Plan for describing the geographical position of the mainland

1. We determine the geographical position of the mainland: a) the position in relation to the equator and the zero meridian; b) latitude and longitude of extreme points; c) position relative to other continents, oceans, straits, bays.

2. We determine the prevailing landforms, find out in which part of the mainland they are located. We find the highest and lowest points and the amplitude of the heights on the mainland

3. We determine the position in climatic zones and the general features of the climate

4. We name and find large rivers and lakes on the physical map. We determine in which parts of the mainland and in which direction the rivers flow, to which ocean basin they belong. We determine which landforms the lakes are confined to.

5. We determine the set and features of the location of natural zones.

6. We characterize the main natural resources of the mainland

7. We list the largest countries on the mainland.

8. What peoples inhabit the mainland, in which parts of the mainland is the highest density.

9. Features of the economic activity of the mainland.

Ocean description plan

1. The name of the ocean and its dimensions.

2. The position of the ocean relative to the equator and prime meridian, polar circles, tropics.

3. Between which continents is the ocean located.

4. Neighborhood with other oceans.

5. The largest seas and bays.

6. Average and maximum depth of the ocean.

7. The most important warm and cold currents.

8. In what climatic zones is the ocean located.

9. The use of the ocean by man, the most important transport routes.

10. Conclusion about the features of the geographical position of the ocean.

Journey Description Plan

1. Tell us what is the purpose of your trip.
2. Plan your travel itinerary. Show the settlements through which your journey passed. Specify its duration.
3. What type of transport did you use to travel
4. Use the scale to calculate the approximate length and direction of your journey.
5. Find out what landforms your path passed through.
6. Indicate what objects of the hydrosphere your path passed through (rivers, lakes, seas, oceans).
7. Describe the weather at the time of your trip.
8. Describe the flora and fauna of the territory through which the journey took place.

River description plan

1. The name of the river and its length
2. On what continent is the river located and in what part of it
3. river source
4. river mouth
5. In which direction does the river flow
6. The basin of which ocean does the river belong to
7. tributaries
8. The nature of the river
9. Feeding the river
10. River mode
11. river slope
12. river fall

Plan for describing the country's EGP

1. Position in relation to neighboring countries.

2. Position in relation to the main land and sea transport routes.

3. Position in relation to the main fuel and raw material bases, industrial and agricultural regions.

4. Position in relation to the main sales areas.

5. EGP change in time.

6. General conclusion about the impact of EGP on the development and location of the country's economy.

Plan for describing the geographical position of the country

1. What maps should be used when describing a country?
2. In what part of the mainland is the country located? What is the name of its capital?
3. Features of the relief (general nature of the surface, the main forms of relief and the distribution of heights). Mineral resources of the country.
4. Climatic conditions in different parts of the country (climatic zones, average temperatures in July and January, annual precipitation). Differences by territory and by seasons.
5. Large rivers and lakes.
6. Natural areas and their main features.
7. The peoples inhabiting the country. Their main activities.

Russia is the largest country in the world in terms of area (17075.4 thousand km 2), a democratic federal state with a republican form of government.

The first mention of this country dates back to about the 10th century, in ancient Russian monuments of the 10th-15th centuries. these lands were called "Rus", "Russian land". In the 14th century they began to be called the Moscow principality, in the 15th century. - Moscow state or Muscovy, from the 16th century. - Russia.

In 1721 the state was officially named the Russian Empire.

Until 1917, Russia was understood as the totality of the territories of the Russian Empire, inhabited by both Russian and other peoples. After 1917, in connection with the establishment of Soviet power, the concept of “Soviet Russia” appeared, which could be used to refer to both Russia itself (and the RSFSR formed on its lands), and the entire Soviet Union formed in 1922.

After 1991 and the collapse of the USSR, "Russia" means the Russian Federation (proclaimed on June 12, 1990).

The Russian Federation. Moscow the capital. Population: 143.78 million (2004). The population density is 8.6 people per 1 sq. km. km. Urban population - 73%, rural - 27%. Area: 17,075.4 thousand square meters km. highest point: 5642 m above sea level (Elbrus). lowest point: 27 m below sea level (Caspian Sea). National language - Russian. Main religion: Orthodox Christianity. Administrative-territorial division: 21 autonomous republics, 49 regions, 6 territories, 10 autonomous districts, 1 autonomous region, cities of Moscow and St. Petersburg. Monetary unit: 1 ruble = 100 kopecks.

