Option 1
A1. What refers to 1904-1905?
1) the activities of the Provisional Government
2) Stolypin agrarian reform
3) the first Russian revolution
4) Russo-Japanese War
A2. What testified to the development of capitalist relations in agriculture
Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?
1) the use of free labor in the countryside
2) payment by peasants of redemption payments
3) use of the development system
4) the presence of communal land ownership
A3. What did the establishment of the State Duma in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century mean?
1) cessation of the struggle of the Bolsheviks for the socialist revolution
2) transition to a republican form of government
3) the establishment of a limited monarchy
4) the beginning of the period of dual power
1) the fall of PortArthur
2) arrest of the Provisional Government
3) creation of workers' councils
4) the murder of P.A. Stolypin
A5. What was the main event of the Stolypin agrarian reform?
1) prohibition of the activities of the agrarian party
2) the introduction of universal primary education
3) return to the peasants of "cuts"
4) provision of land plots to peasants in private ownership
A6. Which judgment is correct?
1) I. Pavlov Nobel Prize winner
2) A. Akhmatova, member of the association "World of Art"
3) S. Konenkov Russian religious philosopher
4) F. Chaliapin, the founder of astronautics
A7. What event is associated with military operations on the Eastern Front during the period
Civil War?
4) assault by red Perekop
A8. The policy of war communism, in contrast to the NEP, assumed:
1) the transfer of "commanding heights in the economy" into private hands
2) the introduction of a tax in kind
3) introduction of surplus appropriation
4) free trade permission
What desire of the state leadership was the reason for the
A9.
industrialization in the 1920s?
1) overcome the technical and economic backwardness of the country
2) integrate the country into the world economy
3) strengthen the foundations of a market economy
4) improve the standard of living of the population
A10. What is the name of the art direction that proclaimed the principle:
"Culture must be socialist in content, national in form"?
1) Soviet postmodernism
2) cultural revolution
3) socialist cosmopolitanism
4) socialist realism
A11. What characterized the political regime in the USSR in the 1930s?
1) the merger of many functions of the CPSU (b) and the Soviets
2) independence of public organizations
3) a clear division of the three branches of government in the state
4) multi-party system
A12. When did the cited article appear?
How could these bungling exercises in terms of
"socializations", these ridiculous attempts to jump over themselves, attempts,
whose goal is to circumvent classes and the class struggle, but in fact pour water on
mill of our class enemies? ... They could only arise as a result of the fact that
some of our comrades were dizzy from success.
1) restructuring
2) collectivization
3) new economic policy
4) Civil War
A13. What course in the field of foreign policy did the USSR pursue in 1939-1941?
1) military-political rapprochement with Germany
2) confrontation with Germany and Japan
3) to create a system of collective security
4) to establish diplomatic relations with Western countries
A14. The beginning of which battle is mentioned in the memoirs of Marshal I.S. Konev?
On July 1, Hitler summoned the main creators and executors of the Citadel operation and
announced the final decision to launch the offensive on 5 July. And again, as in the beginning
war, the fascist command counted on the suddenness of the strike, which should
was, according to Hitler, to contribute a large number of new tanks and assault
guns. These plans became known to the Soviet command. July 2 was
the start of the operation was determined, about which the Stavka immediately informed
commanders of the Central and Voronezh fronts, as well as me.
1) Moscow
2) Kursk
3) Stalingrad
4) Berlin
A15. What was the most important event in 1943?
2) the beginning of the work of the Crimean (Yalta) conference
3) the exit of the Red Army to the state border of the USSR
A16. What characterized the economic development of the USSR in the first post-war years?
1) the admission of market elements into the economy
2) the predominant development of light and food industries
3) the development of democracy in enterprises, collective farms and institutions
4) further centralization of public administration
development of virgin and fallow lands
A17. What activities in the socio-economic sphere were carried out during the reign
N.S. Khrushchev?
A)
B) reduction in housing construction
increase in purchase prices for agricultural products
b)
D) reduction of capital investments for the development of enterprises of group "A"
E) replacement of economic councils by ministries E) introduction of pensions for collective farmers
Specify the correct answer.
1) AVE 2) VGE 3) AGE 4) VDE
A18. What is the name of the political concept developed in the second half of the 1960s?
x years. L. Brezhnev's entourage?
1) neo-Stalinism
2) the concept of developed socialism
3) the policy of peaceful coexistence
4) new political thinking
1) solution of all social problems
2) periodic parliamentary, presidential and local elections
3) establishment of censorship in the media
4) priority development of the military industry
A20. Specify the author of the letter to the All-Union Congress of the Union of Soviet Writers.
Literature, which is not the air of contemporary society, which does not dare to convey
society its pain and anxiety ... does not even deserve the name of literature.
For three years it has been waged against me, who fought the whole war as a battery commander ...
irresponsible slander: that I served time as a criminal or surrendered, “changed
Motherland", "served with the Germans". This is how 11 years of my camps and exile where I
fell for criticizing Stalin.
