Mentally familiar. construction resulting from idealization. As elements of scientific theory, I. o. serve as the most important means of cognition. activities in science. Theoretical statements, as a rule, do not directly refer to real objects, but to I. o., noznavat. activity with krymi (thought experiment, their understanding in various theoretical schemes and models) allows you to establish creatures. connections and patterns that are inaccessible in the study of real objects, taken in all their variety of empirical. properties and relationships.
Character I. about. depends on the degree of scientific development. knowledge. Allocate I. about., to-rye are formed by idealization empiric. ideas about objects. However, as a rule, I.'s introduction about. associated with the possibility of theoretical analysis of the studied phenomena.
In developed scientific theories are usually considered not otd. And about. and their properties, and the structures and systems of I. o. When constructing and deploying theories of I. o. act in the context of a holistic and at the same time internally differentiated theoretical. models of reality (eg, "ideal gas" in the context of its molecular kinetic model). See also Theory, Empirical and Theoretical, Abstract Subject.
Marx K. and Engels F., Soch., vol. 20, p. 543-44; Kuznetsov I.V., Izbr. works on the methodology of physics M., 1975, p. 30-31; With t s? and N V. S., Formation of scientific theory Minsk, 1976, p. 21-56; Sh in y p e in V. S., Theoretical and empirical in scientific. knowledge, M., 1978, p. 321-22; 324-54.

More on the topic IDEALIZED OBJECT:

1. § 1. Dialectics of productive forces and production relations as a reflection of the objective logic of history
2. The main drawback of traditional legal literature is that the complex of objects that make up the legal system is studied only in a static state.

IDEALIZED OBJECT

(from the Greek. idea - image, idea) - an object conceivable in a concept formed through idealization. For example, in science, such objects are a material point, an ideal liquid, an absolutely solid body, an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, etc., which are components of the corresponding physical theories. The introduction of such fictitious, non-existent and unrealizable objects as the subject of scientific research is allowed because, being the limiting cases of certain real objects, they serve as the basis for constructing theoretical models that ultimately turn out to be able to describe the laws of reality. In the latter circumstance, one should also see the criterion that distinguishes fruitful, scientifically substantiated idealizations from empty fictions.

Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Gardariki.Edited by A.A. Ivina.2004 .

IDEALIZED OBJECT

a mental cognizant construction that is the result of idealization. Being elements scientific theories, I. about. serve as the most important means of cognition. activities in science. Theoretical statements, as a rule, directly refer not to real objects, but to I. about., nostalgic. activities with which (thought experiment. their understanding in various theoretical schemes and models) allows you to install creatures. connections and patterns that are inaccessible in the study of real objects, taken in all their variety of empirical. properties and relationships.

Character I. about. depends on the level of development scientific knowledge. Allocate I. about., which are formed by idealization of empirical. ideas about objects. However, as a rule, the introduction of I. about. associated with the possibility of theoretical analysis of the studied phenomena.

In developed scientific theories are usually considered not otd. AND. about. and their properties, and the structures and systems of I. about. When constructing and deploying theories I. about. act in the context of a holistic and at the same time internally differentiated theoretical. reality models (e.g. "ideal gas" in the context of its molecular kinetic model).

see also Theory, Empirical and Theoretical, Abstract Subject.

Marx K. and Engels F., Works, t. 20, with. 543-44; Kuznetsov I.V., Izbr. works on the methodology of physics M., 1975, with. 30-31; With t s? and n V.S., Formation of scientific theory Minsk, 1976, with. 21-56; Sh in y p e in V. S., Theoretical and empirical in scientific knowledge, M., 1978, with. 321-22; 324-54.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia.Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov.1983 .

IDEALIZED OBJECT

IDEALIZED OBJECT - an object that constitutes the volume of a concept obtained as a result of an act of idealization. Examples of such objects in science are: a point, a straight line - in geometry; material point - in mechanics; ideal gas, absolutely black body - in physics; ideal solution - in chemistry. The introduction of such fictitious, non-existent and unrealizable objects as the subject of scientific research is justified by the fact that, being limiting cases of certain real objects, they serve as the basis for constructing theories that ultimately turn out to be able to describe the laws of reality. This circumstance is, at the same time, the criterion that distinguishes these idealized objects from empty, meaningless fictions.

It seems to me that the establishment of the subject area of ​​each science begins with the development of specific idealizations and assumptions about the nature of the objects under study.

1.1. ABSTRAGING AND IDEALIZATION

The process of cognition always begins with the study of a certain subject area: a set of specific objects, relationships between them, situations in which specific objects are located. These objects exist outside and independently of the cognizing subject and are displayed by him with the help of the senses, thinking and language. In the process of displaying real objects, the cognizing subject creates a special kind of mental objects that do not exist and cannot even exist as real objects. These include such objects as, for example, a material point, an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, objects of geometry, etc. Objects of this kind serve as the most important means of knowing real objects and the relationships between them. They're called idealized objects, and the process of their creation idealization. Thus, idealization is the process of creating mental objects, conditions, situations that do not exist in reality by means of a mental abstraction from some properties of real objects and relations between them, or by endowing objects and situations with those properties that they do not actually possess or cannot possess for the purpose deeper and more accurate knowledge of reality. The use of idealization and idealized objects is most characteristic of scientific knowledge, therefore, in the future, we will mainly talk about idealization in scientific knowledge.

