprives the latter of the opportunity to perform normative family and social functions (Khukhlaeva, 2002).

Psychosocial development in late adulthood is greatly influenced by the presence in society of such a social phenomenon as a pension, i.e., the possibility of ending work upon reaching a certain age. For all people, retirement is a crisis period of development. With retirement, a person is faced with the need to solve several important tasks. The first is the problem of structuring time. It has already been mentioned before. The second is the search and testing of new life roles. Those people who previously identified themselves with social roles may experience a loss of "I" or role confusion. The third is the need to find the sphere of application of one's own activity. We have already discussed the role of activity in late adulthood. A prerequisite for the successful solution of these problems is that a person has consent to his own old age and the use of predominantly active methods of adaptation.

Usually a person tries to prepare for retirement. Some authors believe (quoted from Malkina-Pykh, 2004) that this process can be conditionally divided into three parts, each of which implements certain motives of human behavior:

Dropping turnovers. This stage is characterized by the desire of a person to be free from a number of work responsibilities and the desire to narrow the scope of responsibility in order to avoid a sudden sharp decline in activity at retirement.

Forward planning. A person tries to imagine his life in retirement, to outline some plan of those actions or activities that he will be engaged in during this period of time.

Life in anticipation of retirement. People are overwhelmed with worries about finishing work and arranging a pension. They practically already live with those goals and needs that will prompt them to act in the rest of their lives.

With retirement, the position and role of people change. They acquire a new social status. Now, from a group that is conditionally called the generation of leaders, they are moving into a group of people “on a well-deserved rest”, which implies a decrease in social activity. For many, this change in social role is one of the most significant developments in late adulthood.

Each person who has retired experiences this event differently. Some perceive their retirement as a signal of the end of their usefulness, the irretrievable loss of the main meaning-forming motive of their whole life. Therefore, they try their best to stay longer at their workplace and work as long as they have enough strength. For such people, work is the pursuit of certain goals: from the simple maintenance of material well-being to the preservation and enhancement of career achievements, as well as the possibility of long-term planning, which largely determines their desires and needs (Rean, 2003). Lack of work leads such a person to awareness, weakening his role in society, and sometimes to a feeling of uselessness and uselessness. In other words, the transition to the life of a pensioner serves as a signal for him "loss of power, helplessness and autonomy" (Craig, 2000). In this case, a person focuses his efforts on maintaining social interest, which is expressed in a purposeful search for those types of activities that give him a sense of his usefulness and involvement in the life of society. This includes participation in the work of formal and informal public organizations, and ordinary labor activity.

For other people who perceived their work as a duty or forced necessity, retirement means freedom from boring, tedious, routine work, the need to submit to superiors, etc. Now they have a lot of free time to devote to their hobbies or care about loved ones, helping children, grandchildren, great-grandchildren.

The crisis of "meeting with old age"

The specifics of this crisis is largely determined by the outcome of the crisis experienced, as a rule, at the end of employment. The existence of a "retirement crisis" is confirmed by most researchers in the psychology of late adulthood. During this crisis, a person consciously or unconsciously chooses his aging strategy. In many ways, the origins of this choice lie in earlier ages, and although the crisis of old age provides a person with another opportunity to choose, in reality this opportunity may not be noticed by a person.

The first strategy assumes the possibility of further progressive development of a person's personality. It is carried out with the tendency of a person both to preserve old and to form new social ties that give him the opportunity to feel his social benefit.

The second is the desire of a person, first of all, to preserve himself as an individual, that is, to make a transition to activities aimed at “surviving” him as an individual against the background of the gradual extinction of psychophysiological functions. The possibility of development with such a strategy is limited (Ermolaeva, 2002).

Behind the choice of aging strategies is the search for the meaning and purpose of later life. Old age, with its decrease in life prospects, a sharp change in the social situation, as it were, tests the structure of the meaning of life that a person has - a hierarchy of various life values.

The first, constructive strategy of aging will correspond to the preservation of the structure of the meaning of life, although the main, leading meaning of the hierarchy may change. This happens with the harmonic interaction of the main and secondary elements of the hierarchical structure. It is important to note that the main component of this hierarchy, although the leading one, is only one of the elements that is influenced by its other components.

