The phoneme has its own structure, has a number of features that do not exist independently, but coexist in the phoneme. Moreover, some signs of a phoneme may differ from another, while others, on the contrary, are common, unifying. Distinctive signs of phonemes are established in significative forces. p oz..
The signs necessary to determine this phoneme in the signal. forces. pos. are called differential signs (fr. differencire - to distinguish).
These features make it possible to distinguish one phoneme from another. For example, ˂ and ˃ - upper rise, non-lab. - these signs, embodying the phoneme and in the signal. forces. positions, allow distinguish from other phonemes, for example, from the phoneme ˂у˃ - upper rise, labial.
Thus, the differential feature of a phoneme is determined with the help of oppositions. In the MFS theory, the set of differential features can be different.
For example: ˂а˃ - tol. lower under. and absent. recognition labial-ti. (thol. a lower. under.)
An integral feature is a feature of sounds embodying a phoneme that do not participate in opposing phonemes to other phonemes. An integral feature is often not independent, these features are forced, often associated with the predictive capabilities of the sound that embodies the phoneme.
For example, for vowel phonemes (an integral feature is a row, since it is highly mobile)
[ӓʹ] - in a position between two consonants of a more anterior formation than [a] after solid or between two solid consonants, but they are both images. phoneme a.
For vowels [ӓ] and [a], the indicator of the series is associated with predictability.
The sign of labilization for [a] is an integral sign.
For consonants:
[ts] - a sign of ch.-sounds. - IP
He does not have a generally accepted pair of deafness-voicedness.
[c] - [dˆz] - occurs only in the flow of speech; as a functional unit this sound does not exist. therefore ˂ц˃. In contrast to [t] and [d], ˂t˃ and ˂d˃ are recognized. ch. – sound - IP.
꞊˃Differential and integral signs perform different functions.
Differential features are necessary to distinguish between significant units (significative function), integral features in most cases perform a predictive function.
Moscow Phonological School:
characteristic is the opposition of the phoneme, which has a set of differential features of the sound that implements it. Sound has a set of differential features and integral features. In order to define a phoneme, it is necessary to name a differential feature. to characterize the sound, one must name both differential and integral features.
Saint Petersburg Phonological School: sign hardness softness is a differential sign for consonants. However, SPFS believes that the differential and integral features characterize the phoneme and its allophones (variants and variations). This follows from the understanding of the basic function of the phoneme in SPFS. From this point of view, phonemes and allophones are important in order to fully know the words. In any position, a phoneme is capable of performing both distinctive and predictive functions at the same time. According to the theory of SPFS, neither a phoneme nor its differential features undergo neutralization, therefore, in any position, the set of DP and IP is constant.
If the set of differential features is set in a significatively strong position, then in SPFS it is in the full type of pronunciation. Moreover, in both schools, the methods for determining the differential features of phonemes differ ꞊˃ different results.
Differential signs:
- climb
- labialized - not labialized (all voices except [a]). The sign of a series is an integral sign.
As for consonants (consonants have four differential features (:
- Place of education
- way of education
- deafness-voicedness
- hardness-softness
One integral feature is noise-sonority.
In SPFS all signs are recognized as differential signs. all consonants have a set of differential features: the place of formation, the method of formation, hardness, softness, deafness, sonority, noisiness, sonority.
Both schools are united in that phonemes are inseparable, cannot be considered in isolation from phonemes.
Differential signs certain properties of linguistic units that oppose these units to other units of the same level that either do not have these properties or have properties that are opposed to them. For example, the Russian sound "l" is opposed to the sound "l" by palatalization (presence - absence of property), the word form "table" - the word form "tables" by number (singular and plural), the meaning of the word "man" - the meaning of the word "stone » by animation (animate - inanimate). The concept of D. p. is most developed in phonology, where it is fundamental. Relevant and irrelevant (irrelevant) features are distinguished. A given D. p. is relevant for a given phonological system if, according to this D. p., any phonemes (See Phoneme) of a given language are opposed (for example, the sign of “voiced - deafness” of consonants is relevant for Russian, German, French, English and some other languages). However, the relevant D. p. may turn out to be irrelevant under certain conditions, for example, if it is determined by the position of the sound (the deafness of consonants at the end of words in Russian languages is irrelevant) or by the features of the phonological system. The American scientists R. Jacobson, G. Fant, and M. Halle proposed a list of 12 universal binary acoustic phonics, which, in their opinion, is sufficient for an exhaustive description of the phonological system of any language. The concept of D. p. is also used at other levels of linguistic structure and is one of the basic concepts of modern linguistics. Lit.: Trubetskoy N. S., Fundamentals of phonology, trans. from German, M., 1960; Bloomfield L., Language, trans. from English, M., 1968; Jakobson R., Fant C. G. M., Halle M., Preliminaries to speech analysis, Camb., 1955 (Russian translation, part 2 - in the book: New in linguistics, v. 2, M., 1962) ; Jakobson R., Halle M., Fundamentals of language, "s-Gravenhage, 1956. V. V. Raskin.