Idealization is sometimes confused with abstraction, but this is wrong, because although idealization essentially relies on the process of abstraction, it is not reduced to it. Any scientific theory studies either a certain fragment of reality, a certain subject area, or a certain side, one of the aspects of real things and processes. At the same time, the theory is forced to digress from those aspects of the subjects it studies that do not interest it. In addition, the theory is often forced to abstract from certain differences in the subjects it studies in certain respects. This process of mental abstraction from certain aspects, properties of the objects being studied, from certain relations between them is called abstraction. It is clear that the creation of an idealized object necessarily includes abstraction - a distraction from a number of aspects and properties of the specific objects being studied. But if we confine ourselves to this, then we will not get any integral object, but simply destroy the real object or situation. After abstraction, we still need to highlight the properties of interest to us, strengthen or weaken them, combine and present them as properties of some independent object that exists, functions and develops according to its own laws. All this, of course, is a much more difficult and creative task than simple abstraction.

I. 2. METHODS OF FORMATION

IDEALIZED OBJECT

The creation of an idealized object can be carried out in different ways and rely on different types of abstraction. You can specify some ways of forming idealized objects that are widely used in science and in everyday life:

1. It is possible to abstract from certain properties of real objects, while retaining their other properties and introducing an object that has only these remaining properties. So, for example, in Newtonian celestial mechanics we abstract from all the properties of the Sun and planets and represent them as moving material points with only gravitational mass. We are not interested in their size, structure, chemical composition, etc. The sun and planets act here only as carriers of certain gravitational masses, i.e. as idealized objects.

2. Sometimes it turns out to be useful to abstract from certain relations of the objects under study to each other. With the help of such an abstraction, for example, the concept of an ideal gas is formed. In real gases, there is always a certain interaction between molecules. Abstracting from this interaction and considering gas particles as having only kinetic energy and interacting only upon collision, we get an idealized object - an ideal gas. In the social sciences, when studying certain aspects of the life of society, certain social phenomena and institutions, social groups, etc. we can abstract from the relationship of these parties, phenomena, groups with other elements of the life of society.

3. We can also attribute to real objects the properties that they lack, or think of their inherent properties in some limiting value. Thus, for example, special idealized objects are formed in optics - an absolutely black body and an ideal mirror. It is known that all bodies, to a greater or lesser extent, have both the property of reflecting a certain part of the energy incident on its surface, and the property of absorbing a part of this energy. When we amplify the reflection property to the limit, we get an ideal mirror - an idealized object, the surface of which reflects all the energy incident on it. Strengthening the absorption property, in the limiting case we get a completely black body - an idealized object that absorbs all the energy incident on it.

4. An idealized object can be any real object that is conceived in non-existent, ideal conditions. This is how the concept of inertia arises. Suppose we are pushing a cart along the road. For some time after the push, the cart moves and then stops. There are many ways to lengthen the distance traveled by a cart after a push, such as lubricating the wheels, making the road smoother, and so on. The easier the wheels turn and the smoother the road, the longer the cart will move. Through experiments, it is established that the less external influences on a moving body (in this case, friction), the longer the path traveled by this body. It is clear that all external influences on the moving body cannot be eliminated. In real situations, a moving body will inevitably be subjected to some influences from other bodies. However, it is not difficult to imagine a situation in which all influences are excluded. We can conclude that under such ideal conditions a moving body will move indefinitely and at the same time uniformly and rectilinearly 1 .

5. Most often, the above methods for creating idealized objects are used in various combinations. We can abstract from some properties and aspects of real objects, and endow them with some non-existent properties, and present them in some ideal conditions.

The process of idealization and the use of idealized objects are a vivid expression of the activity of human cognition of reality. Man is not a passive being, impassively fixing external influences. A person lives, acts and cognizes the world with the aim of transforming it. And human activity has a decisive influence on his attitude to the world and on his knowledge of the world. It is the needs of practice that determine the interests of people in the field of cognition, direct the attention of scientists to certain aspects of reality, to certain groups of phenomena. On the other hand, the objects of reality are infinitely complex, changeable, fluid, they are included in the universal system of interconnections and interdependencies. A person cannot immediately comprehensively embrace, know a single real object. Therefore, in the process of cognition, a person consciously singles out certain aspects of objects, temporarily distracting from all the others, draws sharp dividing lines where they do not exist, consciously simplifies and impoverishes reality in order to better and deeper understand it.

Idealization helps us to isolate in a pure form the aspects of reality that interest us and, relying on a relatively simple idealized object, to give a deeper and more complete description of these aspects. Cognition moves from concrete objects to their abstract, ideal models, which - becoming more and more precise, perfect and numerous - gradually give us an increasingly adequate image of concrete objects. This widespread use of idealized objects is one of the most characteristic features of human knowledge.