The second, destructive strategy of aging is characterized by the so-called decaying structure of the meaning of life, when the structural hierarchy largely ceases to exist, and the main meaning breaks up into a number of small meanings. In this case, the situation can be perceived subjectively as a loss of the meaning of life in general (Chudnovsky, 1992).

The essence of this crisis, in accordance with the theories of E. Erickson and R. Peck, was considered above.

O.V. Khukhlaeva (2002) identifies two main lines in this crisis. The first is the need to accept the finiteness of one's own existence. The second is the realization of the possibility of fulfilling those life tasks that remained unfulfilled during the previous life, or the acceptance of the impossibility of fulfilling them.

In the event of a successful resolution of the crisis, older people change their attitude towards their own life in old age. The setting for old age as a period of rest and rest disappears. Old age begins to be perceived as a period of serious inner work and inner movement. In this case, the forced decrease in the external activity of a person in old age can be considered as an opportunity to expand and deepen the scope and depth of internal activity.

If a person has not been able to successfully resolve the crisis of meeting old age, the need to change one's life position, values, attitudes, behavioral stereotypes is realized with great difficulty. General rigidity grows, suboptimal forms of overcoming life's problems often become second nature. Successful adaptation to old age is hampered by the skepticism of older people, which is often formed in the process of accumulating life experience. Despite the desire to talk, they tend to be less outspoken and tend to cling to worldly lies.

Successful adaptation to old age is also hindered by objective difficulties (Khukhlaeva, 2002):

The need to search and test new life roles. People who previously identified themselves with family or social roles may experience a loss of "I" or role confusion.

Disruption of communication between a person and society due to leaving work, leaving the life of friends and relatives, limiting physical activity. If the previous milestones in life corresponded to the gradual expansion of the circle of contacts (kindergarten, school, university, work), then in old age, on the contrary, its narrowing is observed.

The dynamics of the previous life path was also characterized by the constant expansion of the range of duties of a person to society. Now society is put in the position of what is due to man. There is a danger of shifting responsibility for one's life onto society and adopting a life position "everyone owes me", which hinders the mobilization of internal resources for successful adaptation to late adulthood.

Late adulthood is the period of the greatest saturation with stressful situations: half of the most stressful life situations - retirement, death of close relatives, job loss, etc. - occur most often during this period. The current attitude in society towards old age as a period of “deserved rest” and peace contributes to the fact that an elderly person is psychologically unprepared and not trained to experience this kind of stress.

Most people expect from their own old age weakness, decrepitude, social uselessness. Many are afraid of their own helplessness.

Crisis in the elderly can manifest itself in different ways. The most difficult thing is to allow the thought of the finiteness of one's life into consciousness, which often manifests itself in the rejection of the very fact of the onset of old age, the desire to consider its manifestations as symptoms of a disease that, like any disease, can disappear. Therefore, so much time is spent on treatment, compliance with the prescriptions of doctors. Sometimes the fight against disease becomes the main occupation of a person. In this case, an overvalued attitude to medicines and a hypochondriacal fixation on one's painful sensations are possible.

During this period, almost half of people experience a specific mood disorder - age-related situational depression. It is characterized by a feeling of emptiness, uselessness, lack of interest in anything. Loneliness is acutely experienced, which can only be an experience, and not actual loneliness.

The general level of fears among the elderly increases significantly. There is an increase in fears associated with growing helplessness and the processes of withering of the functions of one's own body. In addition, irrational fears appear (for example, fears of attack, persecution), moral fears (to give an account of the meaning of one's own life).

The next thing that can be noted is either the categorical avoidance of the topic of death by older people, or the constant appeal to it in the form of “let’s die sooner”.

Due to the decline in the foundations of external recognition (social status, material wealth, appearance), a significant aspect of the crisis in many older people is the reduction of claims for recognition. For those people for whom the significance of external indicators of recognition is higher than internal ones, there is a threat of destruction of the “I”, a decrease in self-esteem.