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1969-1978 .
See what "Differential features" are in other dictionaries:
differential signs- Distinctive, distinguishing features ... Explanatory Translation Dictionary
- (from lat. differens distinguishing). The signs by which this phoneme is opposed to other phonemes of the language, its semantic features (for example, vocal non-vocal, consonant non-consonant; deafness, sonority, explosiveness ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms
1) the nature of the relationship between someone else's and the author's speech: a) from the point of view of the hero and the author, they are combined; b) a literal transmission of the content of someone else's speech is typical; 2) linguistic features of ways of transmitting improperly direct speech: a) allows you to save everything ...
Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
1) the nature of the relationship between someone else's and the author's speech: a) someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the author; b) the transfer of the main content of someone else's speech is typical; 2) linguistic features of someone else's speech: a) does not allow you to save all the features of the transmitted ... ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
differential signs of improperly direct speech- 1) the nature of the correlation of someone else's and author's speech: a) from the point of view of the hero and the author, they are combined; b) a literal transmission of the content of someone else's speech is typical; 2) linguistic features of ways of transmitting improperly direct speech: a) allows you to save ...
differential signs of direct speech- 1) the nature of the correlation of someone else's and the author's speech: a) someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the speaker (hero); b) a literal transmission of the content of someone else's speech is typical; 2) linguistic features of direct speech: a) allows you to save all the vocabulary ... ... Syntax: Dictionary
differential features of ways of transmitting indirect speech- 1) the nature of the relationship between someone else's and the author's speech: a) someone else's speech is transmitted from the point of view of the author; b) the transfer of the main content of someone else's speech is typical; 2) linguistic features of someone else's speech: a) does not allow you to save all the features ... ... Syntax: Dictionary
differential signs of non-union complex sentences of heterogeneous composition- 1) closeness of the structure; 2) semantic diversity of parts; 3) the possibility of different grammatical design of predicative parts; 4) the use of various types of intonational design of structures ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
differential signs of parallel connection- 1) the main mode of operation of communication mechanisms is repetition; 2) leading means of communication: lexical repetitions, words of one thematic or lexico-semantic group; 3) a sequence with a constant topic or with derived topics ... Dictionary of linguistic terms T.V. Foal
Books
- Speech units of oral Russian speech. System, zones of use, functions, S. V. Andreeva. The monograph examines the speech units of oral Russian speech: their consistency, areas of use, pragmatic orientation. A multidimensional analysis is presented…
Almost any acoustic-articulatory characteristic of sound can act as a differential feature of a phoneme.: for example, the degree of participation of the voice, the nature, place and method of formation of an obstacle in the path of an air jet, the length or brevity of a vowel or consonant, etc. - if only this characteristic serves to oppose at least two phonological units.
If the difference that exists between some sounds is not in itself capable of differentiating words, then such sounds form a non-phonological opposition, and the feature that distinguishes them is considered phonologically insignificant (i.e., it can appear during the realization of the phoneme, but not included in its main characterization). For example, in Russian, the deafness of the consonants [l), [r] or [l"], [r"1, which manifests itself at the end of a word after the deaf ones, is phonologically insignificant - cf. minister, wail etc.; it is clear that [r] sonorant and [r] deaf, [l *] sonorant and [l"] deaf, etc. will never independently distinguish Russian words.
In general, all differential signs are divided into three classes. The first class is vocal features that serve to oppose (and, accordingly, form) vowel phonemes. The second class is consonant features that form consonant phonemes. And the third class - prosodic signs - includes, according to N. S. Trubetskoy, stress and variations of the voice tone.