If we accept modern hypothetical-deductive model of the structure of scientific knowledge with its division of knowledge into two levels - empirical and theoretical, it can be shown that idealization is used both at the empirical and at the theoretical levels. The objects to which scientific propositions refer are always idealized objects. Even in those cases when we use empirical methods of cognition - observation, measurement, experiment, the results of these procedures are directly related to idealized objects, and only due to the fact that idealized objects at this level are abstract models of real things, the data of empirical procedures can be attributed to real items.

I. 3. IDEALIZATION AT THE THEORETICAL LEVEL

The role of idealization sharply increases in the transition from the empirical to the theoretical level of scientific knowledge. The modern hypothetical-deductive theory is based on some empirical basis - a set of facts that need explanation and make it necessary to create a theory. But theory is not a generalization of facts and cannot be deduced from them in a logical way. In order to make it possible to create a special system of concepts and statements called theory First, an idealized object is introduced, which is an abstract model of reality, endowed with a small number of properties and having a relatively simple structure. This idealized object expresses the specificity and essential features of the field of phenomena under study. It is the idealized object that makes it possible to create a theory. Scientific theories, first of all, “are distinguished by the idealized objects underlying them. In the special theory of relativity, the idealized object is an abstract pseudo-Euclidean four-dimensional set of coordinates and instants of time, provided that there is no gravitational field. Quantum mechanics is characterized by an idealized object, represented in the case of an aggregate P particles Ψ -wave in n-dimensional configuration space, the properties of which are associated with the quantum of action" 2 .

The concepts and statements of a theory are introduced and formulated precisely as characteristics of its idealized object. The main properties of an idealized object are described by a system of fundamental equations of the theory. The difference between the idealized objects of theories leads to the fact that each hypothetical-deductive theory has its own specific system of fundamental equations. In classical mechanics we deal with Newton's equations, in electrodynamics - with Maxwell's equations, in the theory of relativity - with Einstein's equations, etc. The idealized object gives an interpretation of the concepts and equations of the theory. Refinement of the equations of the theory, their experimental confirmation and correction lead to a refinement of the idealized object or even to its change. Replacing the idealized object of the theory means reinterpreting the basic equations of the theory. No scientific theory can be guaranteed that its equations will not, sooner or later, be reinterpreted. In some cases, this happens relatively quickly, in others - after a long time. So, for example, in the doctrine of heat, the original idealized object - caloric - was replaced by another - a set of randomly moving material points. Sometimes a modification or replacement of an idealized object of a theory does not significantly change the form of its fundamental equations. In this case, it is often said that the theory is preserved, but its interpretation changes. It is clear that one can say this only with a formalistic understanding of scientific theory. If by theory we understand not only a certain mathematical formalism, but also a certain interpretation of this formalism, then the change of the idealized object should be considered as a transition to a new theory.

Any idealized object is ultimately an abstract image of specific objects, their individual aspects or properties. The fruitfulness of the use of idealized objects in science is a consequence of the fact that these objects reflect and represent in their pure form certain aspects of reality. The creation of an idealized object allows science to highlight the essential aspects of the object, simplify it and make it possible to use exact quantitative concepts and mathematical apparatus to describe it, i.e. understand it deeper. The creation of an idealized object is not a departure from reality, but, on the contrary, a deeper penetration into it.

At the empirical and everyday level, the connection of an idealized object with real objects is obvious. When we say, for example: "A.S. Pushkin is a great Russian poet," then our statement directly refers, of course, to some ideal person who has absorbed only the most essential features of a real person. The idealized subject of the above statement is poorer and more abstract than a living person who grew up, changed, traveled, etc. But this idealized subject expresses the most important, the deepest thing in a particular person, namely, that this person was, first of all, a poet of genius. Here the connection of an idealized object with a concrete object is directly visible, and we can say that the concrete living Pushkin at different moments of his life was an exemplification of this idealized object. It is more difficult to see the connection of an idealized object with reality in those cases when we are dealing with such idealizations as "point", "inertia", "incompressible fluid", etc. Such objects cannot be directly compared with real things. Their connection with reality is revealed in the process of social and scientific practice. Experimental confirmation of scientific theories, their practical applications, the development of social production, based on the successes of science in understanding the world - all this shows that idealized objects introduced into science to develop and interpret its conceptual apparatus represent a deep penetration into the nature of reality, a reflection of it. the most significant aspects and properties.

1.4. HYPOTHESIS. TYPES OF HYPOTHESES

Faced with new objects or phenomena both in science and in everyday life, we begin the process of their cognition by making assumptions about the properties of unknown objects, about their possible relationships, about their internal structure, etc. Even a simple recognition of the objects and phenomena around us begins with the assumption of their possible relation to one or another type of object. For example, while walking in the forest, you notice a bird sitting on a tree. Trying to determine what kind of bird it is, you put forward various assumptions: a crow? Magpie? Rook? Then you test these assumptions by trying to get closer and see the object better.

Hypothesis called the assumption about the properties, causes, structure, relationships of the objects under study. The main feature of a hypothesis lies in its conjectural nature: we do not know whether it will turn out to be true or false. In the process of subsequent verification, the hypothesis may be confirmed and acquire the status of true knowledge, but it is possible that the verification will convince us of the falsity of our assumption and we will have to abandon it. A scientific hypothesis usually differs from a simple assumption in a certain degree of validity.

