Greek language(in Greek ελληνικά (elinika)) belongs to the Greek group of languages ​​of the Indo-European language family, which is spoken by about 13 million people, mainly in Greece and Cyprus, where it is the official language. Greek is also recognized as an ethnic minority language in some regions of Italy, as well as in Albania, Armenia, Romania and Ukraine.

The first script in Greek was discovered in Mycenae, known as Linear B, which was used between 1500 and 1200. BC. This type of Greek is known as Mycenaean. In Crete, another script known as the Cypriot syllabary was used to write the local dialect of Greek from 1200 to 300 BC.

Origin

The Greek alphabet has been in constant use for the past 2,750 years or so, beginning in 750 BC. e. It originated from the Canaanite / Phoenician alphabet, in particular, the order and names of the letters were borrowed from the Phoenician. The original Canaanite meanings of the letters were lost when the alphabet was adapted to the Greek language. For example, the name of a letter in the Greek alphabet "alpha" came from the Canaanite aleph(bull), and "beta"- from beth(house).

In the beginning, there were different versions of the alphabet, which were used in different Greek cities. Local alphabets can be divided into three groups: green, blue and red. From the blue group came the modern Greek alphabet, and from the red group the Etruscan alphabet, as well as other alphabets of ancient Italy, and eventually the Latin alphabet.

At the beginning of the IV century. BC e. local variants of the alphabet replaced the Eastern Ionian alphabet. The capital letters of the modern Greek alphabet are nearly identical to those of the Ionian alphabet. Lowercase Greek letters appeared around 800. Their appearance is associated with the Byzantine cursive script, which, in turn, developed from cursive writing.

Peculiarities

• Type of writing: alphabet (the first alphabet, which included vowels).
• Direction of writing: originally - horizontally from right to left, and there was also a variant of boustrophedon ( βουστροφηδόν ), in which the direction of writing alternated - from right to left and from left to right. After 500 BC. e. the direction of writing was established from left to right, horizontally.
• Diacritics for stress and aspiration were added to the alphabet around 200 BC. e. In 1982, the breath diacritics, which had been infrequently used after 1976, were formally abolished by presidential decree.
• At the letter "sigma" there is a special form that is used at the end of a word.

As is known

Greek (Ελληνικά)- one of the Indo-European languages, which is spoken by about 14 million people, mainly in Greece and Cyprus, for which this language is official. Greek is also recognized as a national minority language partly in Turkey, Italy and Albania.

Today, the Greek alphabet is used only for writing in Greek, although in the past at various times it was also used by such languages ​​as Lydian, Phrygian, Thracian, Gaulish, Hebrew, Arabic, Old Ossetian, Albanian, Turkish, Aromanian, Gagauz, Urum and sealing wax.

ancient greek alphabet

The ancient Greek alphabet is based on inscriptions from Crete dated to about 800 BC. e. At this time, the Greek language used the direction of writing from right to left, horizontally. The names of the letters were slightly different from the names in the later variants of the Greek alphabet.

Greek alphabet (classical Attic phonetic transcription)

Note

Σ = [z] before voiced consonants

diphthongs

Combinations of consonant sounds | Special character

Greek numerals and other symbols

The ancient Greeks used two number systems: The Acrophonic or Classical (Attic) system used the letters iota, delta, gamma, eta, nu and mu in various combinations. These letters were used as the first letters of numeral names, except for the letter iota: Γ έντε (gente) for 5, which became Π έντε (pente); Δ έκα (Deka) for 10, Η ἑκατόν (Hektaton) for 100, Χ ίλιοι (Khilioi) for 1,000 and Μ ύριον (Myrion) for 10,000. This system was used until the first century BC.

The ancient Greeks assigned numerical values ​​to the letters of the alphabet to represent numbers. Three obsolete letters, stigma, koppa, and sampi, were used in addition to the standard Greek letters, and the apostrophe symbol was used to indicate that the letters were used as numerals.

Greek alphabet (modern phonetic transcription)

Notes

• Γ = [γ] before back vowels. Pronounced as [ʝ] before front vowels and rendered as γ
• Κ = [k] before back vowels, and [c] before front vowels
• Λ = [ʎ] before an unstressed i followed by another vowel, e.g. λιώμα [ʎóma]
• Ν = [ɲ] before an unstressed i followed by another vowel, e.g. νιώθω [ɲóθo]
• When [i] is preceded by a voiced consonant and followed by another vowel, [i] becomes [ʝ], for example, διάκος [ðʝákos]. When [i] is preceded by a voiceless consonant and followed by another vowel, [i] is pronounced as [ç], for example, φωτιά. In both cases, this sound is unstressed.
• Σ = [z] before voiced consonants
• Χ = [χ] before back vowels, and [ç] before front vowels

