History as a science, subject and methods of study.

What is history? It can be viewed both as a process of development of nature, society, man, and as a complex of social sciences that study the past of mankind in all its concreteness and diversity (diagram

History is primarily a field of human activity.

The value of history lies in the fact that thanks to it we learn what a person did and, therefore, what he is.

Historical sources are everything that reflects the historical process, gives us the opportunity to study the past of mankind. Several decades ago, historical science developed a system for classifying historical sources based on principle of information carrier. In our opinion, this traditional system gives the most complete picture of the whole variety of historical sources that are in service with historical science (Scheme 2). Most authors distinguish six types of sources.

1. Written sources. It is generally accepted that the oldest type of writing was pictography, i.e. writing-drawings, which were used by primitive people. It is from such drawings that hieroglyphic writing originates. Writing, which denotes not objects of thought, phrases or words, but the sounds of the language, also arose in ancient times. The inventors of the first alphabet are the Phoenicians, a people who lived on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea in the second half of the 1st millennium BC. The Slavic alphabet was created in the 9th century. based on the Greek alphabet by Christian missionaries Cyril and Methodius. The first written monuments in the Old Russian language that have come down to us date back to the 11th century. Written sources include ancient chronicles, memoirs, articles from newspapers and magazines, business documents, statistical materials, etc. Even fiction can become an important source, because the works of writers and poets perfectly reflect the life, customs, social moods of a particular era.

Scheme 2

2. Material sources. Such sources can be called a tool of labor of a primitive man found by an archaeologist, and a family service passed down from generation to generation, and an old clock stored in a museum, and any other item that helps us study the history of mankind.

3. Ethnographic sources. These include cultural, religious, everyday traditions of different peoples. The customs, norms of behavior, rituals, holidays that we inherited from our ancestors are an integral part of the historical memory of mankind.

4. Oral sources. Any of us who have ever listened to the memories of the experiences of our parents and grandparents have come across this type of source. Much has happened in the memory of people living today: the Great Patriotic War, a short-term thaw in 1950-1960, perestroika, the collapse of the USSR. Someone remained a passive observer of the events taking place, and someone, by the will of fate, found himself in their very thick. Eyewitness accounts can be a very valuable source and provide a basis for serious historical research.

5. Linguistic sources. The memory of the past is kept not only by people, but also by the languages ​​they speak, therefore it is customary to single out linguistic sources as a separate type. For example, the origin in the Slavic languages ​​of words denoting the names of animals and plants allows scientists to draw conclusions about the location of the ancient ancestral home of the Slavs. We can say for sure that the ancient ancestors of the Slavic peoples lived in places where spruce and birch trees grew, but beeches did not grow, since their name in our language has an "alien" origin.

6. Audiovisual documents (photo, film and video documents, sound recording). They reflect a significant period of modern and recent history. As you know, photography appeared in the middle, and cinema - at the very end of the 19th century. In the XX century. photography became color, and cinema, besides this, became sound. Relatively recently, videos have appeared. The materials captured on photo, film and videotape make it possible to "stop" the moment, "revive" the irretrievably bygone past.

The first phonograph was invented in 1877 by the American T. Edison. Since then, sound preservation techniques have been continuously improved. In less than a hundred years, gramophone records have been replaced by laser CDs. Audio recordings store the sounds of past eras, the voices of long dead people.

The study of historical sources requires special skills and knowledge. To get them, it is necessary to study special (auxiliary) historical disciplines that allow mastering the basic methods of working with historical sources (see Table 1).