Simplified presentations of the history of certain scientific disciplines sometimes give the impression that science is confidently and methodically moving from one discovery to another, knowing neither doubts nor defeats. This, of course, is far from true. Any scientific truth grows out of many conjectural solutions to the problem - hypotheses, most of which do not withstand testing and are discarded. But they weren't completely useless. Any hypothesis directs knowledge in a certain direction for some time, stimulates the search for facts, the setting up of experiments, therefore, contributes to the search for truth. This is the greatest heuristic role of hypotheses. For example, thinking about the structure of the atom, the Japanese physicist X. Nagaoka at the beginning of the 20th century. He hypothesized that the structure of the atom resembles the solar system: in the center there is a positive charge, around which electrons, negatively charged particles, move in planetary orbits. However, the facts and calculations related to the radiation of atoms came into conflict with Nagaoka's hypothesis, and it was discarded. Physicists accepted the hypothesis of the English scientist D.D. Thomson, according to which the atom has no center, but is a sphere in which electrons are interspersed. Several years passed, and the experiments of E. Rutherford showed that the bulk of the atom's substance and its positive charge are concentrated at a certain point, and not "smeared" over the sphere. Physicists had to return again to the hypothesis of the planetary structure of the atom. And such a development of knowledge, putting forward, rejecting, correcting certain hypotheses, is characteristic of any science. "The form of development of natural science," F. Engels wrote back in the last century, "since it thinks, is hypothesis. Observation reveals some new fact which renders impossible the old way of explaining the facts belonging to the same group. From this moment on, there is a need for new ways of explaining, based at first only on a limited number of facts and observations. Further experimental material leads to the purification of these hypotheses, eliminates some of them, corrects others, until, finally, a law is established in its pure form. If we wanted to wait for the material to be ready in its purest form for the law, it would mean suspending thinking research until then, and for this alone we would never have a law" 3 .

From the point of view of logic, a hypothesis is a sentence whose truth value is not defined. Therefore, the simplest classification of hypotheses is based on the form of the sentences expressing them. In this regard, hypotheses can be divided into general, particular and singular. General a hypothesis is an assumption about the entire class of objects under study; private a hypothesis expresses an assumption about some part of the studied class of objects; finally, single a hypothesis speaks of specific individual objects or phenomena. For example, Democritus' hypothesis "All bodies are composed of atoms" was general; the hypothesis "Some viruses cause disease" is private, and the hypothesis "The sun is a relatively young star" refers to single ones.

However, with a broader approach that takes into account the content of the scientific assumption, and not just the form of the assumption expressing it, many other varieties of hypotheses are distinguished. In particular, in science, assumptions are made about individual facts or about regular connections between things and phenomena, i.e. about laws. A hypothesis can talk about the essence of certain processes or phenomena, about their causes, at the same time, hypotheses about the phenomena themselves, about the possibility of their existence, about the consequences of known causes, etc. are widely used.

A special place in scientific research is occupied by the so-called "workers" hypotheses. The working hypothesis differs from the usual hypothesis only in less justification and arbitrariness. Faced with new facts, with new experimental material, a scientist often cannot immediately put forward a hypothesis that plausibly explains these facts and is consistent with true scientific theories. At the same time, the continuation of the study requires some guiding idea, which helps to somehow navigate the chaos of data and suggests some further way of research. Therefore, a scientist often accepts some hypothesis, which, although not worthy of a serious attitude, but for a certain time helps him to conduct research in a certain direction. This is what is called a working hypothesis. As a rule, it is soon discarded, replaced by another, but there are cases when such a deliberately implausible hypothesis, which is accepted only for a while as a working one, suddenly turns out to be fruitful, receives confirmation and acquires the status of a serious scientific hypothesis.

There is another variety of hypotheses that attracts much attention of philosophers and scientists. These are the so-called ad hoc hypotheses(for this case). Hypotheses of this type are distinguished by the fact that their explanatory power is limited to only a small circle of known facts. They say nothing about new, not yet known facts and phenomena. A good hypothesis should not only provide an explanation for the known data, but also direct research towards the search for and discovery of new phenomena, new facts. Hypotheses ad hoc only explain, but do not predict anything new. Therefore, scientists try not to use such hypotheses, although it is often quite difficult to decide whether we are dealing with a fruitful, heuristically strong hypothesis or a hypothesis ad hoc.

1.5. HYPOTHETICAL-DEDUCTIVE METHOD

In modern science, hypotheses are used as an element gunomemmo-deductive method- one of the most important methods of scientific knowledge and reasoning. It is based on the derivation (deduction) of conclusions from hypotheses and other premises, the truth value of which is unknown. Since in deductive reasoning the value of truth is transferred from premises to conclusion, and hypotheses serve as premises in this case, the conclusion of hypothetical-deductive reasoning has only a probabilistic character. According to the type of premises, hypothetical-deductive reasoning is divided into two main groups. The first, most numerous group includes such reasoning, the premises of which are hypotheses and empirical generalizations, the truth of which has yet to be established. The second category includes hypothetical-deductive conclusions from such premises that are obviously false or whose falsity can be established. Putting forward some assumption as a premise, it is possible to deduce consequences from it that contradict well-known facts or true statements. In this way, in the course of the discussion, one can convince the opponent of the falsity of his assumption. A well-known example of such an application of the hypothetical-deductive method is the method of reduction to the absurd.