1) M.A. Bulgakov
2) B.L. Parsnip
3) V.P. Astafiev
4) A. I. Solzhenitsyn
Period of Russian history
1. War communism
2. "Thaw"
3. "The era of stagnation"
Time
A.19641985
B. 1953-1964
B.19211928
G. 1918-1921
gg.
gg.
1
2
3
The left column corresponds to one element of the right one.
Doer
Event
1. S.Yu. Witte
2. N.I. Vavilov
3. A.I. Kerensky V. Laid the foundations of the science of genetics
A. Conducted a monetary reform
B. Headed the Provisional Government
G. Participated in the signing of the Soviet-German treaty on
non-aggression
IN 3. The weakening of international tension in the mid-60s - mid-70s. received
name "period _______________________".
A. The entry of Soviet troops into Afghanistan
B. Formation of the Warsaw Pact
B. Cuban Missile Crisis
D. Education of the CIS
AT 5. Put the words below in the gaps. The answer should be a combination
corresponding letters in the order in which words are missing in the text.
For example, GVBDA.
A. Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation
B. Yeltsin
B. Constitutional Court
G. Rutskoi
D. Federal Assembly
Signed a decree on a phased constitutional reform, in
September 21, 1993 (1)
which announced the dissolution of the Congress of People's Deputies and (2)
. Majority
members (3) declared the president's actions unconstitutional. Was taken
. This
decision on the appointment of a vice president by the new head of state (4)
the political crisis ended on December 12, 1993 with elections in (5)
Russia.
1
2
3
4
5
Final test for the course “History of Russia. XX beginning of the XXI century. Grade 9"
Option 2
A1. Period from 1905 to 1907 related:
1) with the activities of the Provisional Government
2) with the Stolypin agrarian reform
3) with the first Russian revolution
4) with the Russo-Japanese War
A2. What characterizes the socio-economic development of Russia in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?
1) the presence of a powerful public sector
2) the absence of monopolies in industry
3) the absence of a small-scale commodity structure in the economy
4) the predominance of industrial production over agriculture
A3. Establishment of "an inviolable rule that no law could take force without
approval by the State Duma”, reflects the establishment in Russia:
1) a new advisory body under the king
2) parliamentary republic
3) federal structure
4) limited monarchy
A4. What relates to the events of the first Russian revolution?
1) Tsushima battle
2) taking the Winter Palace
3) Kornilov rebellion
4) cancellation of redemption payments
A5. What did Stolypin's agrarian reform envisage?
1) free exit of peasants from the community
2) financial support for peasant communities
3) the introduction of food distribution
4) confiscation of landed estates by the state
A6. Which judgment is correct?
1) I. Mechnikov organizer of the "Russian Seasons" in Paris
2) K. Balmont poet-symbolist
3) N. Gumilyov Nobel Prize winner
4) F. Shekhtel, the founder of astronautics
A7. What event is associated with military operations on the Southern Front during the Civil War?
wars?
1) the conclusion of a peace treaty with Germany
2) fight against Yudenich's troops
3) performance of the Czechoslovak Corps
4) assault by red Perekop
A8. As a result of NEP, in contrast to war communism:
1) market mechanisms have formed in the economy
2) unemployment was eliminated
3) the command and control system has been strengthened
4) political rights and freedoms have been established in the country
A9. What is characteristic of Stalin's industrialization, in contrast to the industrialization of Russia
beginning of the century?
1) attraction of foreign capital
2) labor enthusiasm of people
3) the growth of bread exports
4) capital accumulation in light industry
A10. What is the name of the regime illustrated by the quote?
The Central Committee found time to direct questions not only of international politics,
issues of defense, economic construction, but at the same time deal with
issues such as textbooks, libraries, fiction,
theaters, cinemas, issues such as the production of gramophones, the quality of soap, etc.
1) legal
2) democratic 4) socialist
3) totalitarian
A11. What did it mean in the USSR in 1920-1930? concept of "cultural revolution"?
1) the revival of the role of religion in the spiritual education of the population
2) rejection of censorship restrictions
3) preservation of the former content of school education
4) politicization and ideologization of public life
A12. What period of events is referred to in the excerpt from the work of a modern historian?
All responsibility for the admitted "distortions" was shifted to local
workers accused of "bungling". Still reached by 20 February 50
percentage level ... was declared a success, indicating that "a radical turn
villages to socialism can be considered already secured.
1) collectivization
2) "Red Guard attack on capital"
3) war communism
4) Civil War
A13. What course did the USSR pursue in foreign policy in the first half of the 1930s?
1) to create a united anti-fascist front
2) to kindle a world revolution
3) rapprochement with Germany and Japan
4) to strengthen the "iron curtain"
A14. The events of which battle are described in an excerpt from the memoirs of Marshal V.I. Chuikov?