Table 1

Auxiliary historical disciplines

Name	Subject of study
Genealogy (Greek genealogia - genealogy)	The science of the origin, emergence and development of family relations
Heraldry (lat. heraldus - herald)	The science that studies coats of arms
Diplomatics (Greek diploma - document)	The science that studies the origin, form and content, functioning, history of the text of legal documents
Metrology (Greek metron - measure and logos - science)	The science that studies the measures of length, area, volume, weight used in the past in their historical development
Onomastics (Greek onoma - name, name)	The science that studies proper names, the history of their occurrence. It has several sections: toponymy - the science of geographical names; anthroponymy - a science that studies the personal names of people; ethnonymy is a science that studies the names of cities; Theonymy is the study of the names of gods.
Numismatics (lat. numisma - coin)	The science that studies the history of coinage and monetary circulation of coins, banknotes, etc.
Paleography (Greek palos - ancient and grafo - I am writing)	The science that studies the external features of handwritten sources in their historical development (handwriting, writing signs, ink, etc.)
Sphragistics (Greek sphragis - seal)	The science that studies seals
Chronology (Greek chronos - time)	The science that studies the systems of chronology and calendars of various peoples
Etymology (Greek etymon - truth, true meaning of the word)	A branch of linguistics that studies the original word-formation structure of a word and identifies elements of its ancient meaning

It is not always enough to simply read a historical source to obtain the necessary information. And yes, it can be hard to read at times. In Ancient Russia, for example, the text was written together, without separating words, the spelling of individual letters was very different from the modern one. Even the number of alphabetic characters changed over time. The type of handwriting also became different: charter, semi-tire, cursive. In order to learn how to read the manuscripts of past centuries, historians study paleography - the science of the external features of handwritten sources.

No less important for researchers is the account of time. It is not difficult, for example, to guess that the ancient Greeks never wrote that they lived in the 5th century BC. BC. They began their reckoning from the beginning of the first Olympic Games. In pre-Petrine Russia, years were counted from the biblical "creation of the world." By the way, our ancestors celebrated the New Year in the spring (March 1), and from the end of the 15th century. - in September. Over the long history of mankind, many calendars have been created. Lunar calendars come from Mesopotamia, and solar calendars from Ancient Egypt. A calendar similar to the one we use was created in ancient Rome. In the 1st century G. Yu. Caesar introduced a calendar consisting of 365 days and 6 hours, called the Julian. According to this calendar, there is a leap year every four years. Once every 128 years, there was a difference of one day. By the 16th century it was ten days, so in 1582 Pope Gregory reformed the calendar. This is how the Gregorian calendar was born. In our country, it (we also call it "new style") was adopted only in 1918. Divine services of the Russian Orthodox Church still take place in accordance with the ancient Julian calendar. Historians help to understand the systems of chronology and calendars of different times and peoples chronology.

Throughout the long history of mankind, not only time counting systems have changed, but also systems of measures. The metric system is adopted in most countries of the world. But in the past, each nation had its own system of measures of length, area, volume, weight. The systems of measures in their historical development are dealt with metrology.

As mentioned above, the memory of the past is kept by the languages ​​of the peoples of the world. This is especially evident in the names of proper names. The history of their origin is studied onomastics. This discipline has several sections, the most important of which can be considered toponymy (the science of geographical names) and anthroponymy (the science of the origin of human names and surnames).

Of great importance to the historian are numismatics, examining coins, and sphragistics - the science of seals. One of the most interesting historical disciplines are genealogy - the science of genealogy heraldry - the science of emblems.

Historical sources and the complex of considered disciplines make it possible to approach the knowledge of historical truth.

Similar information.

Detailed solution paragraph Introduction to history for grade 10 students, authors V.I. Ukolova, A.V. Revyakin Profile level 2012

• Gdz control and measuring materials on History for grade 10 can be found

Define the concepts and give examples of their use in historical science:

civilization - a stable socio-cultural community, consisting of a group of countries united by cultural and linguistic characteristics at a certain stage of development;

historical anthropology - the concept of historical development and the method of cognition based on the awareness of the unity of material and spiritual culture, as well as with the help of cross-cultural research, while the focus of research is aimed at primitive societies;

modernization is the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

1. In what sense is the concept of "history" used?

On the one hand, history is a collection of past events. By default, what happened to humanity, but there is also the history of the planet Earth itself (geology studies it), the history of the Universe (astronomy tries to understand it), etc.