Naturally, each language does not use all possible acoustic-articulatory features of sound for semantic differentiation, but only a certain set of them. (Therefore, the number of phonemes in the languages of the world ranges from 12-20 to 75-80, but does not exceed this limit.) Moreover, the same physical characteristic of sound in the phonological system of one language is a differential feature (it will create pairs of phonemes there) , while in the system of the other it turns out to be phonologically insignificant. L.V. has already drawn attention to this. Shcherba. He, for example, pointed out that the “same” deaf [l], which is a shade of the phoneme<л>in Russian, constitutes a separate phoneme in Icelandic and Cymric. (Compare also the example given with the closed and open vowels [e! in Russian and French.)
N. S. Trubetskoy developed this position both practically and theoretically. Using the sound material of many languages, he showed that various combinations of differential features form certain systems of vowel and consonant phonemes. With his research, the scientist laid the foundations for the typology of these systems.
96. Phoneme as a bundle of differential features
Each phoneme differs from other phonemes of a given language by one or more distinctive features. But differential features do not simply serve to distinguish between phonemes; they are ultimately their essence. Let's explain this in
example. If we systematize the material of diverse phonological oppositions, which gives us the modern Russian language, then we, in particular, get the opposition<т> - <д>. Pairs of words like there- ladies, longing- board, company- kind, rafts - fruits etc. give us reason to talk about<т>and<д>like different phonemes. It is clear that according to the same sign of deafness - voicedness, which distinguishes them, the phoneme<т>opposed to all non-deaf phonemes of the Russian language, i.e. voiced and sonorous (not to mention vowels), cf .: current - rock, so - yak
Continuing the systematization of the factual material, we will come to oppositions of the type that- cat, dot- kidney, there- din, congestion- fence. In all these and similar cases, the phoneme<т>is opposed to all phonemes of a different place of formation, i.e., labial, middle lingual and back lingual. It does not matter, however, whether there is<т>and its "opponent" the above-described difference in deafness - sonority (as in there- din) or not available (as in that- cat); the sign of the place of formation acts on its own. Phoneme<т>in these pairs, it acts as a representative of the differential feature of anterior lingualism.
However, signs of deafness and anterior lingualism, taken together, are not yet able to distinguish<т>and<т">in examples like knock- bale or flow- dripped. This makes a sign of hardness - softness. It is clear that the same sign participates in oppositions<т> - <с">, <т> - <д">, <т> - <п">and others (cf.: back and forth, current - baked, inflated- inflate etc.).
Finally, in a similar way, we find in<т>a differential sign of a certain method of formation is explosiveness. On this basis, the phoneme<т>opposed to phoneme<с>, as well as all other non-explosive phonemes (fricative, affricates, etc.) - cf. opposition: there - himself, stomp - whisper, congestion - gap, knock - hatch etc.
As a result, it turns out that<т>connected in the phonological system of the Russian language by multidimensional relationships with all other phonemes. Moreover, it is itself defined through these relations. We can say that the phoneme<т>in Russian it is a combination of differential signs of deafness,
front tongue, hardness and explosiveness. This is the main meaning of the concept of N. S. Trubetskoy, enshrined in the following definition: “A phoneme is a set of phonologically significant features characteristic of a given sound formation” (Trubetskoy 1960: 46). The definition of a phoneme as an aggregate, or as a “bundle”, of differential features is especially important precisely because the material side of this unit is dissolved in the speech variety of sounds. (Same phoneme<т>in Russian it will most often sound like [t], but sometimes also like [d], or [t "], or [ts 1, or zero sound ...) Therefore, the phoneme is an abstraction, it cannot be heard or pronounced, for in each concrete act of speech we will be dealing with only one of its variants, but one thing is stable in the phoneme: this is its role, which is performed thanks to the totality of differential features.
Allophone(Greek άλλος another and φωνή sound) - realization of a phoneme, its variant, due to a specific phonetic environment. Unlike the phoneme, it is not an abstract concept, but specific speech sound. Despite the wide range of allophones of one phoneme, a native speaker is always able to recognize them.
Basic allophone- such an allophone, the properties of which are minimally dependent on the position and phonetic environment. Basic allophones:
for vowels - isolated pronunciation;
for hard consonants - before the shock "a";
for soft consonants - before the stressed "and".
Along with the main allophone, there is a strong position of sound. Strong position- this is the position in which the maximum number of phonemes of this type is possible. For vowels, a strong position is the position under stress, for consonants - before a non-front vowel.
Differ combinatorial and positional allophones.
Combinatorial allophones- implementations of phonemes associated with a certain phonetic environment of sounds.
Examples are:
nasalization (nasal pronunciation);
labialization (roundness).