It should also be noted that an elderly person has to organize his time in a new way. Previously, life was largely regulated by external circumstances, especially work. Now a person is left alone with himself, which is difficult and unusual for many.

The problem of the typology of psychological changes in late adulthood is extremely relevant for gerontopsychology. A comparative analysis of various typologies of aging (Glukhanyuk, Gershkovich, 2002) showed that the general determinant of a person's choice of a constructive or non-constructive aging strategy is his attitude to this process, which develops not only in the later periods of ontogenesis, when old age becomes a fait accompli, but also at a later stage. early stages of life.

Strategies for attitudes towards aging according to various authors

It seems to young people that after 40 all life prospects come to naught. Why is this not so, and how are things really?

At school age, it seems to almost everyone that old age comes after thirty. However, crossing this line, many realize that life has not yet begun. After forty, surprisingly, there is confidence that everything is still ahead, and at sixty it becomes quite clear that as long as health allows, nothing is lost! And if all your life you have dreamed of being creative, the retirement period is the time to realize yourself in this direction! The accumulated life experience and the free time that has appeared only contribute to the possibility of creative realization.

Does the brain work worse with age?

While many people think that the brain does not work as we age, research from Harvard University has shown that older people's brains absorb more information. Not age at all, but diseases contribute to a decrease in mental activity. And for most older people who are not susceptible to diseases such as Alzheimer's, the focus of attention and perception of information becomes wider over the years.

Distinguished Professor of Psychology at the University of California, D. Simonton, conducted a study on the peak of the creative process. During the study, it was found that for each period of life and for each age there is a kind of creativity. For example, if a theoretical physicist can reach the peak of his potential in his youth, then artists, writers and composers create more successfully at a later age.

What to do in retirement?

In fact, you can engage in any activity that gives pleasure. You can join a choir, take a few lessons in drawing, modeling and creating, learn to play a musical instrument, dance or sing ...

Amazing develop creativity sports that make the brain work - checkers, chess, billiards. If you like to solve crossword puzzles or make them up, this is also a creative activity. You can start memorizing poems, collecting toasts, proverbs, sayings. And even a simple sorting of the rosary and remembering prayers at the same time will only benefit the mood, improve memory. It does not matter how exactly you will realize your creative potential. The main thing is that if you create, gray old age will not threaten you!

Oldest creative personalities

There are plenty of people in the world who have discovered their talents at a respectable age.

The beginning of the work of the wonderful Russian artist Elena Volkova from the city of Chuguev was a wonderful period of her life, which began at the age of 65, and before that the woman worked as an assistant projectionist. The first personal exhibition of the artist took place when she was 90 years old. The exhibition was a success at the Tretyakov Gallery. Elena Volkova's works have been acquired by many art galleries around the world.

Frenchwoman Jeanne Kalmann at the age of 85 decided to take up fencing, after her century she became addicted to cycling. And at the age of 121 she recorded a solo disc! The disc was called "Mistress of the Planet", the songs recorded on the disc were performed in the style of rap-disco-folk. Agree, great achievement! Unfortunately, after recording the disc, the long-liver died, giving all her remaining strength to the work. But she died completely happy.

Australian representative Phyllis Turner, already in a very old age She entered the University of Adelaide, graduating at 94 with a master's degree in anthropology. When asked why she needed a diploma, her grandmother replied that as a child she did not have the opportunity to study, so she decided to catch up at the first opportunity.

Do you believe that after fifty you can master some kind of sport and even participate in world championships? Dorothy de Lowe did it at 55! The Briton mastered table tennis and took part in all tournaments held among veterans. And in 1982, when Dorothy was already 79 years old, she took first place in one of these championships.

But the Australian Olive Reilly became famous for simply starting her blog on the Internet. She became the oldest blogger, because at that time she was already 107 years old! The woman gained great popularity, actively communicated and gave advice to everyone.

British Lorna Page's debut novel was published when the author turned 93. The thriller novel A Dangerous Weakness was highly acclaimed by readers and immediately became a bestseller. Mrs. Page received a good fee, for which she purchased a large country house, where she invited three of her friends from home to live. elderly.