On the other hand, history is our idea of ​​this very past, its awareness and analysis. Such a picture is precisely created by the science of history.

The historian does not study the past itself, but the evidence of that past. As a rule, these are written sources that were written by someone, that is, events and phenomena are passed through the prism of perception by the author. Material evidence is more objective, but they carry much less information, usually the same written sources are needed to interpret them.

Not all created written sources and not all material evidence reach us. Time usually makes its own subjective selection, although there are exceptions. So the Spanish colonialists deliberately destroyed the books of the Aztecs, hoping that having lost the heritage of their pagan ancestors, they would more easily accept Christianity. From ancient sources, what has come down to us is mainly those that were copied in the Middle Ages, and then they specially selected texts according to certain criteria, therefore we see in many ways the picture created as a result of this selection.

The historian analyzes the data obtained on the basis of existing methods. In history, as in any science, they develop: the researchers of the past did not have the tools that they have today. This also applies to the help of the natural sciences (radiocarbon dating, methods of reconstructing a face from the skull, etc.), and directly to the analysis of the text, which has been increasingly improved over the generations of scientists.

In addition, any historian analyzes the past through the prism of his time. The most striking example is the ideological influence on history, which many political regimes have tried to exert over the past centuries. But there are also less obvious examples. Often the result depends on the personal predilections of the researchers, their gender and other conditions.

4. List the types of historical sources. What is their feature? Illustrate your answer with examples.

historical sources.

1. Material. Usually these are finds during archaeological excavations. They are the most objective, but without the help of written sources, they are sometimes difficult to interpret. That is why, for example, we know so little about the Cretan (Minoan) culture - a lot of material evidence remains of it, but the writing of that people has not been deciphered, the language is not understood.

2. Written.

a) Artistic works. Rather, they reflect the author's idea, but the author lives in certain historical conditions, which he unwittingly reflects in the work. Therefore, in the absence of other sources, works of art can be of great help to scientists. For example, numerous studies are based on Homer's poems, although they are most often used to study the era of the creation of poems, and not the Trojan War.

b) Religious texts. It is difficult to extract information from them, but some contain it. So the Bible is the main source for studying the past of the Jewish people. However, one should take into account the specifics of the source and understand that the presentation of events in such texts was not the main goal.

c) Memoirs. Tell directly about historical events. However, nothing prevents the author from distorting reality in order to whitewash himself or for any other purpose. It should also be borne in mind that memoirs are usually written many years after the events described, and human memory is a complex thing that is only beginning to be understood today. An example is the memoirs of Georgy Konstantinovich Zhukov: with the opening of archival funds dedicated to the Great Patriotic War, more and more places emerge where the marshal, to put it mildly, distorted reality, posing as a great strategist who knew everything in advance and predicted everything.

d) Letters. Unlike memoirs, they are usually written immediately after the event. But the question of the sincerity of the author remains. Examples are the letters of Mark Tullius Cicero (the texts of many of them have been preserved): they are not used to reconstruct the event if the information reported is not confirmed in parallel sources, but it contains a lot of valuable information about the life and customs of the Romans of the 1st century BC .

e) Press. Many of their contemporaries learned about the events from publications in newspapers and magazines, and historians can also use them. However, the "objectivity" of the press is well known: it is most concerned about either the circulation or the opinion of the authorities, depending on the type of state in which the publication is published. In addition, the publication often appears before all the details of the event are known. As an example, we can mention the differences in the coverage of the events on Tiananmen Square in Beijing in 1989 by the newspapers of the United States and China, and not only the assessments, but the published "veils" were different.

f) Chronicles, chronicles, etc. Contrary to popular belief, the authors had reasons not to distort what they knew. However, the question arises about their awareness. A typical example is the "History" of Herodotus. When the author describes events close to his time, he conveys them quite accurately, but when describing the first centuries of the Greco-Persian conflict (which he traces back to the beginning of history itself), he uses frank mythology.

g) Official documents. Usually they reflect reality objectively, because they are compiled for a practical purpose, and not for transmitting information to posterity. However, they have their own specifics and individually usually contain little information. So it makes sense to study the tablets of the economic archives of the Sumerian temples only in their significant complex. From a separate entry, which says, for example, how much grain this or that person contributed as a tax, little can be understood.