Despite the huge losses, the invaders climbed ahead. Infantry columns on
cars and tanks broke into the city. Apparently, the Nazis believed that his fate
solved, and each of them sought to reach the city center as soon as possible and live there
curl up with trophies ... Our fighters ... crawled out from under German tanks, most often
the wounded, to the next line, where they were received, united in units,
supplied mainly with ammunition, and again thrown into battle.
1) Kursk
2) Moscow
3) Stalingrad
4) to lift the blockade of Leningrad
A15. What was the most important event in 1942?
1) the defeat of the Nazis near Moscow
2) the beginning of the work of the Potsdam Conference
3) the publication of order No. 227 "Not a step back!"
4) completion of a radical change in the Great Patriotic War
A16. What was the main economic task in the USSR in the second half of the 40s?
1) restoration of the country's economy
2) development of market relations
3) increase in wages and pensions of workers and collective farmers
4) increase in exports of equipment and grain
A17. What features of the social and political life of the USSR appeared after the 20th Party Congress?
A) multi-party assumption
B) a wave of political arrests for criticizing I.V. Stalin
B) release of political prisoners from camps
D) increase in the number of published journals
E) permission for the existence of all ideological trends in art
E) rehabilitation of some repressed under I.V. Stalin of the peoples
Specify the correct answer.
1)ABV
2) VGE
3) BGE
4) VDE
A18. What is the name of the period marked by a slowdown in the development of the Soviet
economy and the growing backlog from Western countries in the scientific and technical sphere?
1) "iron curtain" 3) "thaw"
2) "era of stagnation"
4) "developed socialism"
A19. What characterizes the post-Soviet period of Russia's development as a whole?
1) annual growth of indicators of economic development of the country
2) constant systematic growth of real wages
3) the transformation of science into the driving force of economic development
4) the process of formation of civil society
A20. Specify the author of the request.
I am connected with Russia by birth, life, work. I do not think of my fate separately and
outside of her. Whatever my mistakes and delusions, I could not imagine that
I will find myself in the center of such a political campaign, which they began to inflate around me
in the West. Realizing this, I informed the Swedish Academy of my
voluntary resignation of the Nobel Prize.
1) M. Sholokhov
2) B. Pasternak
3) I. Brodsky
4) A. Fadeev
IN 1. Set the correspondence between the elements of the left and right columns. One element
The left column corresponds to one element of the right one.
Russian
Period
stories
1. "Thaw"
2. Perestroika
3. Nep
Time
A. 1921-1928
B. 1928-1941
B. 1953-1964
G. 1985-1991
Answer:
1
2
3
IN 2. Set the correspondence between the elements of the left and right columns. One element
The left column corresponds to one element of the right one.
Doer
1.S.Yu. Witte
2. I.V. Kurchatov
3. A.A. Brusilov
Event
A. Created nuclear weapons
B. Introduced a wine monopoly
B. Commanded the troops of the Southwestern Front in World War I
G. Created the doctrine of the biosphere and noosphere
Answer:
1
2
3
VZ. What is the name of the global economic and ideological confrontation
between the United States and its allies, on the one hand, and the Soviet Union and its allies, on the one
the other, which lasted from the mid-1940s. before the early 1990s? __________________________
AT 4. Determine the sequence of events.
A. Withdrawal of Russian troops from Afghanistan
B. Formation of CMEA
B. The entry of Soviet troops into Hungary
D. Signing in Helsinki of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and
cooperation in Europe
Answer:
1
2
3
4
5
Criteria for evaluating answers to the final test for the course “History of Russia. XX beginning of the XXI century. nine
Class"
Option Job No.
Answer
Criteria for evaluating answers in points
1
2
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A12
A13
A14
A15
A16
A17
A18
A19
A20
IN 1
IN 2
IN 3
AT 4
AT 5
A1
A2
A3
4
1
3
3
4
1
3
3
1
4
1
2
1
2
4
4
1
2
2
4
1D, 2B, 3A 2 points (1 point for each correct
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
answer)
1A, 2C, 3B 2 points (1 point for each correct
discharges
BVAG
BAVHD
3
1
4
answer)
1 point for a correctly completed task
2 points for correct answer
1 point if 1 mistake is made
0 points if there are more than 1 errors
1
1
1
A4
A5
A6
A7
A8
A9
A10
A11
A12
A13
A14
A15
A16
A17
A18
A19
A20
IN 1
IN 2
IN 3
AT 4
AT 5
4
1
2
4
1
2
3
4
1
1
3
3
1
2
2
4
2
1C, 2D, 3A 2 points (1 point for each correct
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
answer)
1B, 2A, 3C 2 points (1 point for each correct
Cold
war
BVGA
BADWG
answer)
1 point for a correctly completed task
1 point for a correctly completed task
2 points for correct answer
1 point if 1 mistake is made
0 points if there are more than 1 errors
Rating "5" 2825 points
Grade "4" 2417 points
Rating "3" 16 14 points
Grade "2" 13 points or less
Initially a small reconnaissance detachment.