diphthongs

Notes

• αυ = before vowels and voiced consonants; in another position.
• ευ = before vowels and voiced consonants; in another position.
• ηυ = before vowels and voiced consonants; in another position.
• ντ = in the middle of a word; [d] at the beginning.
• μπ = in the middle of a word; [b] at the beginning.
• γγ & γκ = [ŋg] in the middle of a word; [g] at the beginning. If this sound combination is followed by [i] or [e], it is pronounced as [ŋɟ] in the middle of words and [ɟ] at the beginning.
• Diarese is used to indicate the separate pronunciation of vowels, for example Αϊτή . However, if the first of the two letters is stressed, the sharp sign is optional, for example γάιδαρος [γáiðaros].
• If the consonants κ, π, τ, ξ, ψ, and τσ: are preceded by a word that ends in v, they become voiced, and N in the final position becomes the corresponding nasal sound, e.g. τον πατέρα .

Wow! Only twenty-four letters? Are there any sounds missing? That's exactly what it is. There are sounds specific to other languages ​​that are not found in Greek. Such sounds are all post-alveolar affricates (as in “ w ov” (only softer), [Z] as in the word “ well uk”, as in the word “ h erta”, and as in the English word “ j ob”). So, what do the Greeks do when they want to pronounce foreign words with these sounds? If you cannot pronounce the sound correctly, then it simply transforms into the corresponding alveolar sound: [s], [Z] [z], , . What about other common sounds like [b],[d],[g], etc.? They don't seem to be in the alphabet either! Are they also not included in the list of sounds of the language? Not! They exist in the form sounds language. There are simply no separate letters to designate them. When the Greeks want to write sounds, they write them as a combination of two letters: [b] is written as a combination of μπ (mi + pi), [d] as ντ (ni + tau), and [g] as γκ (gamma + kappa), or as γγ (double gamma). Why all these difficulties? Recall, as written in the introduction to this article, the sounds [b], [d], and [g] existed in classical Greek. Later, perhaps some time after the New Testament was written in the so-called Greek koine(single), these three sounds shifted in pronunciation and began to sound like “soft” sounds ([v], , and). There was a phonological void. Words that had a combination of “mp” and “nt” began to be pronounced as and, respectively. Therefore, "explosive" sounds were reintroduced, but letter combinations began to be used to designate them. There is another sound that is not in the alphabet: “and ng ma”, pronounced as in the English word “ki ng". This sound is very rare in Greek, and when it appears (as in "άγχος": alarm; "έλεγχος": check), it is indicated by the combination gamma + chi, where gamma is pronounced as ingma. For your convenience, below is a pronunciation table of letter combinations (2 letters) that give new sounds not included in the Greek alphabet:

cluster	Pronunciation in Modern Greek
ΜΠ μπ	[ b], as in the word “ b yt”, at the beginning of words or in borrowed words; or: [mb], as in the word “to mb at".
ΝΤ ντ	[ d], as in the word “ d at”, at the beginning of words or in borrowed words; or: [nd], as in the word “fo nd”.
ΓΚ γκ ΓΓ γγ	[ g], as in the word “ G orod”, at the beginning of words or in borrowed words; or: [g], as in the word “ri ng". Please note: shapeγγ never occurs at the beginning of words, so it is always pronounced as [g], as in the word “ri ng”.
ΓΧ γχ ΓΞ γξ	Beforeχ (chi) letter(ri ng) . Beforeξ (xi) letterγ (gamma) is pronounced like “ingma”:(ri ng) . Please note: combinationγξ is rare; it only appears in unusual words likeλυγξ (lynx).

It is quite possible that the following pairs do not produce original sounds, but are perceived by native Greek speakers as "one whole":

What about vowels? Is there any similarity with vowels in Russian, or with vowels in other languages? Vowels in Greek do not cause difficulties. In Greek, vowels are similar to vowels in Italian, Spanish ( Russian approx.transl.) or Japanese: [a], [e], [i], [o], and [u]. The alphabet currently has three letters for the sound [I] (eta, iota and upsilon) that are pronounced the same, and two letters for the sound [o] (omicron and omega) that are also pronounced the same. For the sound [u], a combination of letters ου (omicron + upsilon) is used. So, pronouncing vowels is easy. Is there anything else special about vowel sounds? Not in pronunciation, but in writing. There are three "diphthongs" that are no longer diphthongs but have become digraphs. (A diphthong is a long sound consisting of two elements, each of which has a different quality, as in the words: “r ay nd”, or“b oh”; a digraph is two letters that are read together as one letter, for example in English th in the word " th ink", or ph in the word "gra ph .) Below are Greek digraphs consisting of vowels.