Territory.

The Russian Federation is located in the east of Europe and the north of Asia. The northernmost point on the mainland is Cape Chelyuskin (Taimyr Peninsula), on the islands - the north of Rudolf Island in the Franz Josef Land archipelago; the southernmost is in Dagestan, on the border with Azerbaijan; western - on the Baltic Spit in the Kaliningrad Bay; eastern - on about. Ratmanov in the Bering Strait.

The length of the land borders is 22,125.3 km, they share Russia in the northwest with Norway, Finland, in the west - with Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Belarus. The southwestern border is with Ukraine, the southern border is with Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea.

The territory of Russia occupies 11 time zones.

Nature.

Most of Russia is located in a stable area of ​​the upper solid part of the earth's crust (lithosphere) of the Eurasian continent with a low-contrast, flat, plateau relief. According to the height and nature of the relief in the continental part of the territory of Russia, 6 large regions are distinguished:

hilly-flat European part;

low-plain Western Siberia;

plateau-like and flat-mountainous Central Siberia;

mountains of Southern Siberia;

mountains and plains of the Northeast;

mountains and plains of the Far East.

The mountain systems of the Urals and the Caucasus, which are not part of them, delimit the European part and Western Siberia. One of the largest (more than 2 km) natural monuments, the karst Kapova Cave, is located in the Southern Urals, where in 1959 wall images of a mammoth, horse, and rhinoceros, the oldest for the Paleolithic, were discovered.

In the Lateral Range of the Greater Caucasus, there is the highest point of Russia and Europe, Mount Elbrus, a two-peak cone of an extinct volcano (the height of the western peak is 5642 m, the eastern peak is 5621) with 50 glaciers.

The Elbrus region with Big and Small Azau, Irik, Terskol is one of the largest centers of mountaineering and skiing in Russia.

In the Sayans, in the Southern Urals, there are about 100 unique granite cliffs of bizarre shapes, incl. in the Stolby reserve in the Krasnoyarsk Territory - the highest (750 m.)

Water resources.

The shores of Russia are washed by 12 seas belonging to the basins of 3 oceans - the Atlantic (Baltic, Black, Azov Seas), the Arctic (Barents, White, Kara, Laptev Sea, East Siberian, Chukchi), Pacific (Bering, Okhotsk, Japanese) and endorheic Caspian Sea. The length of Russia's maritime borders is 38,807.5 km. It also has maritime borders with the US and Japan.

The White Sea was mastered by the Russians as early as the 11th century. The oldest Russian settlement is Kholmogory, where the largest Russian scientist M. V. Lomonosov. From con. 15 to early 18th century the sea was the most important sea route connecting Russia with Western Europe. In the beginning. 18th century its transport role has decreased due to Russia's access to the Baltic. From the 20s of the 20th century. a significant part of Russia's maritime traffic is carried out through Murmansk, an ice-free port in the Barents Sea. A transport artery runs along the coast of the Arctic seas of Russia, connecting European and Far Eastern ports from Novaya Zemlya to the Bering Strait. The seas of the Pacific Ocean - Bering, Okhotsk and Japan - stretched along the Asian mainland. The beginning of the development of this region by Russia was laid in the middle. 17th century expeditions of I. Moskvitin and S. Dezhnev. Access to the Baltic Russia secured victory in the Northern War of the early 18th century by annexing the coast with the ports of Revel (Tallinn), Narva, Riga, and Vyborg to its territory. From the first third of the 18th century Petersburg became the main foreign trade port, and Kronstadt became the main naval base.

The Black and Azov Seas are inland, connected to each other by the Kerch Strait, and by the Bosporus and Dardanelles with the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. The development of this water area by Russia dates back to the end of the 17th - beginning. 18th century

The world's largest drainless body of water is the Caspian Sea ("sea-lake"). The largest Russian river, the Volga, flows into the Caspian. The largest in Europe and the fifth longest in the world, it is connected by canals to the Baltic, White, Azov and Black Seas, as well as to the Moscow River, the main river of the Russian capital.

In terms of water flow resources, Russia ranks second in the world after Brazil with its most abundant river, the Amazon. In terms of one inhabitant, the provision of underground runoff resources, soil moisture, and total river runoff in Russia exceeds the world average by 4 times.

On the territory of Russia flows St. 2.5 million rivers The most abundant of them is the Yenisei (according to this indicator, Russia has the fifth place in the world). Most Russian rivers carry their waters to the Arctic and Pacific oceans.