There are many other types of written sources.

3. Folklore. It should be remembered that events in folklore are described through the prism of folk memory. In addition, these works have come a long way through oral transmission before being written down. For example, it would be strange to study the reign of Vladimir the Holy according to the description of Vladimir the Red Sun in Russian epics. However, they provide valuable information about people's perception of certain events, about the worldview of the people.

4. Photos.

a) Artistic photos. They help in studying the history of culture, as well as everyday life and material objects. For example, pre-war even artistic photographs show buildings that later died during the hostilities, and fashion magazines of the past decades are the best source for studying this very fashion.

b) Documentary photos. Usually, they are objective, but require interpretation based on other types of sources. For example, photographs of Vladimir Ilyich Lenin during public speeches help us understand what kind of expression he had, why he led so many people with him. But if we did not know from other sources who this speaker was and what his role was in history, we would not be able to understand the value of these shots.

5. Cinema and phono sources.

a) artistic. This type includes feature films, recordings of musical compositions, etc. They can be used to study the history of culture, as well as life and even worldview, and also obtain other valuable information. For example, shortly after the revolution in Russia, most of the equestrian stunts in Hollywood films were performed by exiled Cossacks. Therefore, there you can see examples of horse riding, which are described in written sources, but rarely caught on film.

b) Archival records. This type includes mainly recordings of television and radio programs. They are also useful for exploring both culture and worldview. For example, in such records, we can see interviews with politicians of past years, make out their demeanor, style of speech, etc.

c) Documentaries and programs. In such films, we see genuine footage. Sometimes, they are preserved only in a similar form - the originals are lost. But in this case, you need to understand that the material went through the prism of perception of the author of the film. He did not edit the frames and audio fragments, but selected those that seemed most interesting to him, that best reflected his idea.

d) Documentary footage and audio recordings. These are records made during the events, not processed by anyone. They are the most objective, but they require patience, because in order to find the one most informative minute, sometimes you need to look at the clock. An example is the numerous materials of the Great Patriotic War, made by cameramen right during the fighting, right in the thick of things.

5. Can a historian be objective? Please confirm your opinion.

The historian usually strives for this, but cannot be completely objective. If only because the human perception of even what he directly sees and hears is not completely objective. A scientist understands historical events with the help of sources that have an author with their own biased perception. Information passes through the prism of perception of several people. Moreover, these people differ in worldview, therefore they often understand the same things differently. In addition, we must not forget about the censorship of time - not everything created in a certain period has come down to us, many sources have died for a variety of reasons. Therefore, our knowledge is largely mosaic.

6. Write a discussion on the topic "Three reasons why people study history and what studying history will give me personally."

Historical science in its primitive form arose in ancient Greece. It has existed as a mature science at least since the 18th century. Areas of knowledge that humanity does not need are measured over such a period of time. Suffice it to recall phrenology, a science that tried to understand a person’s character, intellect and mental state by the protrusions of his skull (which supposedly spoke of the greater or lesser development of certain parts of the brain). Phrenology was quite popular at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, but eventually died out. Nothing like this happened in history.

People study history for the following reasons.

1) It's interesting. Any science begins with interest, otherwise there is no point in doing it.

2) The ability to avoid the mistakes of the past. Recently, the phrase “History teaches only that it teaches nothing” has been spreading more and more lately, but after the horrors of World War II, humanity learned not to divide people into full-fledged and inferior on any grounds, after the end of colonialism, they realized the importance of an independent the lives of each of the peoples, etc.

3) Formation of one's own historical memory. The common past plays a big role in the formation of the nation, patriotic feeling and much more.