ancient greek alphabet

letter, name, pronunciation, latin transliteration
Α α alpha [a] long or short, a
Β β beta [b] b
Γ γ gamma [g] g
Δ δ delta [d] d
Ε ε epsilon [e] short, e
Ζ ζ zeta [dz] dz
Η η this [e] long ē
Θ θ theta [tx] th
Ι ι iota [and] long and short, i
Κ κ kappa [k] k
Λ λ lambda [l] l
μ mu [m] m
Ν ν nu [n] n
Ξ ξ xi [ks] x
Ο ο omicron [o] short, o
Π π pi [n] p
Ρ ρ ro [r] r
Σ σ sigma [s] s
Τ τ tau [t] t
Υ υ upsilon [ü] as a vowel in a word tulle, short and long, y
Φ φ phi [f] ph
χ chi [x] ch
Ψ ψ psi [ps] ps
Ω ω omega [o] long ō

Sigma at the end of a word is written as ς: σεισμός earthquake

Ancient Greek vowels were long and short. Alpha, iota and upsilon could mean both short and long sounds. Omega and eta are long [o] and [e], respectively, omikrom and epsilon are short [o] and [e]. In the modern tradition, when reading the ancient Greek text, the length of the vowels is not transmitted. However, you need to know it for the correct placement of stress.

Gamma in combinations γγ γκ γχ γξ reads as [n] ἄγγελος [angelos] messenger, ἄγκυρα [ankyura] anchor, λόγχη [longhe] a spear, Σφίγξ [sphinx] sphinx.

The consonants Φ Θ Χ were originally deaf aspirated [n x] [t x] [k x]. They lost their aspiration quite early, turning into [f], [t], [x]. Traditionally, aspiration is transmitted only when reading theta. In Modern Greek, theta came to mean an interdental sound.

Diphthongs. αυ [ay] ευ [ey] - are read in one syllable. ου - reads like [y].
Αι [ay] Ει [hey] οι [oh] υι [üy]
In diphthongs with the so-called "signed iota" it is not read ᾳ [a] ῃ [e] ῳ [o]
If you need to show the separate pronunciation of vowels, two dots πραΰς [great-us] are placed above the second of them gentle

Aspiration. An aspirated sign is necessarily placed above the initial vowels.
᾿ - thin aspiration. does not affect pronunciation
῾ - thick aspiration, pronounced like Ukrainian r (back-lingual, voiced, fricative). it will not be a great sin to pronounce a thick breath and as Russian [x]. ἡμέρα [hamera] day, ἓξ [hax] six

The initial υ and ρ always have a deep breath. A deep breath over ρ is not reflected in pronunciation, it is transmitted in Latin as rh. On two adjacent ρ in the middle of the word, signs of aspiration are put: thin over the first, thick - over the second. When pronouncing, they are also not reflected.

Even above the vowels, stress marks are placed, which will be discussed next time.

This version of reading ancient Greek letters is called Erasmus pronunciation by the name of Erasmus of Rotterdam, who proposed such a reading after comparing Greek words, Greek borrowings in Latin and features of Greek graphics. There is another option - Reuchlin's pronunciation. It is named after Erasmus' opponent, Johann Reuchlin. Reuchlin was guided by the pronunciation that existed in the Middle Ages.
Features of the Reuchlin system.
1) deep breath is not pronounced
2) β is read as [in]
3) π after μ and ν is voiced in [b]
4) τ after ν is voiced in [d]
5) κ after γ and ν is voiced in [g]
6) θ is read as [f]
7) Αι is read as [e]
8) the sounds η and υ, as well as the diphthongs Ει οι υι began to be read as [and]
9) αυ and ευ are read before voiced consonants as [av] and [ev], and before deaf ones - as [af] and [ef].
Erasmus' system is often called ethacism, and Reuchlin's itacism.

in its oldest form was an exact copy of the Phoenician: the Greeks retained the same sequence of letters in the alphabet as the Phoenicians, and even the names of the letters were indicated by distorted Semitic words.

In ancient Greek inscriptions, the Semitic direction of writing was also preserved: signs were written from right to left.
And only in the IV century BC. The Greeks switched to writing from left to right.

This is how the Greeks wrote and read. This is called “- bullish turn (a letter similar to the course of plowing bulls).

From the Greek alphabet, almost all European alphabets. In the West, the alphabet spread through the Greek colonies located in the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula.

From the Greeks, the alphabet was borrowed by the Romans, and from them it spread throughout all the countries of Western Europe. At the end of IV - beginning of V centuries. the alphabet influenced the emergence of the Armenian alphabet. In the VI century. the Georgian alphabet arose - part of the Greek with the addition of several letters.