Russia is a lake region, although there are few large lakes. The total number of Russian lakes exceeds 2.7 million, their area (excluding the Caspian) is more than 400 thousand square meters. km. In the Asian part of Russia, in the south of Eastern Siberia, in a tectonic depression in a reef system surrounded by mountain ranges, Lake Baikal is located, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Lake Baikal ranks first in the world in terms of depth (1,620 m) and volume of fresh water (23,000 sq. km, which is 1/5 of the world's fresh water reserves). The area of ​​the lake is 31.5 thousand square meters. km, maximum length - 636 km, width - 48 km. The water level was raised by the dam of the Irkutsk hydroelectric power station by 0.8 m. There are 27 islands on the lake, 336 rivers flow into it and one river flows out - the Angara. The Bratsk reservoir on the Angara, formed in 1967 by the dam of the hydroelectric power station of the same name (area 5470 sq. km., volume 169.3 sq. km.) is used for navigation and water supply.

In the north-west of Russia lies the largest of European freshwater lakes, Ladoga, (area - 17.7 thousand square kilometers, length 219 km, width 83 km, depth 230 m), it has 660 islands; 35 rivers flow into it, the Neva River flows out, on which at the beginning of the 18th century. St. Petersburg was erected, which was the capital of Russia for more than two centuries. In the 9th-12th centuries. the trade route “from the Varangians to the Greeks” (from the Baltic to the Black Sea) passed through Ladoga; from ser. 20th century Lake Ladoga is part of the Volga-Baltic and White Sea-Baltic waterways. (The Volga-Baltic waterway - the longest in Russia, about 1100 km - was built in the early 19th century, reconstructed in 1964). During the Great Patriotic War, the “Road of Life” was laid on the ice of Lake Ladoga, which saved the inhabitants of Leningrad besieged by the Nazis from starvation.

The structure of water use is dominated by production needs. The main water problem in Russia is the pollution of rivers and reservoirs with waste from economic activities, which is why large water bodies in the country do not meet regulatory European requirements. According to the Water Legislation, 76% of fresh groundwater is used for domestic and drinking water supply, and 24% goes to the needs of industry and irrigation with a special permit from environmental authorities. However, only 30% of cities and towns in Russia are fully provided with underground drinking water. The water supply of Moscow, St. Petersburg and a number of other large cities is based on surface waters that are not protected from pollution.

In addition to industrial, the waters of Russia are also used for medical and resort needs. Mineral underground waters (carbonic, rhodon, hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, siliceous) feed over 300 deposits, including such well-known ones as Yessentuki, Pyatigorsk, Zheleznovodsk, Kislovodsk (Northern Caucasus), Marcipal waters (Karelia), Matsesta (Black Sea coast of the Caucasus), Belokurikha (in Altai).

Climate. Russia is a country with a relatively cold climate, winter temperatures are negative. It is located in four climatic zones: arctic, subarctic (seas of the Arctic Ocean, arctic islands, northern mainland), temperate (most of the territory) and subtropical (a small section of the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus). Almost everywhere the climate is continental, the degree of continentality increases in the direction from west to east as the influence of the Atlantic Ocean weakens. In the same direction, cyclones bring the main precipitation. In winter, the continental air is very cold.

According to climatic indicators, Russia is divided into a number of zones.

1) The Russian Arctic with a long sunny day (when the sun does not fall below the horizon from early April to mid-September) and an equally long polar night (when the sun does not rise above the horizon from mid-October to the end of February).

2) The European part of Russia with a tangible influence of the Atlantic - here there is a transformation of temperate marine air into dry continental air, and the climate itself is rapidly changing from west to east.

3) the West Siberian Plain with the Altai and the Sayan Mountains, where the continentality of the climate intensifies from north to south.

4) Eastern Siberia with a pronounced continental climate - cold winters, warm summers;

5) Far East with a typical monsoonal climate.

In winter, an area of ​​high atmospheric pressure regularly appears over Siberia, Central and Central Asia - the Asian anticyclone. The coldest month of the year in Russia is January, on the shores of the seas - February. The lowest temperatures are in Eastern Siberia (the cold pole of Eurasia is located there, the average monthly temperature in January is minus 50 ° C). The absolute minimum (-68°C) was observed in Verkhoyansk in 1892, where the Pole of Cold obelisk was installed. An increase in temperatures is observed from February to July-August, from August - cooling. Great damage to Russian agriculture is caused by spring and autumn frosts, due to which almost the entire territory of the country belongs to the zone of risky farming.