One of Musa's generals, Abu Zura Tarif, taking four hundred warriors and a hundred horses, crossed Gibraltar in the summer of 710 on four ships provided by Julian, devastated the environs of Algeciras and returned back to Africa with rich booty.
The happy outcome of the first expedition ignited in the Muslims the desire to master Spain. The following year, Musa took advantage of the fact that Roderic was at war with the Basque city of Pamplona in northern Spain, and in the last days of April 711 sent another of his commanders Tarik ibn Ziyad to Spain with a detachment of 7 thousand Berbers (there were only 300 Arabs in the detachment ).
They crossed the strait on the same 4 ships, since the Muslims had no others. As the ships carried people and horses, Tarik collected them near one of the coastal rocky mountains, which still bears his name - Gibraltar (from the distorted Arabic Jabal al-Tariq - "Tariq Mountain"). At the foot of this mountain lay the city of Cartea, which was taken by the Muslims.
Tarik reached Lake Lago de la Sanda and was ready to move on Sevillewhen he found out that King Roderic was coming towards him with a large army (sources say that he allegedly gathered an army of 70 or even 100 thousand people). Tarik sent to Musa to ask for reinforcements, and Musa, using the ships built after Tarik's departure, sent him another 5 thousand soldiers. He was also joined by 13 thousand soldiers of Julian.
The beginning of the reconquista
A significant part of the Visigothic aristocracy chose to remain in the conquered territories, for example, the sons of King Vitica received from the Arabs the rich lands of the Visigothic crown in private possession. However, the remnants of the Visigothic army and another part of the aristocrats and clergy, who did not want to stay in the conquered territories, retreated to Asturias, where they subsequently founded the kingdom of Asturias, and to Septimania. In the summer of 718, the noble Visigoth Pelayo, allegedly the former bodyguard of King Roderich, who was held hostage in Cordoba, returned to Asturias and was elected the first king of Asturias. The election took place in the Field of Hura, between the village of Cangas de Onis and the valley of Covadonga. After receiving news of the meeting at the Field of Jura, Munusa sent a report about it to the Emir of Andalusia.
But only in 722 a punitive detachment under the command of Alcamy arrived in Asturias. With the punishers was the Bishop of Seville or Toledo Oppa (Vitsa's brother), who was called upon to convince Pelayo to surrender. Alcama, moving through the Tarna along the banks of the Nalin River, arrived at Lucus Asturum. From there, the Arabs entered the Covadonga valley in search of Christians. However, the detachment of Alkama was met by Christians in the gorge and defeated, and Alkama himself died.
When the news of the death of Alcama's unit reached Munusa, he left Gijón with his unit and moved towards Pelayo. The clash took place near the village of Olalla (near modern Oviedo), where Munusa's detachment was completely destroyed, and Munusa himself was killed. From this moment, historians count the beginning of the Reconquista.
Stopping the advance of the Arabs in Europe
Since practically all of Iberia was conquered by the Muslims, their further expansion could only continue through the Pyrenees. The newly appointed Wali of Al-Andalus, Al-Samh ibn Malik, crossed the mountains for the first time in 717, invading Septimania. In 719, the Arabs occupied Narbonne, which after that was heavily fortified and for a long time served as a military stronghold for the Muslims in all their military campaigns against the Franks.
But a few years later, the Arabs launched a new offensive campaign in Aquitaine. In and 726, the Duke of Aquitaine twice defeated the army of the new Vali - Anbasa ibn Suhaym al-Kalbi - and in 725 the Vali himself was killed by an arrow while crossing the Rhone. However, Ed the Great - the Duke of Aquitaine - could not prevent the Arabs from capturing Nimes and Carcassonne in 725.
Having stopped the advance of the Arabs, Ed the Great, however, remained in a difficult position, since his possessions bordered on the lands conquered by the Arabs. Usman ibn Nissa, whom the Franks called Munuza. According to the folk tradition mentioned in the Chronicle of Alfonso III, Munuza, a Berber leader, was one of the four Muslim commanders who first entered Spain during the Arab conquest. During one of the raids on Aquitania, Munuza captured Lampagia, the daughter of Ed the Great. The beauty of the girl so impressed Munuza that he married her. Thanks to this marriage, Munuza became close to his wife's father, Duke Ed.
Munuza, dissatisfied with the fact that Abd ar-Rahman ibn Abdallah was appointed instead of the deposed al-Haytan ibn Ubeida al-Kelabi in 730 instead of himself, needed a powerful ally. Ed wanted to secure his possessions from Arab raids. As a result, in /731, an alliance was concluded between the two rulers, one of the conditions of which was the assistance of Ed to Munuza in the upcoming uprising against the Wali Abd ar-Rahman.
At the same time, Ed began to disagree with Karl Martell (Karl Martell) - the Frankish mayor, who wanted to subjugate the possessions that had fallen away from the kingdom of the Franks. Carl accused Ed of treason, stating that he is "an ally of the infidels." Using this far-fetched pretext, in 731 he made two campaigns in Aquitaine. At the same time, he twice captured and ruined Bourges, seduced by rich booty. Martell's invasions of Aquitaine angered Ed. Having secured the rear from the Arabs, he was able to gather forces, march against Charles Martel and recapture Bourges.