Personally, I am attracted to history by the opportunity to literally immerse myself in other eras. It's like living another life and then returning to your own. Immersion in history without knowing it is bad Hollywood movies - only the weapon changes, while the musket is held like a modern rifle. But a different era is not only a different city around and people in different costumes, but also their different behavior, a different picture of the world in their heads, different interests, expectations and aspirations. All this is very interesting.

1. Highlight the social functions of the story. What role does history play in politics? Give examples of the ideologization of history.

Social features:

cognitive function;

predictive function (although the failure of such forecasts throughout the 20th century has shaken the position of this function);

Self-identification of nations and civilizations;

educational function.

History in a distorted form was used by many regimes. So in the Soviet Union the formational approach dominated, according to which the highest form of historical development was communism, in the previous one - socialism. Based on this concept, the USSR, like the rest of the countries of the socialist camp, were declared more developed than the "decaying West".

Hitler's Germany focused on civilizations that developed rapidly, and then began to degrade, after which they disappeared. Nazi scientists argued that the development was provided by the Aryan ethnic element, and degradation began when the Semites began to predominate in civilization.

The use of history for ideological purposes leads to the inevitable distortion of history, because the reality of the past is too complex to illustrate simple political ideas. Mixing ideology and history always harms historical science.

2. Name the modern concepts of historical development. Make a summary of the 3rd paragraph of the paragraph in the most rational form.

1. Civilizational concepts.

a) The concepts of the French Enlightenment.

b) Civilization as a stage in the development of society.

c) Civilization as a cultural and historical community.

d) Linear-stage theories of civilization.

e) The concept of A. Toynbee and its development.

2. Historical (cultural) anthropology.

a) The study of primitive societies.

b) Annals School.

c) New sections: the history of mentality, everyday life, etc.

d) Comparativeness in history.

3. Theories of modernization.

a) Understanding modernization as an acceleration of development.

b) Understanding modernization as a transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern era.

c) Understanding modernization as a transition from a traditional society to an industrial one.

d) Second and third echelons of modernization.

3. Consider why there is no single definition of "civilization".

Because this word with a Latin root initially had a very broad and relatively vague meaning, and in everyday life it has retained it to this day. However, it was very popular. In science, a definition must unambiguously imply one particular meaning. Each author of the concept took one of the aspects of the ordinary meaning of the word "civilization" and included it in his constructions. There are many civilizational concepts, and therefore there are many definitions of the concept of "civilization".

4. Explain the concept of "modernization". In what historical situations is it appropriate to use this concept, and in which not? Give examples.

It is easiest to use this concept in the narrowest sense of the word. Modernization is the path from a traditional society to an industrial one. In this sense, the abolition of serfdom in Russia in 1861 is a significant step towards modernization.

The concept of modernization as a transition from the Dark Ages to our time is much broader. In this sense, modernization is also the reformation of the Western Christian Church (meaning as the Reformation, there is the restructuring of the Catholic Church in the course of the struggle against the Protestant). In the same sense, the transition of an already industrial society to a post-industrial one (in which the main part of GDP is the service sector and the majority of employees work in the same sector) is also modernization.

Modernization as accelerated development is linked with the concept of progress. This is the introduction of steam engines, and the invention of firearms, and much more.

Historians do not draw knowledge about the past from nowhere. There are a large number of branches of historical science that help advance the study of specific periods. What are these branches, and how do they help historians understand the past?

Classification of historical disciplines

For most of them, the term "auxiliary historical disciplines" is used. Conventionally, they are divided into two groups. The first includes those involved in the study of different types of sources from any one side. These are such auxiliary historical disciplines as archeography, genealogy, archival science, paleography, historical metrology, epigraphy, papyrology, chronology, textology. So, for example, chronology deals with the study of chronology systems, for which various types of written sources are used. Historical metrology studies the units of measurement for weight, length, and other quantities that existed in various countries. Without it, we would hardly be able to imagine what a pud, pound or talent is, which are reported in many written sources known to us. Specialists in epigraphy are interested in inscriptions that are short in content - on stones, handicrafts, building walls, etc.