Combinatorial signs may extend over several syllables.
Positional allophones- implementations of phonemes related to their phonetic position. By phonetic position it is customary to understand:
whether the sound is at the absolute beginning of the word (after a pause);
whether the sound is at the absolute end of the word (before the pause);
the position of the sound in relation to the stress.
There is another division of allophones:
Mandatory (implemented in accordance with the norms of the language).
Optional options (for example, slotted /g/).
Individual allophones (for example, errors in pronunciation).
The distribution of a phoneme is the totality of all possible allophones of a given phoneme. Allophones of one phoneme are in relations of complementary distribution.
Two different allophones of the same phoneme cannot exist in the same position.
36. Universal system of binary differential phonological features R.O. Jacobson.
The theory of universal binary phonological features, created in the early 1950s by R. O. Jacobson and F. Halle, suggests that the system of any language in the world can be described using several pairs of binary features. The creators of this theory suggest 12 pairs of binary features.
1. Articulatory signs:
a) nasality - non-nasality,
b) duration (continuity) - non-duration (discontinuity),
in) abortiveness - non-abruptiveness.
2. Acoustic features:
a) sonority - deafness,
b) brightness - dimness,
in) vocal - non-vocal,
G) consonance - non-consonance,
e) flat key - simple key
e) sharp tonality - simple tonality,
g) tension - tension.
3 . Format characteristics:
a) compactness - diffuseness,
b) low tone - high tone.
1. Articulatory signs.
a) Nasal are sounds (and their corresponding phonemes), during the articulation of which a stream of air passes into the nasal (including the nasal) cavity: Russian.<м>, <н>; st.sl. <о>, <е>; Polish<а>, <е>.
Non-nasal are sounds, during the pronunciation of which the entrance to the nasal cavity is closed (in the signifier of the last lexeme closed there is no nasal phoneme).
b) long are those sounds (and their corresponding phonemes) that can have an unlimited duration in time.
Long or continuous phonemes:fricative anterior-lingual and middle-lingual, fricative pharyngeal (pharyngeal), stop-passing lateral. Non-long (intermittent) phonemes: affricates, stops,
stop-pass nasal, stop-passage trembling.
in) Abruptive are sounds (and their corresponding phonemes), during the pronunciation of which, not with an air stream, but with the efforts of the muscles, the bow in the mouth breaks, and already through the air stream passes through the interligamentous gap and a noise or guttural explosion is produced.
Abruptive phonemes exist in Ibero-Caucasian languages, where there are often no simple plosives or affricates. In German, there is a knaklaut - a laryngeal gap in the interligamentous gap before a vowel.
2. Acoustic signs.
a) voiced are consonant sounds (and their corresponding phonemes), which consist of voice and noise.
deaf are consonant sounds (and their corresponding phonemes) that consist only of noise.
o) bright are sounds (and their corresponding phonemes) in the pronunciation of which the noise from the explosion due to the friction of the air jet occurs in several places and this is felt noise as acoustic dissonance.
Bright phonemes:
hissing<ж>, <ш>,
whistling<з>, <с>,
affricates<ч>, <ц>,
labiodental consonants<в>, <ф>,
sonorous<м>, <н>, <р>.
dim(or unsharp) phonemes:
labio-dental prosthesis
fart-lingual<д>, <т>,
middle lingual, back lingual<г>, <к>, <х>.
c) vocal phonemes consist of one voice:<а>, <о>, <и>. (
d) Consonant phonemes consist of one noise (voiceless) or noise and voice:<х^, <д>, <м>.
There are phonemes that are both vocal and consonant - This smooth, sonants (syllabic consonants):<г>, <1>.
There are phonemes that are not neither vocal, nor consonant - This glides (sliding):
glide 1. A short indefinite sound that occurs during the transition from one complete sound to another, an intermediate sound: the glottis remains open, while the organs of speech assume a new position. 2. The non-syllabic part of the diphthong. (O. S. Akhmanova)
e) Lowering the tone during labialization creates flat key:
e) Increasing the tone while softening the sound creates sharp tone: at the sound [b](for the corresponding phoneme<а>) in the word frequency - sharp tone.
difference in keys important only for vowel phonemes.
g) Tense- these are phonemes that are characterized by a large energy of pronouncing long stops: in the Hittite letter, tension is conveyed in writing by doubling stop consonants pp, it, kk in an intervocalic position.