After the defeat of Munuza, Abd ar-Rahman decided to deal with his ally, Ed of Aquitaine. Having at his disposal a huge army and becoming the sovereign ruler of Al-Andalus, he expected to continue the conquests begun by his predecessors. He divided the army into two factions. One army of Abd a ar-Rahman invaded from Septimania and reached as far as the Rhone, capturing and sacking Albijois, Rouergues, Gevaudan and Vele. Legends and chronicles also speak of the destruction of Autun by the Moors and the siege of Sens. But unlike his predecessors, who attacked the Frankish state from the east, Abd ar-Rahman struck the main blow from the west.
Battle of Poitiers
Carl Steiben. Battle of Poitiers 732
Fleeing from under Bordeaux, Ed went to the Loire. He did not have the opportunity to assemble a new army, so Ed had only one thing left: to seek help from his recent enemy, Major Karl Martel. Having collected the remnants of his army, Ed headed to Paris, where Karl Martel was at that time. Arriving in the city, Ed was able to convince Karl, who at that time was busy fighting other Germanic tribes, to jointly oppose the Arabs.
Apparently, the impending formidable danger for a while stopped numerous strife and strife, both among the Franks themselves and between the Franks and other Germanic tribes. For the sake of repelling the Arab threat, Charles stopped the tribal war that he waged against other Germans. He managed in a short time to gather a large army, which included, in addition to the Franks, and some other Germanic tribes: Alemanni, Bavarians, Saxons, Frisians. With a large united army, Charles moved to intercept the army of the Moors.
Abd el-Rahman was still under the walls or in the vicinity of Tours when he learned that the Franks were approaching him in large passages. Considering it unprofitable to expect them in this position, he withdrew from the camp and retreated to Poitiers, pursued on the heels of Charles Martel chasing him. But the great quantity of booty and captives, and the large transports that were with his army, made his march more difficult, and made the retreat more dangerous than the battle. According to some Arab historians, there was a moment when he thought of ordering his soldiers to abandon all this pernicious booty and save only war horses and weapons. Such an order was in the nature of Abd el-Rahman. Meanwhile, he did not dare to give it up and decided to wait for the enemy on the fields of Poitiers, between the Vienne and the Claine rivers, placing all hope on the courage of the soldiers. Near the city, the Arabs plundered and destroyed the abbey of Saint-Hilaire, but they did not begin to besiege the city itself, rounding it and moving further towards Tours.
The armies met between Tours and Poitiers. Neither the exact place nor the date of the battle has so far been unequivocally established by historians. Historians express many versions regarding the location of the battle, placing it in different places between Poitiers and Tours. Different dates of the battle are also called - from October 732 to October 733, however, according to the version prevailing at the moment, the battle is attributed precisely to October 732. This battle went down in history as the Battle of Poitiers (or Battle of Tours).
Nevertheless, this Frankish victory stopped the advance of the Arabs into Western Europe, and Charles Martel was unanimously recognized as a fighter for Christianity and the ruler of all Gaul. However, the Arab threat was not completely eliminated, and Charles had to carry out several more military campaigns in order to drive the Arabs out of Provence and Burgundy.
The Arab army rolled back south beyond the Pyrenees. In the years that followed, Martell continued their expulsion from France. After the death of Eudon (circa 735), who reluctantly recognized the suzerainty of Martell in 719, Charles decided to annex the Duchy of Aquitaine to his lands and went there to collect the tribute due to him from the Aquitanians. But the Aquitanian nobility proclaimed Eudon's son, Hunold, Duke of Aquitaine, and Charles recognized his legal rights to Aquitaine the following year, when the Arabs invaded Provence as allies of the Duke of Maurontius. Gunold, who at first did not want to recognize Charles as the supreme ruler, soon had no other choice. He recognized the supremacy of Charles, and Martel confirmed his rights to the duchy, and both began to prepare to meet the invaders. Martell was convinced that the Arabs needed to be kept in the Iberian Peninsula and not allowed to gain a foothold in Gaul.
Not wanting to bind his army with a siege that could last for years, and believing that he would not suffer losses in a frontal attack with all his forces, as was the case at Arles, Martell was content to isolate a few invaders in Narbonne and Septimania. After the defeat of the Moors at Narbonne, the threat of invasion waned, and in 750 the united Caliphate plunged into civil war at the Battle of the Zab.
1031 - the collapse of the Cordoba Caliphate.
Around 1030 to 1099 - the life and exploits of Count Ruy Diaz de Bivar, nicknamed Cid Campeador, the legendary warrior of the Reconquista, the hero of the epic "Song of the Cid", as well as numerous later works of Corneille, Herder and others.