The second group includes disciplines that study specific types of sources, but at the same time consider them from different angles. Examples include numismatics, sphragistics, heraldry, faleristics. In each of them, narrow numismatics studies banknotes (paper and metal), sphragistics - seals, heraldry - coats of arms, faleristics - types of awards.

There is another term - special historical disciplines. These are branches that are considered completely independent parts of historical science. The most famous of them is archeology. This is a science with its own terms and periodization and a wide range. This also includes historiography, which studies the development process. Also, such historical disciplines as ethnography, source studies, and historical geography can be classified as special. In general, this term has not yet been established in science - it is used both to replace the word "auxiliary" and for independent disciplines. Historians also define the independence of a particular discipline in different ways.

The role of auxiliary and special disciplines in research

What role do special and auxiliary historical disciplines play in the process of knowing history? In fact, these are the bricks that make up historical knowledge. Any professional historian has to master special knowledge in order to successfully study a particular period. Thus, a specialist in the history of the Middle Ages will have to master both narrow written manuscripts and broader source studies. Auxiliary historical disciplines give us knowledge, thanks to which we gradually present an overall picture of a particular period. For example, the presence of inscriptions on handicrafts from the era of Kievan Rus indicates that literacy was widespread not only among the nobility, but also among ordinary people. Finds with stamps in the burials of nomads in the Black Sea steppes allow us to determine the direction of trade carried out by these nomadic peoples. Genealogy gives us knowledge about among the aristocracy, dynastic contacts of rulers. A huge role in historical research is played by chronology, which studies the systems of chronology in different countries. Without it, we simply would not be able to determine the sequence and time of events in historical documents.

In general, the division of historical disciplines into auxiliary and special is very conditional. After all, each of them is an integral part of historical science, helping scientists learn more about the past.

Lesson Objectives

1. To activate the necessary knowledge of students from the history course of grades 5-6.

2. Develop skills in defining and explaining concepts, analyzing and working with documents, diagrams and tables.

3. Give students the opportunity to be creative.

Lesson plan

I. historical sources.

II. Auxiliary historical disciplines.

III. language family.

DURING THE CLASSES

I. Historical sources

At the beginning of the lesson, the teacher informs the students that in the lesson they will get acquainted with new concepts and terms: with various types of historical sources, auxiliary historical disciplines, the concepts of "language family" and "language group".

The students are given the task: in the process of studying a new topic, activating the knowledge gained in history lessons in previous years, to select examples of various types of historical sources and explain what auxiliary disciplines study them.

The teacher introduces the concept historical source and together with the students makes up on the board scheme 1 "Classification of historical sources". It offers different types of sources, and students pick up examples. The results of the activity are recorded on the board and in the students' notebooks.

historical sources- the whole complex of objects of purposeful human activity that directly reflected the historical process and captured individual facts and past events, on the basis of which the idea of ​​​​a particular historical era is recreated, hypotheses are put forward about the causes or consequences that entailed certain historical events.

Scheme 1. Classification of historical sources

Questions and tasks for students

Determine by ear what type of sources the texts of the documents below refer to.

No. 1. Chronicle (fragments)

“In the summer of 6635 (1127). By order of Prince Vsevolod, construction began on the stone church of St. John in Novgorod ...

That same summer there was a heavy snowstorm on the ground, on the water, and on the mansions for two nights and four days. That same summer ... frost beat all the rye in autumn, and there was famine for the whole winter. An octopus of rye cost half a hryvnia.

No. 2. Letter of 1257-1259

“I, Prince Alexander, and my son Dmitry with the posadnik with Mikhail, and with the thousand Zhiroslav, and all Novgorodians, make peace with the German ambassador Shivord, and with the Lubetsk ambassador Gidrik, and with the Gothic ambassador Ostan. From now on, the Novgorodians stay on the German coast, and the Germans stay on the Novgorod coast without dirty tricks ... "

No. 3. Birch bark

“From Boris to Nastasia. As soon as this letter arrives, so immediately send me a servant on a stallion, because I have a lot to do here. Yes, the shirt came, I forgot the shirt.