German Johana Kjas became interested in gymnastics a little late - after 30 years, but remained faithful to this sport, and today, at her 86 years old, granny demonstrates excellent athletic shape. She has a very difficult free program, and it is likely that in the near future her story will appear on the pages of the Book of Records.

Characteristics of old age

In accordance with the classification of the WHO European Bureau, aging, that is, old age, lasts for men from 61 to 74 years, for women - from 55 to 74 years. From the age of 75, old age sets in, that is, old age, and the period over 90 years is longevity or old age.

But this is only a gradation of biological age. Therefore, M.D. Aleksandrova considers the psychological aspect of aging in relation to the sensory-perceptual and intellectual spheres, to the characteristics of the individual, the dynamics of creative productivity. In addition, according to other authors, when determining old age, the most significant feature is the socio-economic “threshold” - retirement, change in income source, change in social status, narrowing of the circle of social roles.

Old age is not a static state, but a dynamic process. It is associated with specific changes in living conditions, many of which, unfortunately, have a negative connotation. These include a change in physical capabilities, loss of social status associated with the work performed, a change in functions in the family, the death or threat of loss of loved ones, worsening economic living conditions, the need to adapt to rapid cultural and domestic changes. Moreover, the end of professional work for many people causes a radical change in lifestyle. For others, additional changes in the immediate environment and behaviors occur, for example, as a result of placement in a nursing home.

The main characteristics and stages of old age according to N.S. Pryazhnikov:

Elderly, pre-retirement age (from about 55 years old to retirement) is, first of all, an expectation, and at best, a preparation for retirement. In general, the period is characterized by:

· Anticipation of retirement: for some, retirement is perceived as an opportunity to “start resting as soon as possible”, for others - as the termination of an active working life and the uncertainty of what to do with one's experience and still considerable remaining energy.

The main contacts are still more of a production nature, when, on the one hand, colleagues can expect that this person will leave work as soon as possible (and the person himself feels this), and on the other hand, they do not want to let the person go, and he secretly hopes that retirement for him will come later than for many of his peers.

Relationships with relatives, when, on the one hand, a person can still provide for his family to a large extent, including grandchildren (and in this sense he is “useful” and “interesting”), and on the other hand, a premonition of his imminent “uselessness” when he stops earning a lot and receives his “miserable pension”.

· The desire to educate, prepare a "worthy replacement" at work.

2. Leading activity:

The desire to "have time" to do what has not yet been done (especially professionally), as well as the desire to leave a "good memory" of oneself at work.

The desire to pass on my experience to students and followers.

When grandchildren appear, people of pre-retirement age seem to be “torn” between work, where they want to realize themselves as much as possible, and raising their grandchildren, who are no less important to them (this is also a continuation of their family).

By the end of the pre-retirement period (especially if the probability of leaving this job is very high), there is a desire to choose an occupation in retirement, to somehow plan their future life.

II. The period of retirement (the first years after retirement) is, first of all, the development of a new social role, a new status. In general, this period is characterized by the following:

1. Social development situation:

Old contacts (with colleagues at work) are still preserved at first, but in the future they become less and less pronounced.

Basically, contacts with close people and relatives (respectively, relatives are required

special tact and attention to still "inexperienced" pensioners).

Gradually, pensioner friends or even other, younger people appear (depending on what the pensioner will do and with whom he will have to communicate, for example, social pensioners immediately find new areas of activity for themselves and quickly acquire new “business” contacts ).

Usually, relatives and friends tend to ensure that the pensioner, “who already has a lot of time”, is more involved in raising grandchildren, so communication with children and grandchildren is also the most important characteristic of the social situation of pensioners.

2. Leading activity:

First of all, it is “search for oneself” in a new capacity, it is a test of one’s strength in a variety of activities (in raising grandchildren, in the household, in hobbies, in new relationships, in social activities, etc.) - this is self-determination by the method "trial and error"; in fact, a pensioner has a lot of time, and he can afford it (however, all this happens against the backdrop of the feeling that “life is getting smaller and smaller every day”).