In scientific knowledge, the hypothetical-deductive method became widespread and developed in the 17th-18th centuries, when significant progress was made in the study of the mechanical motion of terrestrial and celestial bodies. The first attempts to apply the hypothetical-deductive method were made in mechanics, in particular, in the studies of Galileo. The theory of mechanics set forth in Newton's "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" is a hypothetical-deductive system, the premises of which are the basic laws of motion. The success of the hypothetical-deductive method in the field of mechanics and the influence of Newton's ideas led to the widespread use of this method in the field of exact natural science.

From a logical point of view, a hypothetico-deductive system is a hierarchy of hypotheses, the degree of abstractness and generality of which increases with distance from the empirical basis. At the top are the hypotheses that have the most general character and therefore have the greatest logical force. Hypotheses of a lower level are derived from them as premises. At the lowest level of the system are hypotheses that can be compared with empirical data. In modern science, many theories are built in the form of a hypothetical-deductive system.

Such a construction of scientific theories is of great methodological importance due to the fact that it not only makes it possible to explore the logical relationships between hypotheses of different levels of abstractness, but also allows empirical verification and confirmation of scientific hypotheses and theories. The lowest level hypotheses are tested by comparing them with empirical data. If they are confirmed by these data, then this serves as an indirect confirmation of the hypotheses of a higher level, from which the first hypotheses are logically derived. The most general principles of scientific theories cannot be directly compared with reality in order to ascertain their truth, because, as a rule, they speak of abstract or ideal objects that do not themselves exist in reality. In order to correlate general principles with reality, it is necessary, with the help of a long chain of logical conclusions, to obtain consequences from them that speak no longer of ideal, but of real objects. These consequences can be verified directly. Therefore, scientists tend to give their theories the structure of a hypothetical-deductive system.

A variation of the hypothetical-deductive method is considered mathematical hypothesis method, which is used as the most important heuristic tool for discovering patterns in natural science. Usually, hypotheses here are some equations that represent a modification of previously known and verified relationships. By changing these ratios, they make up a new equation expressing a hypothesis that refers to unexplored phenomena. So, for example, M. Born and W. Heisenberg took the canonical equations of classical mechanics as a basis, but instead of a number, they introduced matrices into them, thus constructing a matrix version of quantum mechanics. In the process of scientific research, the most difficult - truly creative - task is to discover and formulate those principles and hypotheses that can serve as the basis for all subsequent conclusions. The hypothetical-deductive method plays an auxiliary role in this process, since it does not put forward new hypotheses, but only deduces and checks the consequences arising from them. However, without resorting to this method, we would not be able to distinguish true assumptions from false ones.

I. 6. CONFIRMATION AND REFUTATION OF HYPOTHESES

Confirmation is the correspondence of a hypothesis or theory to some fact or experimental result. In the methodology of scientific knowledge, confirmation is considered as one of the criteria for the truth of a hypothesis or theory. In order to establish whether the hypothesis is true, i.e. whether it is true, a sentence is deduced from it that speaks of observed or experimentally detected phenomena. Then observations are made or an experiment is set up that establishes whether the given sentence is true or false. If it is true, then it is considered a confirmation of the hypothesis. For example, the discovery of chemical elements predicted by D.I. Mendeleev, based on his table, was a confirmation of this table; the discovery of the planet Uranus in a place calculated according to Newton's equations of celestial mechanics was a confirmation of mechanics, and so on. From a logical point of view, the confirmation procedure is described as follows. Let be G- testable hypothesis, BUT- an empirical consequence of this hypothesis, the relationship between G and BUT can be expressed as a conditional proposition "If G, then BUT". During the verification process, it is found that BUT true; we conclude that G confirmed. The reasoning scheme looks like this:

Such a conclusion does not give a reliable conclusion, therefore, based on the truth BUT we cannot conclude that the hypothesis G is also true, and we only say that the hypothesis G confirmed. The more verified true consequences a hypothesis has, the more it is considered confirmed.

It should be borne in mind, however, that confirmation can never be complete and final; no matter how many confirmations a hypothesis receives, we will not be able to say that it is true. The number of possible empirical consequences of the hypothesis is infinite, but we can test only a finite number of them. Therefore, there is always the possibility that one day the prediction of the hypothesis will turn out to be false. A simple example: the statement "All swans are white" has been confirmed by hundreds and thousands of examples for centuries, but one day people came across a black swan, and it turned out that this statement is false. This suggests that the feasibility of some hypothesis does not yet allow us to say with certainty that the hypothesis is true. A false hypothesis can be confirmed for a long time

From a logical point of view, the process denials described by the modus tollens scheme (modus tollens). From the tested hypothesis G some empirical sentence is deduced BUT, those. true "If G, then BUT". During the verification process, it is found that BUT false and true sentence not-A. Thus:

The conclusion according to this scheme gives a reliable conclusion, so we can say that the hypothesis G is false.