No. 4. "A word about the destruction of the Russian land"

“Oh, light bright and beautifully decorated, the Russian land!

You are glorified by many beauties: you are famous for many lakes, many-venerable rivers and springs, mountains, steep hills, high oak forests, clear fields, marvelous animals, various birds, countless great cities, glorious villages, monastery gardens, temples of God and formidable princes, honest boyars, many nobles. You are full of everything, Russian land, O orthodox Christian faith!

No. 5. Letter of grant of the Grand Duke

Vsevolod Mstislavich - Yuriev Monastery. 1125-1137

“I, Grand Duke Vsevolod, gave St. George the Terpuzhsky churchyard of Lyakhovichi with land, and with people, and with horses, and forest, and log cabins, and traps on Lovat ... Otherwise, I gave St. George forever ...”

No. 6. The Tale of the Life and Courage of the Blessed and Grand Duke Alexander

“... This prince Alexander was born from a merciful father, and most of all - a short one, the great prince Yaroslav and from mother Theodosia.

... And he was handsome like no other, and his voice was like a trumpet in the people, his face was like the face of Joseph, whom the Egyptian king appointed the second king in Egypt, his strength was part of the strength of Samson, and God gave him the wisdom of Solomon, courage is like that of the Roman king Vespasian, who conquered the whole land of Judea.

No. 7. Birch bark

“A bow from Yakov to his godfather and friend Maxim. Buy me, I bow, Andrey's oats, if he sells. Take a letter from him and send me a good reading ... "

“In the summer of 6635 (1127). There was no peace ... neither with the Suzdal, nor with the Smolensk, nor with the Polovtsy, nor with the people of Kiev. And all summer the great octopus cost seven cuts.

In the summer of 6669 (1161). It was hot all summer, and all the life was burned, and in the autumn the frost killed all the wheat ... Oh, there was great sorrow in people and need.

No. 9. Bylina "Alyosha Popovich and Tugarin".

“You are a goy, you are good fellows!
I saw Tugarin Zmeevich,
Is he, Tugarin, three fathoms high,
Between the eyes of a red-hot arrow,
The horse under him is like a fierce beast.

Select historical sources from the given list and divide them into groups. Enter the results of the work in table 1 "Historical sources".

The teacher draws the columns of the table on the board, and the students in their notebooks. Then the teacher distributes cards with the list below, and the children complete the task on their own. It is possible for one student to complete the task in parallel at the blackboard. After independent work, it is necessary to organize a check by calling one or two students in order to timely identify errors made during work. At the end of the work, the teacher should conclude that the historical source is associated with human activity, and the guys should write it down in their workbooks.

Table 1. historical sources

Written	Real	Oral	Linguistic	Are not historical sources
Drawing in a cave Letter written on a clay tablet Law text on stone Birch bark	ancient temple crockery shards ruined fortress Button	Story participant past wars	City name	Human skeleton Dormant volcano Bones of a prehistoric animal Dry river bed

CARD

Drawing in a cave human skeleton an extinct volcano story of a participant of a past war bones of a prehistoric animal a letter written on a clay tablet an ancient temple a dried up river bed text of the law on a stone a coin shards of dishes a ruined fortress the name of the city a button a birch bark letter.

II. Auxiliary historical discipline

Preliminary questions

How do scholars obtain historical information?

What sciences are engaged in the study of historical sources?

Students give their guesses. Then the teacher is on the blackboard, and the students draw graphs in notebooks Table 2 "Auxiliary historical disciplines", which is filled in during the explanation of the material by the teacher. When compiling the table, students are asked leading questions that activate the knowledge gained from the courses on the history of the Ancient World and the Middle Ages.