The current general climate warming in Russia has been noted since the 1970s. and is unprecedented in the last 1000 years (0.9°C in 100 years). Major warming intervals: 1910–1945, 1970s and 1990s. 1998 is the warmest year of the 20th century. The most intense temperature increase was observed in the Baikal and Transbaikal regions, the reasons for it are interpreted hypothetically.

On a total area of ​​Russia of 17.1 million km 2, the soil cover is 14.5 million km 2 (the rest falls on water bodies, rock outcrops, stony placers, disturbed and clogged lands). The soil cover is diverse: 90 natural soil types are supplemented by approximately the same number of anthropogenic-transformative types with their characteristic communities of plants, animals, and microorganisms. The standard of fertility (with a 16% content of humus-humus) in the International Chamber of Weights and Measures is a cube of chernozem, carved in the feather grass steppe near Voronezh and sent by soil scientist V.V. Dokuchaev in 1900 to the World Exhibition in Paris. Russia accounts for about 9% of the world's arable land, over 20% of the world's forest area. Tundra and swampy areas play an important economic role. However, the use of the soil cover, vast areas, highly fertile chernozems is difficult: 80% of the agricultural massif of Russia lies in the territory with low heat supply, 8% is occupied by swamps that require drainage, 7% are sands and stony soils.

The total area of ​​agricultural land of the country - 2.21 million km 2. The land suitable for plowing is extensive, but their share in the total area is lower than in other countries. Russian chernozems, intensively exploited for centuries, deteriorated their properties and now have reduced productivity (the balance of humus has been disturbed, the water regime has worsened). Plowed land in the last decades of the 20th century. exceeded environmentally acceptable standards and reached 70%, which led to the general degradation of the chernozem. Forest gray, dark chestnut soils are plowed up by 40%, sod-podzolic and meadow-steppe - from 10 to 15%. The area of ​​arable land by the 1980s was about 1.34 million square meters. km.

Large area of ​​arable land in Tue. floor. 20th century was supported by the use of low-fertility lands on the outskirts, but this did not save it from a reduction of 100 thousand square meters. km. Infertile lands began to be excluded from the involved arable lands, which made it possible to improve the quality of sowing, especially on plots given for personal use. Their areas are growing: from 1.6% of the total land area (1998) to 6.1% (2002). The area of ​​perennial plantations and unsown arable land continues to grow: from 250 thousand km 2 (1996) to 372 thousand square meters. km (2002).

But environmentalists are sounding the alarm about soil erosion: in the 1990s, the area of ​​leached soils doubled, in an unsatisfactory condition - more than 7 thousand km2. irrigated lands. Soil productivity decreases, soil pollution causes deterioration in the quality of water, air, and food. In some areas of the Belgorod region. soils are washed away to Cretaceous sediments; after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (1986), radioactive contamination of a number of nearby areas reached disaster proportions.

Soils used as fodder lands occupy over 900 thousand km 2. The processes of their degradation are evident in places of unsystematic grazing. Thin, acidic, swampy soils of the tundra and taiga, used for reindeer pastures, are low-resistant to mechanical stress (oil production, industrial enterprises). Their annual reduction reaches 20 thousand square meters. km.

About 70% of the areas with a soil cover are occupied by forests, among which the main part is taiga. State natural reserves occupy 335 thousand square meters. km, national parks - 70 thousand square meters. km. The most surprising in terms of the duration of operation (over 100 years) and scientific significance is the man-made Stony Steppe in the southeast of the Voronezh region. (founded in 1892 by the expedition of V. V. Dokuchaev in the barren eroded steppe as a model of an ideal agricultural landscape).

Vegetable world.

The vegetation cover of the Russian Federation includes zones of arctic polar deserts, tundras, boreal (with significant temperature fluctuations) taiga forests, broad-leaved forests, steppes, and deserts. Huge areas are occupied by mountains (Siberia, the Far East) with different altitudinal zonality of vegetation. Coasts of rivers, lakes, and seas have special vegetation. The lichens and mosses that hide the tiny flowers of the arctic polar deserts in the north are strikingly different from the three- to four-tiered forests in the taiga, and in the south from the subtropical vegetation of the Caucasus.