When it comes to an isolated sentence or a hypothesis of a low level of generality and abstraction, a refuting conclusion is often useful and can help us cut off false assumptions. However, if we consider a complex, hierarchically ordered system of sentences - a hypothetical-deductive theory - then the situation is not at all so simple. The refutation procedure detects only the collision of the theory with the fact, but it does not tell us which term of the contradiction is false - theory or fact. Why are we obliged to believe that it is the theory (hypothesis) that is false? Perhaps a fact that is established as a result of a "dirty" experiment, misinterpreted, etc., is false?

Added to this is another consideration. From one theory (hypothesis) it is usually impossible to derive an empirical proposition. To do this, it is necessary to add special rules to the theory (hypothesis), giving an empirical interpretation of the terms of the theory (hypothesis), and sentences describing the specific conditions of empirical verification. So the empirical proposition BUT follows from more than one theory (hypothesis) T, and from T plus rules of empirical interpretation plus sentences describing specific conditions. Considering this circumstance, it immediately becomes clear that from the falsity of the proposition BUT we have no right to conclude that the theory (hypothesis) is false T. The false premise may be included in the added rules or sentences. That is why in real science, having discovered collisions of a theory (hypothesis) with some fact, scientists are not at all in a hurry to declare the theory false. They check again and again the purity of the experiments, the prerequisites on which the interpretation of the experimental results is based, the links of the refuting conclusion, and so on. Only when there are a lot of such facts and a hypothesis appears that successfully explains them, scientists begin to think that their theory (hypothesis) is false.

Real objects are presented in empirical knowledge in the form of ideal objects that have a fixed and limited set of features. Idealized objects, unlike empirical ones, are endowed with features that no real object has.

Cognition is the process of obtaining, storing, processing and systematizing conscious concrete-sensory and conceptual images of reality. Cognition divides the world into two parts: - into an object (translated from Latin - to oppose oneself); - into a subject (translated from Latin - lying at the base).

Subject of knowledge- a deeply understood meaningful cognitive-transformative activism and its corresponding inclinations. The subject is a complex hierarchy, the foundation for which is the entire social whole. The real subject of cognition is never only epistemological, because it is a living person with her interests, passions, character traits, temperament , intelligence or stupidity, talent or mediocrity, strong will or lack of will. When the subject of knowledge is the scientific community, then it has its own characteristics: interpersonal relationships, dependencies, contradictions, as well as common goals, unity of will and actions, etc. But most often under subject knowledge understands some impersonal logical cluster of intellectual activity.

Scientific knowledge explores not only the conscious attitude of the subject to the object, but also to himself, to his activity. Object of knowledge- this is any given that exists independently of consciousness, at which the cognitive and transforming activity of the subject is aimed. object of knowledge becomes in a certain sense the "property" of the subject, having entered into a subject-object relationship with him.

The object in its relation to the subject is, to some extent, a cognized reality that has become a fact of consciousness, socially determined in its cognitive aspirations, and in this sense, the object of cognition becomes a fact of society. From the side of cognitive activity, the subject does not exist without an object, and the object - no subject.

In modern epistemology, the object and subject of knowledge are distinguished: - the object of knowledge is the real fragments of being that are being investigated; - the subject of knowledge is the specific aspects to which the point of the searching thought is directed. Man is the subject of history, he himself creates the necessary conditions and prerequisites for his historical existence. The object of socio-historical knowledge is created, and not only cognized by people: before becoming an object, it must first be created and formed by them.

In social cognition, a person thus deals with the results of his own activity, and hence with himself as a practically acting being. Being the subject of cognition, it turns out to be at the same time its object. In this sense, social cognition is the social self-consciousness of a person, in the course of which he discovers and explores his own historically created social essence.

Objectivism- direction in epistemology, which ascribes to knowledge the comprehension of real objects and objective ideas.

Subjectivism- the doctrine of the exclusive subjectivity of intellectual truth, as well as aesthetic and moral values, the denial of their absolute significance.

Idealized Object

The concept of the methodology of science, revealing the specifics of the construction and functioning of theoretical and empirical knowledge. Denotes a mental construction that is created through idealization and is associated with the introduction into the content of the formed concept of signs that, in principle, cannot belong to its denotation (the absence of dimensions in such an IO as a “mathematical point”, for example, or the absence of friction when moving along “ absolutely smooth surface).

Thought experiment on I.O. and their systems makes it possible to fix patterns that are inaccessible when studying real objects in the variety of their empirical properties.

The development of ideas about I.O. in this or that science testifies to a certain level of its theoretical nature, the revealing of the empirical arsenal of means of cognition. If in geometry, physics the application of I.O. basically formed, then in the sciences of the socio-humanitarian cycle, it actually originates from the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. A great contribution to the development of this trend was made by the works of M. Weber, which gives an idea of ​​the ideal type - a theoretical mental construction necessary for science as a scale with which reality can be correlated. The trend in the development of science is such that I.O. of varying degrees of generality are increasingly used in the process of cognition, actualizing the methodological problems of substantiating their status and functions. A.I. Loiko

Idealized Object

Idealized Object

Subject and Object(lat. subjectus - lying below, underlying and objectum ...