Table 2. Auxiliary historical disciplines

Name	Subject of study
Paleography (gr. palayos- ancient, grapho- writing)	Explores the external features of handwritten and printed sources in their historical development (handwriting, writing signs, features of their style, writing tools, material, ink, etc.)
Archeology (gr. archios- ancient, logos- word, teaching	The science that studies the historical past of mankind from material sources
Chronology (gr. chronos- time)	The science of timing systems
Heraldry (lat. heraldus- herald	Studying coats of arms as a historical source
Onomastics (gr. onoma- name, names)	The science that studies proper names, the history of their origin and transformation. Has several sections: Toponymy - the science of geographical names. Anthroponymy - a science that studies the personal names of people. Ethnonymy - the science that studies the names of peoples. Theonymy - a science that studies the names of gods, etc.
Numismatics (Greek "nomisma" - legal tender, coin	The science of coins, as well as the materials and tools for their manufacture
Sphragistics (gr. sphragis- seal)	Seal Science
Metrology (Greek "metron" - measure)	The science of measures of weight, length, volume, area
Genealogy (Greek "genealogy" - genealogy	The science of the origin and kinship of individual and entire families

Auxiliary historical disciplines- the collective name of a number of scientific disciplines that study certain types or certain aspects of form and content historical sources.

The teacher consolidates the acquired knowledge with the help of the following tasks.

Questions and tasks for students

Listen to the passage and determine which auxiliary historical discipline studies the underlined words?

Blacksmiths forge tagans
On Taganskaya Sloboda,
Blacksmiths for the sauna stove
Cast a copper vat.
Old baker on Basmannaya
bakes bread - "basman".
And in Kalashny Lane
For the boyars and for the king
Bake the baker
Kalachi, bagels, rolls.
On the Rybachy in the suburbs,
By the name of Berezhka,
fishermen launch boats
To the expanse of the Moscow River.
Axes are sharpening in slaughterhouses
On the Myasnitskaya Sloboda,
In rawhides of skin urinate
In fast Yauz water.

(N. Konchalovskaya.
"Our ancient capital")

The teacher reads the text, the students listen carefully and after reading answer the question. ( Onomastics.)

What information can a historian obtain by studying street names?

What auxiliary historical discipline are we talking about?

1) In the red box
Lion on hind legs
Yellow beast with a smile on his lips
Corps of power in shadowy specks, -
On the legs!
heads
Calm grandeur
And in the eyes of slyness, kindness,
Lion-man's appearance,
The beard flows in rings.
He is not destroyed by fire
Poison
There was not a single barbarian attack,
Holds a lion in the front paw of the right
Long-long
Silver cross.

(S. Podelkov "Coat of arms of the city of Vladimir")

2) I saw the coat of arms ... - primordial:
A seated warrior on a horse
Slaying the dragon with a spear
On a deep red canvas.

(V. Gerasimov. "Coat of arms of Moscow")

III. language family

The teacher introduces a new concept and for its assimilation offers students scheme 2 which they transfer to their notebooks.

Scheme 2.language family

language families Language groups

Scheme 3"Language Family of the East European Plain" must be prepared in advance by the teacher.

Scheme 3.Language families of the East European Plain

To consolidate the material, the teacher draws on the board table 3"Language groups" and together with the class fills the left column.

Further, two options for work are possible: either students fill out the table while the teacher is reading the list of peoples below, or they do the work on their own - on a card that they receive on their desks. One of the students is doing work at the blackboard.

At the end, an oral check and correction is carried out.

Questions and tasks for students

To which language group do the following peoples belong: French, Germans, English, Latvians, Finns, Kirghiz, Kazakhs, Italians, Spaniards, Estonians, Hungarians, Khanty, Uzbeks, Tatars, Lithuanians, Mansi, Russians, Ukrainians, Swedes, Danes, Romanians, Belarusians, Czechs, Tajiks, Norwegians, Afghans, Slovaks?

Table 3Language groups

Homework. Make a crossword puzzle on this topic.

Tatiana PETROVA,
teacher of history and social studies
MOU multidisciplinary lyceum,
Vyatskiye Polyany, Kirov region