Russia's forest resources account for 22% of the world's forest area and 1/4 of the world's timber reserves. The main forest-forming species and wood reserves (in descending order of the size of the occupied areas): larch, Scots pine, downy and weeping (drooping) birch, spruce, silver cedar pine. Coniferous and broad-leaved forests, streltsy steppes, floodplain meadows, Kuban floodplains have long been exposed to human influence; deforestation and fires have reduced their area, some forest and steppe spaces have been turned into lands and pastures.

Animal world.

The fauna of Russia is the fauna of the temperate and cold zones of the Northern Hemisphere. The distribution of animals, their species diversity, abundance and ecological relationships are determined by latitudinal zonality. The structure of the fauna reflects its complex history, the diversity of sources and ways of formation.

Species diversity implies a division into fauna into a number of zones:

representatives of the Arctic Ocean and high-latitude islands (polar bear, seagull, narwhal, beluga whale),

tundra zone (deer, loons, arctic fox, etc.),

inhabitants of plateaus (snow sheep, leopard, Caucasian tour),

taiga zone (brown bear, elk, wolverine, sable, lynx).

forests of the European part of Russia (bison, European roe deer, mink, marten)

steppes and semi-deserts (saiga, manul, steppe ground squirrel, marmot, polecat)

fauna of the Far East (tiger, black bear, Bengal cat, raccoon dog, spotted deer).

The inhabitants of the Far Eastern seas and their coasts are diverse (fur seal, cormorant, sea otter, whale, sperm whale, etc.), as well as the basins of the southern seas (seal, shark, Russian sturgeon, stellate sturgeon, Volga pike perch, etc.).

Russia occupies one of the leading places in the world in terms of resources of wild animals (commercial fish, mammals, hunting animals and birds, aquatic invertebrates). The destructive nature of fisheries and the disappearance of natural habitats are the reasons for the reduction of a number of species of wild animals and wildlife resources. For more than 25 years, Russia has been taking measures to restore the number of fauna, including the removal of certain species of animals from economic use and their inclusion in the Red Book.

The analysis of topographic maps is carried out in order to study the study area, its features, patterns of placement, the relationship of objects and phenomena, the dynamics of their development, etc. The analysis allows you to choose the right map of a certain scale depending on the direction of the intended use (for familiarization with the area, for orientation in the area , as a basis for compiling hypsometric, soil, landscape maps, for the scientific analysis of natural and socio-economic phenomena, etc.)

The choice of maps is accompanied by an assessment of their suitability for specific work in terms of the accuracy and detail of the information that is supposed to be obtained using the maps. At the same time, it should be taken into account that enlargement of the scale of maps leads to an increase in the number of map sheets, reducing the visibility of the territory, but increasing the accuracy of information. The time when maps were published determines their compliance with the current state of the territory. The dynamics of geographical phenomena is revealed by comparing maps of different times for the same territory.

The following methods of map analysis are used: visual, graphical, graphic-analytical and mathematical-statistical.

visual way based on the visual perception of the image of the area, the comparison of graphically shown elements of the area in shape, size, structure, etc. It presupposes a predominantly qualitative description of objects and phenomena, but is often accompanied by an eye assessment of distances, areas, heights and their ratios.

Graphical analysis consists in the study of constructions made according to the maps. Such constructions are profiles, sections, block diagrams, etc. Using the methods of graphical analysis, regularities in the spatial distribution of phenomena are revealed.

Graphical analysis subdivided into cartometric and morphometric. Cartometric techniques consist in measuring the length of lines on maps, determining coordinates, areas, volumes, angles, depths, etc. Morphometric techniques allow you to determine the average height, thickness, power of the phenomenon, horizontal and vertical dissection of the surface, slopes and gradients of the surface, sinuosity of lines, contours and etc.

Numerical indicators of the prevalence of objects, the relationship between them, the degree of influence of various factors allow us to establish methods of mathematical and statistical analysis. With the use of mathematical modeling methods, spatial mathematical models of the terrain are created.