Sign of tension-relaxation phonologically significant only for stop phonemes(only for consonant phonemes).
formative features.
a) Diffuseness - compactness.
The pitch of the sound depends on the oscillation frequency: the higher the oscillation frequency, the higher (thinner) the sound and vice versa: the lower the oscillation frequency, the lower (rougher) the sound.
The amplitude of the oscillations determines the strength, the loudness of the sound: the greater the amplitude of the oscillations, the louder the sound.
The amplitude of oscillations of a sound wave at some frequencies can be greater, and at other frequencies - less.
Those frequencies, which correspond to the largest amplitude of the oscillations of the sound wave, are the formants.
In the spectral analysis of the sound wave, it turns out that at some frequencies, the wave has the largest amplitude of oscillations, that is, the largest energy.
The phoneme is diffuse, if energy is concentrated at the periphery of the spectrum, that is, at the periphery of the spectrum is located upper and lower formant. Simply put, a diffuse phoneme greatest the oscillation amplitude is at the highest and lowest frequencies, the sound seems to be "smeared" over the spectrum.
A phoneme is compact if the energy (or formant) is concentrated at the center of the spectrum, i.e the largest amplitude of oscillations is at frequencies close to each other.
For example, a diffuse phoneme is , because its formant (the largest oscillation amplitude) is at the extreme frequencies of the spectrum: the upper formant corresponds to a frequency of 2200 Hz - the lower formant corresponds to a frequency of 300 Hz.
The phoneme is compact<а>, because its "upper formant corresponds to a frequency of 1200 Hz - the lower formant corresponds to a frequency of 700 Hz.
diffuse phonemes:
open vowels,
midlingual consonants,
posterior consonants.
Compact phonemes:
closed vowels,
labial consonants,
front lingual consonants.
b) Low or high pitch depends on the size of the resonator: a large volume resonator corresponds to low formants, and a small volume resonator corresponds to high formants.
That is, with a small-volume resonator, the largest oscillation amplitude is concentrated at high frequencies and vice versa. In other words, the larger the volume of the resonator (oral cavity), the lower, rougher the sound.
low key characteristic:
open vowel,
labialized vowel,
back lingual consonant,
labialconsonants.
High key characteristic:
closed vowel,
front lingual consonant,
mid-lingual consonants.
Obviously, in this system of universal binary differential features, there are such differential features that peculiar only to vowels(flatness - simple tonality, sharpness - simple tonality) or consonants only phonemes (sonority - deafness, brightness - dullness, tension - relaxation).
obvious and redundancy this set of differential features: using 12 pairs of features, you can describe 2 to the 12th degree of phonemes == 4096 phonemes. But in all the languages of the world, there are about 200 non-recurring phonemes in total. 4096 - 200 = 3896 objects turn out to be empty in this model, and then the phonological space becomes a vacuum.
Nevertheless, this system of universal binary differential phonological features is an ingenious and fruitful attempt to unify the phonological level model of a language system.
37. Implementation of phonemes in speech. Typology of phoneme variants. The nature of information transmitted by means of the phonetic-phonological level.
The relationship of phoneme and sound in the most general form can be represented as follows. The phoneme is realized in one or another sound variant, depending primarily on speech - positional and combinatorial - conditions.. Along with them, the formality of phoneme variation is determined by social factors: a phoneme can have dialectal and stylistic varieties.
In addition to these two types, there is a third group of shades - individual, representing more or less random (for the language as a whole, but not for the individual) deviations in the sound realization of the phoneme. In particular, in Russian pronunciation there are examples of different [r]: “burr”, L-shaped, /-shaped or L-shaped (remember Denisov in L. Tolstoy’s “War and Peace”), labialization of hissing (examples like “fyfka” , "don't mephie" instead of bump, don't bother) nasalization of vowels (nasal), etc. All this greatly expands the range of articulatory and acoustic variation of the phoneme.