1037-1065 - Fernando I, King of Castile and Leon, captures Coimbra and forces the Muslim rulers of Toledo, Seville and Badajoz to pay tribute to him.
The struggle against the Moors, however, did not prevent the Christian kingdoms from fighting each other or entering into temporary alliances with Islamic overlords. Mauritanian emirs often had Christian wives or mothers. Later, Castile had enough military power to conquer the last Moorish emirate, Granada, but for a long time preferred to receive tribute from Granada instead. The trade through Granada constituted the main route for African gold to medieval Europe.
Ethno-social groups of the population of the Iberian Peninsula during the Reconquista
- Moors, which included African Muslims proper: Arabs, who constituted a small (1-3%) and highly privileged elite of the caliphate; as well as Berbers who act as mercenaries in the army and petty officials of the Muslim state apparatus who speak the Berber language and use Arabic in an official environment (5% -10%)
- Muwallads, Christians of Roman origin who voluntarily or forcibly converted to Islam and almost completely merged with Muslims (5%)
- Mudéhars, Muslim peasants and craftsmen who remained in the lands occupied by Christians.
- Renegades, former Christians who recently converted to Islam and fought on the side of the Muslims
- Moriscos, Muslim peasants and artisans who voluntarily or forcibly converted to Christianity in Christian-controlled lands
- Sephardim, groups of Romance-speaking Jews of the Iberian Peninsula
- Marranos, groups of converted Romance-speaking Jews of the Iberian Peninsula
- Mozarabs, groups of Romance-speaking Christians of European origin who lived in Muslim-controlled lands.
- Christians, groups of Romance-speaking Catholic Christians of European origin who dominated the north of the country.
- Native Christians, privileged groups of Romance-speaking hereditary Catholic Christians since the last phase of the Reconquista.
- New Christians - baptized Jews, Moors and Gypsies.
Christianization of the Arabs
Mauritanian emirs and kings often had Christian wives or mothers. The baptized Moors were called "moriscos", and the baptized Jews - "marranos". The function of forcing baptism and ensuring that newly converted Christians did not profess their former religions was entrusted to the Holy Inquisition. Baptized Moriscos and Marranos (except, in the future, burned on charges of returning to their former faith) in Spain disappeared without a trace. In Portugal, the descendants of baptized Jews, being Catholics by faith, nevertheless retain their ethnic identity. At present, these are mainly people belonging to the wealthy segments of the population living in the area of the city of Porto. They can be distinguished from the rest of the Portuguese population by their distinctive family names.
Portable values
At the end of the 20th century, in different regions of the world, the concept of Reconquista had new meanings.
Mexico and USA
The term Reconquista is often used in far-right, conservative US political circles to describe the demographic situation in the Southwest of the country, where, as a result of uncontrolled illegal migration in recent decades, Mexicans and other Hispanics have again become the majority of the population (see US States p. minority dominance). For reference, the territory of the southwest before the war of 1848 (see Mexican-American War) was a Mexican territory with a small (about 50,000), but still Hispanic population. Mexico's defeat in the war led to an influx of white English-speaking settlers, who absolutely dominated the region until the late 1970s, but began to lose ground in recent years.
Montreal and Quebec in Canada
The concept of the Reconquista (fr. La Reconquete) can also often be found in English and French-language publications in Canada and the USA, describing the development of the demolinguistic situation in the modern province of Quebec, especially with regard to the main metropolis of the province, and once the country's largest city (now the second largest after Toronto) - Montreal. For reference, the territory of modern Quebec and Montreal until 1759 (see New France) was French territory with a small (about 60,000), but still French-speaking Catholic population. The defeat of France in the war with Britain led to an influx of English-speaking settlers into Montreal, who absolutely dominated the city in the late 1930s, but especially began to recede in recent years with the development of Quebec nationalism and the passage of laws such as the Charter of the French Language, which restored French face of Montreal. The English-speaking population is according to data for only 12.5% of the population of the city and 8.2% of the population of the province.
Notes
- Reconquista, -s ( ist.). Lopatin V. V. Capital or lowercase? Spelling Dictionary / V. V. Lopatin, I. V. Nechaeva, L. K. Cheltsova. - M.: Eksmo, 2009. - 512 p., p. 370
- Lebeck S. Origin of the Franks. V-IX centuries. - S. 225-228.
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - S. 145.
- Muller August. Decree. op. - S. 608.
- Arab-Byzantine chronicle of 741, part 42. Oriental literature. Archived
- Initially conquered Spain, called Al-Andalus by the Arabs, was divided into 5 provinces, each of which was headed by a governor who was subordinate to the Wali of al-Andalus. After the annexation of Septimania, a sixth province was formed, the administrative center of which was Narbonne.
- Future Catalonia.
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - S. 147.