Geographic description of the area is compiled after a preliminary study of the map and is accompanied by measurements and calculations based on a comparison of lengths, angles, areas with a linear scale, a scale of foundations, etc. The basic principle of description is from the general to the particular. The description is structured as follows:

1) card details(nomenclature, scale, year of publication);

2) description of the boundary of the area(geographical and rectangular coordinates);

3) relief characteristic(type of relief, landforms and the area and extent they occupy, marks of absolute and relative heights, main watersheds, the shape and steepness of slopes, the presence of ravines, cliffs, gullies with an indication of their length and depth, anthropogenic landforms - quarries, embankments, excavations, mounds, etc.);

4) hydrographic network- names of objects, length, width, depth, direction and speed of the flow of rivers, slope, nature of the banks, bottom soil; characteristics of the floodplain (size, presence of old channels, floodplain lakes and the depth of swamps); the presence of hydraulic structures, as well as bridges, ferries, fords and their characteristics; description of the reclamation network, its density; the presence of springs and wells;

5) vegetation cover and soils– type, composition of rocks, occupied area, nature of location. In the presence of forests - their characteristics, the width of the clearings, the presence of clearings;

6) settlements- name, type, population, administrative significance, structure and layout, prevailing buildings (fire-resistant or non-fire-resistant), industrial facilities;

7) communication routes- railways and highways. For railways - the number of tracks, type of traction, the name of stations, stations. For highways and other roads - the nature of the surface and the width.

FOUNDATIONS OF THE THEORY OF ERROR

MEASUREMENTS

The concept of measurements

Measurement - This is the process of comparing the measured value with the value taken as the unit of comparison, as a result of which a named number is obtained, called measurement result.

Distinguish: straight, or immediate and indirect measurements.

direct such measurements are called when the quantities being determined are obtained directly from measurements, as a result of their direct comparison with a unit of measurement. Examples of direct measurements are determining distances with a measuring tape, measuring an angle with a theodolite.

indirect are those measurements in which the quantities to be determined are obtained as functions of the directly measured quantities. The indirect method involves calculating the value of the desired value. For example, elevation in trigonometric leveling is a function of distance and slope measured directly on the ground.

The measurement results are divided into equivalent and unequal.

Equivalent name the results of measurement of homogeneous quantities obtained from repeated measurements under similar conditions (by one observer with the same instrument, by one method and under the same environmental conditions).

If even one of the above conditions is violated, the measurement results are classified as unequal.

In the mathematical processing of the results of topographic and geodetic measurements, the concepts of necessary and excess number of measurements. In the general case, to solve any topographic problem, it is necessary to measure a certain minimum number of quantities that provide a solution to the problem. These measurements are called the number of necessary measurements t. Difference k when subtracting the number of required measurements t of all measured values n, called the number of redundant values ​​k = n – t. Redundant measurements of a quantity make it possible to detect errors in the results of measurements and calculations and improve the accuracy of the determined quantities.

This section contains examples of typical plans used by students from grades 6 to 11 when compiling a description of certain geographical objects, not only in geography lessons, but also when doing homework.

Plan for describing the geographical position of the mainland

1. The location of the mainland relative to the equator, the tropics (polar circles) and the prime meridian.
2. The extreme points of the mainland, their coordinates and the length of the mainland in degrees and kilometers from north to south and from west to east.
3. In what climatic zones is the mainland located?
4. Oceans and seas washing the mainland.
5. The location of the mainland relative to other continents.

Plan for describing the relief of the territory

1. The general nature of the surface. How to explain it?

2. The position of different landforms in the study area.

3. Dominant and greatest height.

Climate description plan

1. In what climatic zone and in what area is the territory located?

2. Average temperatures in July and January. Direction and reasons for their change.

3. Prevailing winds (by season).

4. Annual amount of precipitation and their regime. Causes of differences in precipitation across the territory.

Characteristics of the climate chart

1. Description of the annual course of temperatures. Average temperature in January, July, annual amplitude.

2. Annual amount of precipitation, their seasonal regime.

3. Conclusion about the type of climate.

River description plan

1. The geographical position of the river.

2. Where does it originate, where does it flow?

3. River length, basin area, large tributaries.

5. Dependence of the nature of the flow on the relief. Fall, slope of the river.

6. Power sources of the river.

7. River regime, its dependence on climate.

8. Human use of the river.

Natural area description plan

1. Geographical location of the zone.

2. Climatic conditions.

3. Inland waters.

4. Soils.

5. Vegetation.

6. Animal world.

Plan of characteristics of the country (region)

1. EGP of the country (regions).

2. Economic assessment of natural conditions and resources.

3. Population and labor resources. Possibilities for their use.

4. Historical prerequisites for the development of the economy.

5. Specialization of the economy; the main features of its location.

6. The main features of the geography of transport.

7. Relationships between industries and territories within a region, country, city.

8. General conclusion: development prospects.

EGP characterization plan of the country (region)