However, in any case - both with the generally accepted and with individual variation of the phoneme - one thing is important for the language system: to keep the distance between phonemes, at least in strong positions. (Recall that, according to N. S. Trubetskoy, the establishment of the phonological status of a particular sound in general is derived from the entire system of phonological oppositions of a given language.) This means that the timbre, i.e. formant, characteristic of a phoneme can fluctuate over a significant range, only if it does not completely coincide with the range of variation of any other phoneme of the given language. What has been said concerns both the isolated pronunciation of a sound and its natural position in the flow of speech. If, in individual pronunciation, the phonetic parameters of two phonemes for one reason or another (foreign language accent, physiological defect, etc.) regularly coincide, then this inevitably leads to communicative “accidents”, misunderstandings (cf. with indistinguishability<р>and<г>: childbirth- years, joy- muck etc.). In this case, theoretically, any shift in the acoustic-articulatory characteristic of one phoneme should, due to the systemic nature of the language, lead to a shift in the corresponding characteristic of another (or other) phonemes. If, for example,<ш>starts to sound like f, then<ф>should become more diffuse, “more labial” ... However, in practice this is not at all necessary. The fact is that phonemes are interconnected by multidimensional relationships, and the complete coincidence of their phonetic characteristics in one language is very rare. Even more important, perhaps, is the fact that paradigmatic relations can be compensated by syntagmatics, and as part of larger linguistic units, the phoneme is automatically recognized, despite some deviations in its sound realization. (Let's say, despite the presence in the Russian language of examples of the opposition of the type shorts- forts, replacing the sound [w] with [f] in a phrase A man in shorts stood by the bus does not cause any communicative misunderstandings, and may not attract the attention of the listener at all.) Thus, “the phonemic identification of a sound can be determined not only and not so much by its own phonetic properties, but rather be “derived” under the influence of higher language levels. So, the same vowel can be recognized as at And How e depending on the semantic context.
The directions along which the development of phonological theory takes place are determined by the possibility of a different approach to the phenomena of the phonemic level and, above all, by different interpretations of the essence of the phoneme itself. The concept the identity of the phoneme, i.e., its relationship, on the one hand, with sound, and on the other hand, with other units homogeneous with it. It has already been noted that the speech realization of a phoneme combines sound variants on a functional basis.
The fact that sound is perceived "through the prism of the phoneme" (and the entire phonological system of a given language) is most clearly manifested when comparing the material of different languages. For example, if in the Estonian language there is no opposition of consonants in terms of deafness - voicedness, then it is difficult for a native speaker of this language to distinguish Russian by ear<с>and<з>, <п>and<б>etc. (and, accordingly, Russian words like cathedral, fence, constipation will appear to him as homophones). Another example. A Russian student of Bulgarian needs a lot of effort to master the pronunciation of the vowel phoneme.<ъ>(in words like 0b "oak", ъ*ъл "angle" etc.). At the same time, it is known that in the phonetics of the Russian language there is exactly the same sound (moreover, this is one of the most frequent sounds in Russian speech) - cf. at least Bulgarian words and their Russian counterparts: lakyp- elbow, resistance - resistance etc. The whole point, however, is that these sounds are identical only phonetically, while their phonological value is completely different. In Russian [b] is a variant of phonemes<а>or<о>, found only in a weak position, in an unstressed syllable. In the Bulgarian language<ъ>- this is a full-fledged phoneme, acting in any position, including under stress, and independently distinguishing words like eats and sm, catfish and see etc.
So, to identify a certain phoneme, to establish its presence in a given language, means, firstly, to identify those phonological oppositions in which it enters, and, secondly, to determine those positional alternations in which it appears. These are two sides of the same linguistic problem, but depending on which side is put at the forefront, the very interpretation of the phoneme changes. In essence, it is this criterion that underlies the theoretical differences between different phonological concepts, the most famous of which are named after the Prague, Leningrad and Moscow phonological schools.
Diffuse changes in the pancreas - a concept that is not related to the diagnosis. This term is the conclusion of a specialist in ultrasound diagnostics, indicating that the patient has pancreatitis of various forms or its consequences. The degree of diffuse rebirth varies depending on the stage of the pathological process.
What are diffuse changes
Diffusion in the context of anatomy is the process of replacing some components of cellular tissue with others. A similar phenomenon is diagnosed in the pancreas, where affected areas coexist next to normal cells. Therefore, such manifestations are detected using the ultrasound method.
Under the influence of factors such as advanced age, diabetes, circulatory disorders, diseases of the cardiovascular system, there is a loss of pancreatic cells with the formation of adipose or connective tissue in their place. Experts do not recognize this condition as a disease. Persistent modifications are observed in violation of blood circulation and the functioning of endocrine organs, failures of metabolic processes.
Changes in the structure of the pancreas are characteristic of pancreatitis and dystrophic disorders occurring in the metabolic system. Such processes can proceed for a long time, without being accompanied by any painful symptoms.