For some pensioners, the first time in retirement is the continuation of work in their main profession (especially

when such an employee receives a pension and a basic salary together); in this case, the working pensioner has a significantly increased sense of self-worth.

Increasing desire to "teach" or even "shame" younger people.

III. The period of old age itself (a few years after retirement and up to 75 years or a sharp deterioration in health),

when a person has already mastered a new social status for himself, it is characterized approximately as follows:

I. Social situation:

Communication mainly with the same elders.

Communication with family members who either exploit the old man's free time, or simply "patronize" him.

Some retirees find new contacts for themselves in social activities (or even in continuing professional activities).

For some pensioners, the meaning of relationships with other people is changing, for example, some authors note that

many connections that were previously close to the old man are gradually "losing their former intimacy and becoming more generalized."

2. Leading activity:

Leisure hobby (often pensioners change one hobby after another, which somewhat refutes the idea of ​​their "rigidity": they still continue to look for themselves, to look for meaning in various activities). The main problem of such a search is the "disproportion" of all these activities in comparison with the previous ("real") work.

The desire in every way to confirm one's self-esteem according to the principle: "As long as I do at least something useful for others, I exist and demand respect for myself."

For some old people during this period (even when their health is still quite good and there are no reasons to “say goodbye to life”), the leading activity can be preparation for death, which is expressed in initiation to religion, in frequent visits to the cemetery, in conversations with loved ones about “ will."

The review of changes in personality manifestations in old age makes the problem of the typology of aging extremely relevant for gerontopsychology. Many attempts have been made to describe the types of aging. We present the most famous of them.

In the typology of F. Giese, three types of old people and old age are distinguished:

1) an old negativityist who denies any signs of old age;

2) an extroverted old man, recognizing the onset of old age through external influences and observation of changes (young people have grown up, disagreement with them in their views, death of loved ones, a change in their position in the family, changes-innovations in the field of technology, social life, etc.) ;

3) introverted type, which is characterized by an acute experience of the aging process. A person does not show interest in the new, is immersed in memories of the past, is inactive, strives for peace, etc. .

I.S.Kon identifies the following socio-psychological types of old age:

The first type is active creative old age, when old people, leaving for a well-deserved rest, continue to participate in public life, educate young people, etc., live a full-blooded life, without experiencing any handicap.

The second type of old age is characterized by the fact that pensioners are engaged in activities for which they simply did not have time before: self-education, recreation, entertainment, etc. That is, this type of old people is also characterized by good social and psychological adaptability, flexibility, adaptation, but the energy is directed mainly at oneself.

The third type (these are predominantly women) finds the main application of their forces in the family. And since homework is inexhaustible, women who do it simply have no time to mope, get bored. However, psychologists note that life satisfaction in this group of people is lower than in the first two.

The fourth type is people whose meaning of life is taking care of their own health. Various forms of activity and moral satisfaction are connected with this. At the same time, there is a tendency (more often in men) to exaggerate their real and imaginary illnesses, increased anxiety.

Along with the identified prosperous types of old age, I.S. Kon also draws attention to negative types of development: a) aggressive old grumblers, dissatisfied with the state of the world around them, criticizing everything except themselves, teaching everyone and terrorizing those around them with endless claims; b) disappointed in themselves and their own lives, lonely and sad losers, constantly blaming themselves for real and imaginary missed opportunities, thereby making themselves deeply unhappy. .

The classification proposed by D. B. Bromley is quite widely supported in the world psychological literature. She identifies five types of personality adaptation to old age:

1) A constructive attitude [according to the theory of K. Roschak - Constructive type] of a person to old age, in which the elderly and old people are internally balanced, have a good mood, and are satisfied with emotional contacts with people around them. They are moderately critical of themselves and at the same time very tolerant of others, their possible shortcomings. They do not dramatize the end of their professional activities, they are optimistic about life, and the possibility of death is interpreted as a natural event that does not cause sadness and fear. Due to their positive life balance, they confidently count on the help of others. The self-esteem of this group of elderly and old people is quite high.