1. The position of the object on the territory of the mainland (state).

2. Position in relation to neighboring countries, regions.

3. Position in relation to the main fuel, raw materials, industrial and agricultural regions.

4. Position in relation to the main transport routes.

5. Position in relation to the main sales areas.

6. EGP change in time.

7. Conclusion about the possibility of EGP influence on the development of the economy of the country (region).

Plan for the characteristics of the country's population

1. Number, type of population reproduction, demographic policy.

2. Age-sex composition, availability of labor resources.

3. National (ethnic) composition of the population.

4. Social and class composition of the population.

5. The main features of the distribution of the population. The impact of migrations on this placement.

6. Level, rates and forms of urbanization. Major cities and urban agglomerations.

7. Rural resettlement.

8. Conclusion: prospects for population and labor growth.

Plan of characteristics of the branch of the World economy

1. The value of the industry, its sectoral composition, the impact of scientific and technological revolution on its development.

2. Raw and fuel resources of the industry, their distribution.

3. Sizes of production with distribution by main geographic regions.

4. Main producing countries.

5. Factors that determined the location of the industry in these areas.

6. Nature protection and ecological problems of the industry.

7. The main countries of export and import of products. The most important cargo flows.

8. Conclusion: prospects for the development and location of the industry. 

A fascinating subject, geography is a scientific discipline that studies the earth's surface, oceans and seas, the environment and ecosystems, and the interaction between human society and the environment. The word geography literally translated from ancient Greek means "description of the earth." The following is a general definition of the term geography:

"Geography is a system of scientific knowledge that studies the physical features of the Earth and the environment, including the influence of human activities on these factors, and vice versa. The subject also covers patterns of population distribution, land use, availability and production."

Scholars who study geography are known as geographers. These people are engaged in the study of the natural environment of our planet and human society. Although the cartographers of the ancient world were known as geographers, today it is a relatively independent specialty. Geographers tend to focus on two main areas of geographical study: physical geography and human geography.

History of the development of geography

The term "geography" was coined by the ancient Greeks, who not only created detailed maps of the surrounding area, but also explained the difference between people and natural landscapes in different places on Earth. Over time, the rich heritage of geography has taken a fateful journey into the bright Islamic minds. The golden age of Islam witnessed astonishing achievements in the field of geographical sciences. Islamic geographers became famous for their pioneering discoveries. New lands were explored and the first base grid for the map system was developed. Chinese civilization also instrumentally contributed to the development of early geography. The compass developed by the Chinese was used by explorers to explore the unknown.

A new chapter in the history of science begins with the period of great geographical discoveries, a period coinciding with the European Renaissance. A fresh interest in geography woke up in the European world. Marco Polo - Venetian merchant and traveler led this new era of exploration. Commercial interests in establishing trade contacts with the rich civilizations of Asia, such as China and India, became the main incentive for travel at that time. Europeans have moved forward in all directions, discovering new lands, unique cultures and. The great potential of geography for shaping the future of human civilization was recognized, and in the 18th century, it was introduced as a major discipline at the university level. Based on geographical knowledge, people began to discover new ways and means to overcome the difficulties generated by nature, which led to the prosperity of human civilization in all corners of the world. In the 20th century, aerial photography, satellite technology, computerized systems, and sophisticated software revolutionized science and made the study of geography more complete and detailed.

Branches of geography

Geography can be considered as an interdisciplinary science. The subject includes a transdisciplinary approach, which allows you to observe and analyze objects in the space of the Earth, as well as develop solutions to problems based on this analysis. The discipline of geography can be divided into several areas of scientific research. The primary classification geography divides the approach to the subject into two broad categories: physical geography and socio-economic geography.

Physiography

Defined as a branch of geography that includes the study of natural objects and phenomena (or processes) on Earth.