Moderate diffuse changes
In most cases of painful symptoms, this condition does not necessitate therapeutic intervention. Moderate diffuse changes are transformations evenly located on the parenchyma. Medical specialists call the parenchyma the union of the main functioning cells of the glandular organ, the transformations in which affect the level of density.
If the patient has complaints, then it becomes necessary to conduct an additional examination of the pancreas, gallbladder, digestive organs, and liver. These organs are interconnected, and the failure that occurred in one of them may be similar in symptomatic picture to the pathology of the other.
Unexpressed changes
Minor diffuse distortion is not a cause for concern. The identification of such a symptom may indicate recent inflammation, improper diet, and often stressful situations. One of the causes of pancreatic dysfunction is a malfunction in the nervous system. Regular experience of stress leads to an increase in the level of excreted secretion, and depression inhibits this function of the gland.
Eliminating the cause of such violations, which consists in observing the rules of nutrition and maintaining a positive emotional mood, allows you to correct the changes. If the initial stage of an unexpressed pathological process is left without due attention, then there is a high probability of the formation of reactive lesions, which can lead to dangerous diseases.
Pronounced diffuse changes
Transformations in the pancreas indicate the presence of an inflammatory process or disease in the body. When the modification of the organ is expressed, the doctor conducts additional studies of the digestive system. In difficult cases, diffuse transformations are accompanied by pain, a feeling of compaction in the pancreas zone, and digestive disorders.
The most common cause of the formation of pronounced changes is pancreatitis, which manifests itself in several forms:
- The acute stage of the disease causes stagnation of pancreatic fluid in the glandular organ. The patient is in critical condition and is in severe pain. In this case, doctors recommend taking drugs aimed at relaxing the digestive muscles and inhibiting the function of the gland.
- The chronic course of the pathology can be determined by both pronounced and moderately pronounced changes. With this type of disease, stages of remission and exacerbation are recorded. The acute phase requires therapeutic intervention.
Symptoms
Signs of diffuse changes in the pancreas depend on the underlying disease. The list of clinical symptoms includes the following conditions:
- heaviness in the stomach;
- diarrhea;
- regular constipation.
Pancreatitis in acute form and dystrophic changes are characterized by a significant increase in pressure in the duct of the gland, which leads to deformation of the organ. Enzymes necessary for digestion penetrate the cellular structures of the pancreas, causing intoxication of the body. Such poisoning is accompanied by pain localized under the sternum on the left side. Also, the patient experiences nausea, vomiting, lowering blood pressure, tachycardia. The condition requires surgical intervention.
The initial stage of chronic pancreatitis is manifested by the formation of edema, hemorrhages in the pancreas. With the progression of the pathology, there is a decrease in the size of the gland, the growth of connective tissue, which replaces the enzyme-forming damaged cells. As a result, there is a violation of the production of digestive substances.
With the development of fibrosis, the displacement of healthy pancreatic cells with the formation of connective tissue is diagnosed. Thanks to this replacement, there is a sharp decrease in the production of enzymes and hormones. The onset of the disease is not accompanied by a bright symptomatic picture.
Lipomatosis is characterized by the replacement of normal gland cells with adipose tissue. The patient has a deficiency of hormonal and enzyme substances. The severity of the pathology depends on the volume of diffuse transformations. With minimal changes, the disease does not manifest itself. With the progressive growth of lipoid cells, there is a malfunction of the gland with painful symptoms.
Causes
The causes of diffuse changes vary considerably. Elderly people are often diagnosed with atrophy of the gland, which is expressed by a decrease in its size. In this case, echogenicity (a situation where the pancreatic tissue reflects ultrasonic waves) is within the normal range. Patients do not experience pain and do not need treatment.
Another cause of diffuse modifications of the gland is pancreatitis, in which enzymes and toxic substances are released. Getting into the blood, toxins cause the destruction of all organs and systems, including the pancreas. Patients complain of severe pain, fever, vomiting, rapid pulse. In this disease, the gland has an enlarged size and a fuzzy structure. Echo signs are reduced, the diameter of the ducts is changed, neurotic areas are revealed.
Inflammatory processes that occur for a long time in the pancreas cause the development of fibrosis, accompanied by the growth of connective tissue that replaces damaged cells. Pathology is detected during ultrasound diagnostics, echoscopically determined by the increase, increased density of the organ. In the absence of complaints of malaise, the patient does not require treatment.