2) Dependency relation. A dependent person [according to the theory of K. Roschak] is a person who is subordinate to someone, dependent on a spouse or his child, who does not have too high life claims and, thanks to this, willingly leaves the professional environment. The family environment provides him with a sense of security, helps to maintain inner harmony, emotional balance, and not experience either hostility or fear.

3) defensive attitude. Protective type [according to the theory of K. Roschak] - which is characterized by exaggerated emotional restraint, some straightforwardness in one's actions and habits, the desire for "self-sufficiency" and reluctance to accept help from other people. People of this type of adaptation to old age avoid expressing their own opinion, with difficulty sharing their problems and doubts. A defensive position is sometimes taken in relation to the whole family: even if there are some claims and complaints against the family, they do not express them. The defense mechanism that they use against the fear of death and deprivation is their activity "through force", constant feeding by external actions. People with a defensive attitude towards the coming old age are very reluctant and only under pressure from others to leave their professional work.

4) The attitude of hostility towards others. Aggressive accusatory type [according to the theory of K. Roschak] of old age - people with such an attitude are aggressive, explosive and suspicious, they strive to “shift” the blame and responsibility for their own failures onto other people, they do not quite adequately assess reality. Distrust and suspicion make them withdraw into themselves, avoid contact with other people. They drive away the idea of ​​retirement in every possible way, because. use the mechanism of discharging voltage through activity. Their life path, as a rule, was accompanied by numerous stresses and failures, many of which turned into nervous diseases. People belonging to this type of attitude towards old age are prone to acute reactions of fear, they do not perceive their old age, they think with despair about the progressive loss of strength. All this is combined with a hostile attitude towards young people, sometimes with the transfer of this attitude to the whole "new, alien world." Such a kind of rebellion against their own old age is combined in these people with a strong fear of death.

5) The attitude of man's hostility towards himself. Self-accusatory type [according to the theory of K. Roschak] - people of this type avoid memories, because there have been many failures and difficulties in their life. They are passive, do not rebel against their own old age, they only meekly accept what fate sends them. The inability to satisfy the need for love is the cause of depression, self-claims and sadness. Feelings of loneliness and uselessness are connected with these states. Own aging is assessed quite realistically: the end of life, death is interpreted by these people as deliverance from suffering.

L.I. Antsiferova, according to the combination of characteristics - the level of activity, strategies for coping with difficulties, attitude towards the world and oneself, life satisfaction - identifies two main personality types of older people:

1. Older people who courageously endure retirement, switch to new interesting activities, tend to make new friendships, retain the ability to control their environment. All this leads them to experience a sense of satisfaction with life and even increases its duration.

2. Elderly people are characterized as passively related to life, experiencing alienation from others, a decrease in intelligence on tests, a loss of self-respect, a feeling of uselessness and personal inadequacy. .

The essence of the psychosocial personality crisis characteristic of old age is the achievement of the integrity of the ego. Erickson connects the possibility of a successful transition to an older psychological age with a positive resolution of previous age crises. The integrity of the individual is based on summing up the results of his past life and realizing it as a single whole, in which nothing can be changed.

R. Pekk, developing Erickson's ideas, argued that a person needs to overcome three sub-crises or conflicts in order for a sense of wholeness to fully develop:

1. Reassessment of one's own I in addition to a professional role or some other social role. You must be able to move on to a new consideration of yourself, your uniqueness, not through the prism of one role - a professional or a parent - but from other positions.

2. Awareness of the fact of deteriorating health and aging of the body, the development of the necessary indifference, tolerance. Successful aging is possible if a person can adapt to the inevitable physical discomfort or find an activity that will help him to distract himself.

3. Overcoming concerns about the prospect of imminent death, accepting the idea of ​​death without horror, extending one's own lifeline through participation in the affairs of the younger generation.

Thus, old age is the beginning of the final period of a person's life, which includes a change in a person's position in society and plays a special role in the life cycle system. As a biological phenomenon, old age is associated with an increase in the vulnerability of the body, with an increase in the likelihood of death, as a social phenomenon - retirement, a decrease in social status, with a narrowing of the social world, at the psychological level - we are talking about awareness of ongoing changes and more or less successful adaptation to him.