- Lampagia is also known under the names of Numerantia, Menina. According to Arabic chronicles, she was a Christian from independent Galicia, "the daughter of a count of that country". However, the "Mozarabic Chronicle", previously attributed to Isidore of Patsensky (or Bezhsky), indicates that she was the daughter of Ed of Aquitaine (either illegitimate or from a second marriage)
- Historians disagree about the chronology of events. According to some, the marriage was the basis for the union between Ed and Munuza. According to others, Ed himself gave his daughter as a wife to the "infidel" to strengthen the union. For details see: Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - S. 148.
- Munuza himself hoped to receive the post of Wali.
- Mozarab chronicle of 754, part 79. Oriental literature. Archived from the original on January 31, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- According to one version, it was the capture of Bourges that prompted Ed to ally with Munuza.
- Followers of Fredegar, st. thirteen.
- According to Cond and Chenier, Al-Baba is the Arabic name for Puycerd, the Roman Castle of Libya in Caretania (lat. Castrum Liviae in Ceretania).
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - S. 153-156.
- Muller August. Decree. op. - S. 609.
- Mozarab chronicle of 754, part 80. Oriental literature. Archived from the original on January 31, 2011. Retrieved January 25, 2009.
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - S. 159.
- Previously attributed to Isidore Patsensky, Bishop of the city of Pax Julia (modern Beja).
- wolf. Conquerors and Chroniclers of Early Medieval Spain. - P. 145.
- Deviosse Jean, Roy Jean-Henri. Battle of Poitiers. - S. 160-170.
- A similar dating is defended, for example, by Deviosse J. and Roy J-A., authors of the book The Battle of Poitiers.
- Britannica Online Encyclopedia
- Les grandes chroniques de France (fr.). Retrieved 25 January 2009.
The first traces of the appearance of man in the north of the Iberian Peninsula belong to the end Paleolithic. Stylized drawings of animals on the walls of caves appeared about 15 thousand years BC. e. The painting is best preserved in Altamira and in Puente Viesgo near Santander.
In the region of 6-5 thousand BC. e. the coast of Spain colonizes cardial pottery culture.
First civilizations
Main article: Pre-Roman population of Spain
On the southwestern coast of Iberia, a culture arose in the Bronze Age, from which a civilization was formed at the end of 2 thousand Tartessos who traded metal with the Phoenicians. After the depletion of the mines, Tartessus falls into decay.
Along the east coast of Spain in III millennium BC. e. appeared Iberian tribes; some hypotheses link their ancestral home to North Africa. From these tribes comes the ancient name of the peninsula - Iberian. In the middle II millennium BC. e. Iberians began to settle in fortified villages on the territory of modern Castile. The Iberians were mainly engaged in agriculture, cattle breeding and hunting, they knew how to make tools from copper and bronze. Iberians used paleo-spanish writing, created earlier by the Tartessians. The Iberian language was not related to Tartessian.
There is Roman evidence that previously lived in Spain ligurs, however, nothing is known about their existence in the historical period.
In the late Bronze Age, penetrates into Iberia urn field culture(the remnant of which in the historical period were probably Lusitans), and at the beginning of 1 thousand BC. e. most of Iberia is colonized celtic tribes. Part of the Celts, who lived next to the Iberians, fell under their influence, created Celtiberian culture; the Celts, who lived in the western part, maintained a relatively conservative way of life, were unliterate. The Celts of Iberia became famous as warriors. It was they who invented the double-edged sword, which later became the standard weapon of the Roman army and used against its own inventors.
Carthaginian and Greek colonization
The three-hundred-year rule of the Visigoths left a significant mark on the culture of the peninsula, but did not lead to the creation of a single nation. The Visigothic system of electing a monarch created a fertile ground for conspiracies and intrigues. Although in 589 the Visigoth king Reccared I adopted Catholicism, this did not remove all the contradictions, religious strife only intensified. To 7th century all non-Christians, especially Jews, were faced with a choice: exile or conversion to Christianity.
Byzantine Spain
Muslim domination
The conquest of the peninsula by the Moors in just a few years is an amazing example of the rapid spread of Islam. Despite the desperate resistance of the Visigoths, ten years later only the mountainous regions of Asturias remained unconquered.
Until the middle of the 8th century, the Mauritanian territories were part of the Umayyad Caliphate, the origin of the name of the Mauritanian state dates back to the same time. Al Andalus, whose territory either increased or decreased, depending on the success of the Reconquista.
After the death of his son, Adu-al-Melik Mozafar ( 1008), who ruled with the energy of his father, the first ministers ( khajibs) made their power hereditary. Already under the second successor Almansora strife began. Umayyads and the Hammudids (Edrisids) quickly succeeded on the throne of the caliphs, and with Hisham III in 1031 the last of the Umayyads ingloriously descended from the throne.
Various commanders, Arab and Berber aristocrats on the ruins of the Cordoba caliphate created a number of independent states that did not last long. All this favored the Christian states that existed within Spain. At first, only a few Visigoths who fled to the mountains Asturias, retained their independence and united under the rule of the brave Pelayo, or Pelagia, whom tradition calls a relative of the Visigothic kings and the first king of Asturias; the Spanish chronicles call him the renewer of the freedom of the Spaniards.