Idealized Object

(from the Greek. idea - image, idea) - an object conceivable in a concept formed through idealization. For example, in science, such objects are a material point, an ideal liquid, an absolutely solid body, an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, etc., which are components of the corresponding physical theories. The introduction of such fictitious, non-existent and unrealizable objects as the subject of scientific research is allowed because, being the limiting cases of certain real objects, they serve as the basis for constructing theoretical models that ultimately turn out to be able to describe the laws of reality. In the latter circumstance, one should also see the criterion that distinguishes fruitful, scientifically substantiated idealizations from empty fictions.

Idealized Object

Idealized Object- mental construction of the result of idealization; in knowledge, as a rule, it is considered ...

Subject and Object(lat. subjectus - lying below, underlying and objectura ...

Idealized Object

Mental construction of the result of idealization; in cognition, as a rule, it is considered in unity with other similar constructions (the system of ideal objects).

Idealized Object(from the Greek idea - image, idea) - an object conceivable in ...

Idealized Object- the concept of the methodology of science, revealing the specifics of the construction and functioning of the theoretical ...

An object 1. In the proper philosophical sense, the essence is outside subjective sensations, a thing ..

We have the largest information base in RuNet, so you can always find similar queries

This material includes sections:

The concept and structure of the worldview. Historical types of worldview: myth, religion, philosophy.

The beginning of philosophy in ancient civilizations: China, India, Greece and Rome.

The subject of philosophy, its main functions.

The place of philosophy in the system of culture.

Ancient philosophy, its specific features.

Philosophy of Socrates.

The main ideas of Plato's philosophy, his doctrine of the state + elligism. The structure of the universe according to Plato

Philosophy of Aristotle, its main ideas.

Theocentrism of the Philosophy of the Middle Ages

Philosophy of F. Aquinas.

The formation of the scientific method of cognition and the philosophy of F. Bacon and R. Descartes (empiricism and rationalism).

T. Hobbes on the problems of the relationship between man and society.

Theory of knowledge of I. Kant.

Ethics of I. Kant.

The main ideas of the philosophy of G. Hegel. Contradictions between system and method.

Anthropological materialism L. Feuerbach.

Man, nature and society in the philosophy of the French Enlightenment.

Marxist understanding of history and society.

F. Engels' dialectics of nature and his characterization of the method of materialistic dialectics.

Nietzsche's philosophy of life.

Features of Russian medieval philosophy.

Formation and development of philosophy in Russia in the XIII century.

Russian materialistic philosophy of the 19th century.

Marxist philosophy in Russia (G. V. Plekhanov and V. I. Lenin).

Russian religious philosophy of the XIX-XX centuries.

Russian cosmism as a philosophy.

Foreign philosophy of the XX century: positivism and post-positivism.

Foreign philosophy of the XX century: psychoanalysis and neo-Freudianism.

Problems of being in the history of philosophy.

IDEALIZED OBJECT

(from the Greek. idea - image, idea) - an object conceivable in a concept formed through idealization. For example, in science, such objects are a material point, an ideal liquid, an absolutely solid body, an ideal gas, an absolutely black body, etc., which are components of the corresponding physical theories. The introduction of such fictitious, non-existent and unrealizable objects as the subject of scientific research is allowed because, being the limiting cases of certain real objects, they serve as the basis for constructing theoretical models that ultimately turn out to be able to describe the laws of reality. In the latter circumstance, one should also see the criterion that distinguishes fruitful, scientifically substantiated idealizations from empty fictions.

• - geometric - see Geometric objects theory ...

  Mathematical Encyclopedia

• - categories - a term used to denote elements of an arbitrary category, playing the role of sets, groups, topological. spaces, etc. O. categories are an indefinable concept...

  Mathematical Encyclopedia

• - thing, thing. That which opposes the subject, i.e., consciousness, the inner world as real, as part of the outer...

  The Beginnings of Modern Natural Science

• - AN OBJECT. 1. In a judgment, an object or person that is subject to the action of another object ...

  Dictionary of literary terms

• - a general definition for works that use artificially created or finished objects ...

  alternative culture. Encyclopedia

• - German: Objekt. - French: objet. - English: object...

  Dictionary of psychoanalysis

• - the concept of the methodology of science, revealing the specifics of the construction and functioning of theoretical and empirical knowledge ...

  The latest philosophical dictionary

• - IDEALIZED OBJECT - an object that makes up the volume of a concept obtained as a result of an act of idealization. Examples of such objects in science are: material point; point electric charge...

  Encyclopedia of Epistemology and Philosophy of Science

• - moreover....

  Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language

• - IDEALIZED, idealized, idealized; idealized, idealized, idealized. incl. suffering past temp. from idealizing...

  Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

• - idealized adj. Represented as an ideal, i.e. better than it is or could be in reality...

  Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova

• - ...
• - ...

  Spelling Dictionary

• - ...

  Spelling Dictionary

• - idealized "short...

  Russian spelling dictionary

• - ...