Lipomatosis, characterized by diffuse distortion, occurs in the elderly and diabetics. The disease is manifested by the growth of fat cells, as a result of which the tissues of the gland are pinched. Steatosis, which belongs to the category of diseases caused by an unhealthy lifestyle, can lead to excessive formation of lipids.
Complications
Various pathologies accompanied by DIIP can lead to serious consequences:
- abscess - penetration of pus into organs and systems, leading to the development of an inflammatory process;
- neoplasms in the form of cysts and tumors;
- internal bleeding;
- pleurisy, pneumonia develop as a result of infection entering the circulatory system;
- duodenal stenosis - excessive pressure of the pancreas on the duodenum leads to a narrowing of its lumen.
You can prevent the formation of complications with the help of detailed compliance with the doctor's prescriptions, proper diet, and lifestyle revision. Identification of diffuse rebirths at an early stage allows a person to avoid the formation of severe consequences.
Diagnostics
Examination of changes in the gland is carried out using ultrasound diagnostics. This method allows you to determine the level of density of the gland and the change in uniformity, to identify the area of inflammation. You can confirm the presence of diffusion using a comprehensive examination, which consists in carrying out the following activities:
- collection of anamnesis;
- clarification of patient complaints;
- palpation of the pancreas zone;
- complete blood count (performed to determine the level of pancreatic substances);
- urinalysis (allows to identify pancreatic enzymes);
- CT scan.
Determination of echographic signs of diffuse changes occupies a leading position in the conduct of ultrasound examination. The method, based on the ability of the tissues of the human body to reflect ultrasonic waves, allows you to get an objective picture of the state of internal organs. First of all, the specialist pays attention to the decoding of the following echo signs:
- heterogeneity of the structure of the organ with the definition of areas of increased echogenicity;
- change in the size of the gland;
- the degree of expansion of the ducts;
- the presence of neoplasms.
The pancreas on ultrasound is defined as an organ with a homogeneous structure and unchanged echogenicity. The level of density may vary from normal values in the direction of decrease or increase. A decrease in echo characteristics and density is detected with the formation of cysts, the presence of fluid in the organ. Increased echogenicity indicates the development of fibrosis.
Treatment
Diffuse changes in the pancreas do not require treatment, since this condition is not an independent disease. Modifications of the organ indicate the natural processes occurring in the body, or diseases suffered in the past. In such cases, the changes do not cause pain and anxiety, so therapy is prescribed when the diagnosis is clarified.
Treatment in both children and adults is aimed at correcting the underlying disease. It is impossible to eliminate the formed diffuse degenerations, since there has been a significant replacement of healthy pancreatic cells with adipose or connective tissues.
If the cause of the changes is diabetes mellitus, then the therapeutic effect is aimed at maintaining the level of glucose. Such treatment involves following a specialized diet, taking hypoglycemic medications. Elderly patients who have had gland modifications are advised to do gymnastics and follow other rules of a healthy lifestyle.
Diet
The diet in diffuse metamorphoses is determined by the final diagnosis, since the condition is caused by various pathologies, including pancreatitis, moderate hepatomegaly, and diabetes. Regardless of the identified disease, alcohol is contraindicated for patients. Alcohol-containing drinks cause deterioration and exacerbation of painful sensations.
The basis of the diet of people suffering from pancreatic pathologies is dairy and vegetable products, various cereals. Smoked and salty dishes, spices, preservatives are excluded from the diet. Portions should not be large, contributing to the increased production of digestive juice.
The list of prohibited foods includes alcoholic beverages, foods that have a bright salty, smoked, spicy taste, sausages, canned food, seasonings.
As the most suitable foods for eating, experts recommend the following dishes:
- cereals;
- lean meat, fish;
- fruits;
- milk products;
- vegetables.
Steam cooking is the preferred cooking method. Dry food should be avoided, as well as excessive consumption of salt and sugar, as this can lead to the deposition of unnecessary substances in the body.
Prevention and consequences of the disease
Prevention of diffuse changes occurring in the tissues of the pancreas consists in observing certain principles:
- in order to increase the efficiency of the body, it is necessary to exclude the impact on the body of fatty foods, alcohol, nicotine;
- the use of teas based on medicinal herbs;
- moderation and fragmentation of nutrition;
- conducting regular examinations of the whole body.
Compliance with preventive measures can significantly reduce the likelihood of diffuse transformations, as well as severe consequences, expressed in severe pain and the need for surgical intervention. By themselves, diffuse rearrangements are not a disease and do not require specialized therapy.