Physical geography is further subdivided into the following branches:

• Geomorphology: engaged in the study of topographic and bathymetric features of the Earth's surface. Science helps to elucidate various aspects related to landforms, such as their history and dynamics. Geomorphology also attempts to predict future changes in the physical characteristics of the Earth's appearance.
• Glaciology: a branch of physical geography that studies the relationship between the dynamics of glaciers and their impact on the ecology of the planet. Thus, glaciology involves the study of the cryosphere, including alpine and continental glaciers. Glacial geology, snow hydrology, etc. are some subdisciplines of glaciological research.
• Oceanography: Since the oceans contain 96.5% of all water on Earth, the specialized discipline of oceanography is dedicated to their study. The science of oceanography includes geological oceanography (the study of the geological aspects of the ocean floor, seamounts, volcanoes, etc.), biological oceanography (the study of marine life, fauna and ecosystems of the ocean), chemical oceanography (the study of the chemical composition of sea waters and their impact on marine life forms), physical oceanography (the study of ocean movements such as waves, currents, tides).
• Hydrology: another important branch of physical geography, dealing with the study of the properties and dynamics of the movement of water in relation to land. It explores the rivers, lakes, glaciers and underground aquifers of the planet. Hydrology studies the continuous movement of water from one source to another, above and below the surface of the Earth, through.
• Soil science: the branch of science that studies the different types of soils in their natural environment on the earth's surface. Helps to collect information and knowledge about the process of formation (pedogenesis), composition, texture and classification of soils.
• : an indispensable discipline of physical geography that studies the dispersal of living organisms in the geographic space of the planet. It also studies the distribution of species over geological time periods. Each geographic region has its own unique ecosystems, and biogeography explores and explains their relationship to physical geographic features. There are various branches of biogeography: zoogeography (the geographical distribution of animals), phytogeography (the geographical distribution of plants), island biogeography (the study of factors affecting individual ecosystems), etc.
• Paleogeography: the branch of physical geography that studies geographic features at various points in time in the earth's geological history. Science helps geographers gain information about continental positions and plate tectonics as determined by studying paleomagnetism and fossil records.
• Climatology: scientific study of climate, as well as the most important section of geographical research in the modern world. Considers all aspects related to micro or local climate as well as macro or global climate. Climatology also includes the study of the influence of human society on climate, and vice versa.
• Meteorology: deals with the study of weather conditions, atmospheric processes and phenomena that affect local and global weather.
• Ecological geography: explores the interaction between people (individuals or society) and their natural environment from a spatial perspective.
• Coastal geography: a specialized field of physical geography that also includes the study of socio-economic geography. It is devoted to the study of the dynamic interaction between the coastal zone and the sea. Physical processes that form coasts and the influence of the sea on landscape change. The study also involves understanding the impact of coastal residents on the topography and ecosystem of the coast.
• Quaternary geology: a highly specialized branch of physical geography dealing with the study of the Quaternary period of the Earth (geographical history of the Earth, covering the last 2.6 million years). This allows geographers to learn about the environmental changes that have taken place in the recent past of the planet. Knowledge is used as a tool to predict future changes in the world's environment.
• Geomatics: the technical branch of physical geography that involves the collection, analysis, interpretation, and storage of data about the earth's surface.
• landscape ecology: a science that studies the influence of various landscapes of the Earth on the ecological processes and ecosystems of the planet.

Human geography

Human geography, or socio-economic geography, is a branch of geography that studies the impact of the environment on human society and the earth's surface, as well as the impact of anthropogenic activities on the planet. Socio-economic geography is focused on the study of the most developed creatures in the world from an evolutionary point of view - people and their environment.

This branch of geography is divided into various disciplines depending on the direction of research:

• Geography population: deals with the study of how nature determines the distribution, growth, composition, lifestyle and migration of human populations.
• Historical geography: explains the change and development of geographical phenomena over time. While this section is seen as a branch of human geography, it also focuses on certain aspects of physical geography. Historical geography tries to understand why, how and when places and regions on the Earth change, and what impact they have on human society.
• Cultural geography: explores how and why cultural preferences and norms change across spaces and places. Thus, it is concerned with the study of the spatial variations of human cultures, including religion, language, livelihood choices, politics, and so on.
• Economical geography: the most important section of socio-economic geography, covering the study of the location, distribution and organization of human economic activity in geographic space.
• Political geography: considers the political boundaries of the countries of the world and the division between countries. She also studies how spatial structures influence political functions, and vice versa. Military geography, electoral geography, geopolitics are some of the sub-disciplines of political geography.
• Geography of health: explores the impact of geographic location on the health and well-being of people.
• Social geography: studies the quality and standard of living of the human population of the world and tries to understand how and why such standards change depending on place and space.
• Geography of settlements: deals with the study of urban and rural settlements, economic structure, infrastructure, etc., as well as the dynamics of human settlement in relation to space and time.
• Geography of animals: studies the animal world of the Earth and the interdependence between humans and animals.