The Greeks used a new material for writing - it was parchment made from the skins of animals. It was more durable than papyrus. The use of leather for writing began from very ancient times in Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, where it was most widespread.

According to legend in city ​​of Pergamon in the 1st century BC a new way of obtaining material for writing was invented from animal skins.

The oldest pieces of parchment with surviving fragments of texts date back to the 1st century BC, but they began to use it only from the 2nd century. n. e. For making parchment used the skins of sheep, goats, donkeys, calves. The skins were soaked in lime water, the wool was scraped off, pulled over a frame, dried, smoothed with pumice and treated with chalk.

It was durable, had a smooth and light surface. It could be written on both sides. Parchment was dyed yellow, blue, black, purple and used for luxurious manuscripts. Purple was written in gold or silver.

For a thousand years, a book made of parchment dominated Europe, while paper made its victorious path in Asian countries. Thanks to parchment, a significant number of manuscripts from the early Middle Ages have been preserved.

In Greece, they used to write and ceres- wooden planks covered with wax. Written with a stick style. "Rotate style", i.e. to erase what was written meant to trim the beauty of the language. This is where the expression "literary style" comes from.

Wax tablets were used mainly for notes and for writing letters, but sometimes literary and scientific texts were written on them. Several planks were fastened together with a strap or cord pulled through on one side. That's how the book came about.

This way of writing was very popular in Rome. Later, he penetrated the countries of medieval Europe. in Paris in the thirteenth century. there were workshops for the manufacture of wax tablets.

They recited, accompanying themselves on the cithara. Singers were held in high esteem. The Greek rulers liked to surround themselves with the most prominent poets and scientists.

The center of Greek culture was the Athenian slave republic with the capital, where the greatest Greek tragedians lived, Sophocles, Euripides. Comedy writer Aristophanes. Famous philosophers Socrates,. In the Republic of Athens, as in other Greek city-states, public education stood at a considerable height: the children of all citizens studied in schools.

There were also higher schools in Athens, where young men studied the sciences under the guidance of teachers-philosophers. The most famous were: the school of Plato and the school of Aristotle. Plato's teaching was abstract. Aristotle's teaching was based primarily on the observation of natural phenomena. He gave his lectures while walking with his students.

Some of the views and discoveries of Aristotle still cause astonishment among scientists. Apparently, some of the writings that have survived to this day under the name of Aristotle are records of his lectures. One of the highest manifestations of Hellenic creativity was theatrical art. During the heyday of Athenian culture, poets created wonderful comedies and tragedies, many of which have come down to us in later lists. However, Greek culture was put at the service only of free citizens, the slaves remained on the sidelines. If among the slaves there were educated people, then this was a rare exception.

The book of that time was papyrus scroll. delivered from Egypt. The text on the scroll was written in narrow columns, the direction of the lines was parallel to the length of the scroll. When reading, the papyrus ribbon was gradually rolled from one side to the other so that two columns were simultaneously in the field of view, and the rest of the scroll was rolled up.

? Try rolling a scroll out of paper and writing on it like papyrus. Is it convenient?

Due to the fact that papyrus scrolls did not tolerate moisture, which had a destructive effect on them, no authentic books of that time have survived. And only the Egyptian and Greek scrolls survived for two or three millennia in the absolutely dry Egyptian sand. Most of the known scrolls have survived in fragments, but these passages are sometimes significant.

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Alphabet- [Greek. ἀλφάβητος, from the names of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet alpha and beta (modern Greek vita)] a system of written signs that convey the sound image of the words of the language through symbols depicting individual sound elements. Invention… … Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary

Alphabet- is the latest phenomenon in the history of writing (see Letter). This name denotes a series of written characters arranged in a certain constant order and transmitting approximately completely and accurately all the individual sound elements, of which ... ... Encyclopedic Dictionary F.A. Brockhaus and I.A. Efron

ALPHABET- a set of letters or similar characters used in writing, where each letter stands for one or more phonemes. Alphabets were not the oldest basis of writing, having developed from hieroglyphs or written images used, ... ... Symbols, signs, emblems. Encyclopedia

Books

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• Introduction to Ancient Greek. Textbook for academic baccalaureate, Titov O.A .. The textbook discusses a brief history of the development of the Greek language from ancient times to the present day, gives the Greek alphabet, reading rules, types and features of stress setting. ... Buy for 608 rubles
• Introduction to Ancient Greek 2nd ed., rev. and additional Textbook for academic baccalaureate, Oleg Anatolyevich Titov. The textbook discusses a brief history of the development of the Greek language from ancient times to the present day, gives the Greek alphabet, reading rules, types and features of stress. ...