  Word forms

"IDEALIZED OBJECT" in books

An object

From the book by A. S. Ter-Oganyan: Life, Fate and Contemporary Art author Nemirov Miroslav Maratovich

Object Georg Grosz and John Hatrvild. "The Mad Everyman", 1920. One of the early examples of what the term is now used to denote

OBJECT-12

From the book Notes of a Necropolis. Walks along Novodevichy author Kipnis Solomon Efimovich

OBJECT-12 At the end of January 1949, Zhemchuzhina Polina Semyonovna, who by this time turned out to be already a circle of the "former": the former People's Commissar of the fishing industry, a former candidate member of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks, a former party member, and even Molotov's ex-wife (they parted , performing

"Object 165" and "object 166". Tank T-62

author Kartsev Leonid Nikolaevich

"Object 165" and "object 166". T-62 tank The T-55 tank has absorbed all the fundamentally new systems and equipment that increase the effectiveness of combat operations in the conditions of the use of nuclear weapons. But now the time has come when it took a radical improvement in fighting qualities

"Object 150"

From the book Memoirs of the Chief Designer of Tanks author Kartsev Leonid Nikolaevich

"Object 150" Often in conversations with me, A.A. Morozov mentioned on various occasions Vyacheslav Alexandrovich Malyshev, who during the war was the people's commissar of the tank industry. From his stories, I made myself a portrait of Malyshev as an intelligent, strong-willed person, brilliant

"Object 167T" and "object 166TM"

From the book Memoirs of the Chief Designer of Tanks author Kartsev Leonid Nikolaevich

"Object 167T" and "object 166TM" Once I was in Leningrad, I went to visit Zh.Ya. Kotin. He showed me the drawings of the GTD-1 gas turbine engine developed at the LKZ for the "object 278" and the overrunning clutch made in metal between the compressor shaft and the power turbine shaft.

An object

From the book Andrei Sakharov. Science and freedom author Gorelik Gennady Efimovich

Object To create an atomic bomb, a place revered by the Orthodox Church was assigned. Here, in central Russia, the Sarov Monastery operated for more than two centuries and the monk Seraphim of Sarov (1778-1833), who was canonized in 1903, lived here. The Soviet government closed

An object

From the book Lexicon of Nonclassics. Artistic and aesthetic culture of the XX century. author Team of authors

Object A term that often replaces the classical concept of "work of art" in modern artistic culture (POST-culture, POST-). O., as a rule, separate spatial objects of art activity, static compositions and structures are designated

9.7. An object

From the book Metaphysics stalemate the author Girenok Fedor

9.7. Object In order to have objects, something in oneself must be separated from oneself, made alien. For example, turn states into states. But then the problem of non-objectivable contents arises. And these contents are outside the Eurasian idea of ​​a new life. Why do we need a new life? Then,

3.3 "Object D"

From the book 108 minutes that changed the world author Pervushin Anton Ivanovich

3.3 "Object D" Inspired by the wide world resonance, the Soviet leadership did not stint on awards for the creators of the first artificial satellites of the Earth. On December 18, 1957, the OKB-1 team was awarded the second Order of Lenin, about five hundred employees

Object No. 806

From the book Superbomb for a superpower. Secrets of creating thermonuclear weapons author Gubarev Vladimir Stepanovich

Object No. 806 In my free time I managed to go ashore on the Yenisei. Very close to the plant. There is a rocky ridge here, and therefore the place is unusual, secluded and very beautiful. The swift Yenisei flies past. Mighty river. And cold, which is good for reactors, for them

IDEALIZED OBJECT

From the book The Newest Philosophical Dictionary author Gritsanov Alexander Alekseevich

IDEALIZED OBJECT - the concept of the methodology of science, revealing the specifics of the construction and functioning of theoretical and empirical knowledge. Denotes a mental construct that is created through idealization and is associated with an introduction to content.

(a) The object as a "desirable defector" or "desirable object" from which the schizoid withdraws

From the book SCHIZOID PHENOMENA, OBJECT RELATIONS AND SELF author Guntrip Harry

(a) The object as the "desirable turncoat" or "desirable object" from which the schizoid withdraws Material revealing the schizoid position becomes available only in deep analysis and is often not comprehended when the defenses are sufficiently effective. In a highly unstable

Idealized image of "I"

From the book Mind's Eye author Lazarus Arnold

The Idealized Self Image The best example of successful selfimaging is perhaps the technique known as the Idealized Self Image (IDI), developed by Dr. Dorothy Suskind of Hunter College, New York University. The purpose of this

Idealized self image

From the book Facing the Subconscious [Personal Growth Techniques Using the Self-Therapy Method as an Example] author Shiffman Muriel

Idealized self-image Each of us has a hidden picture of who we would like to be. This idealized self-image is not fully conscious, in fact most of it, like an iceberg, is hidden. Like any hidden feeling, this image

Artillery installations "Condenser 2P" "object 271" and "Oka" "object 273"

From the author's book

Artillery installations "Condenser 2P" "object 271" and "Oka" "object 273" Installations "Condenser 2P" and "Oka" at a military parade on Red Square. Moscow, 1957. Using the power plant and elements of the chassis of the T-10 tank, much more