Reconquista
The Christian Reconquista (in translation - “reconquest”) is a continuous centuries-old war against the Moors, started by part of the Visigothic nobility under the leadership Pelayo(Pelagia). AT 718 the advance of the expeditionary force of the Moors was stopped in the mountains Asturias in the battle of Covadonga.
Pelayo's grandson Alfonso I (739-757), son of the first Cantabrian duke Pedro and Pelayo's daughter, united Cantabria with Asturias. In the middle of the VIII century, the Asturian Christians under the leadership of King Alfonso I, taking advantage of the Berber uprising, occupied neighboring Galicia. In Galicia, the tomb of Saint James (Santiago) was claimed to have been discovered, and Santiago de Compostela becomes a center of pilgrimage.
Aragon ceded control of Mediterranean trade to Genoa. Only Castile during this period is fully self-sufficient and profits from the wool trade with the Netherlands.
Nevertheless, victories over the Arabs went on as usual: in 1340 Alphonse XI won a brilliant victory at Salado, and four years later by the conquest of Algeziras Grenada was cut off from Africa.
To put an end to wrongdoing on the part of the nobility, the ancient urban brotherhood of Germandad ("Holy Ermandade") was restored. The highest positions were placed at the disposal of the king; the higher clergy were subject to royal jurisdiction; Ferdinand was elected grand master of the three orders of chivalry, which made them obedient instruments of the crown; inquisition helped the government to keep the nobility and people in obedience. The administration was reorganized, the royal revenues increased, some of them went to the promotion of sciences and arts. The long-rooted so-called. "bad customs", expressed in the legalized arbitrariness of the nobles over the peasantry ("the right of the first night", etc.).
Spanish Golden Age
When Charles in 1519 was chosen German emperor (as Charles V) and therefore left Spain again (1520), there was outrage of the communes- protest against absolutism Charles and his Dutch advisers in the name of the national institutions of Iberia. The Communeros assumed a completely democratic character, but the uprising was pacified by the victory of the noble militia at Villalar (April 21, 1521) and the execution of Padilla.
Charles V issued a full amnesty, but took advantage of the fear that the movement nobility, in order to narrow down the old perks and liberties. Cortes turned out to be incapable of resisting the government, the nobility began to look at loyalty as their main duty, and the people patiently submitted to the royal power and its plans for conquest. The Cortes unquestioningly began to supply Charles V with money for the war with France, enterprises against the Moors in Africa, suppression Schmalkaldic Union in Germany. For the Habsburgs and for the spread of the Roman Catholic faith, the Spanish troops fought on the banks By and Elbe, in Mexico and Peru.
Meanwhile, in the country itself, industrious moriscos they were oppressed and expelled, thousands of Spaniards were sent to the fires by the Inquisition, every encroachment to freedom was suppressed; industry, trade and agriculture perished from an arbitrary system of taxes. Not only the nobility, but also peasants and townspeople aspired to the war and to public service; other urban and rural occupations were looked upon with contempt. The Church owned large areas of land that came to her at the expense of direct heirs; these lands were emptied or turned into pastures, and the amount of cultivated land decreased more and more. Trade passed into the hands of foreigners, who benefited both from Spain and from its colonies. When Charles V resigned the crown in 1556, the Austrian possessions of the Habsburgs and Spain again separated from each other. Spain retained in Europe only Netherlands , franche-comté , Milan , Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. The aims of Spanish policy remained the same; Spain became the center of Catholic reactionary politics.
Decline of Spain
The proceeds from the colonization of the New World were directed by the Spanish crown to achieve political goals, which were the restoration of the dominance of the Catholic Church in Europe and the dominance of the Habsburgs in European politics. In parallel with this, in Spain there is a rapid property stratification of the nobility, the elite of which discovers a taste for luxury. However, the influx of gold from across the ocean did not contribute to the development of the country's economy; numerous Spanish cities remained predominantly political, but not trade and craft centers. Trade and craft were concentrated in the hands of the descendants of the Muslim population, the Moriscos. As a result, the financing of wars and the needs of the court and the Spanish nobility took place by increasing the tax burden, confiscation of the property of "unreliable" sections of society, primarily Moriscos, as well as internal and external loans, often forced (damage to coins, "donatives"). All this worsened the situation of the population and further suppressed the development of trade and crafts, exacerbating the economic, and then political, backwardness of Spain from the Protestant countries of Northwestern Europe.
16th century
From the middle of the 16th century, the economic decline of Spain began, caused by incessant wars, exorbitant (and at the same time regressive) taxes and price revolution. As pointed out, based on reliable information, the historian Cieza de Leon: "Emperor ( Charles V of Habsburg) spent, since that year ( 24 February) when he was crowned before this [the year itself ()], so much, while gaining more silver and gold than the kings of Spain had from King Don Rodrigo before him, that none of them had such a need [for gold] as His Majesty; but if he did not wage wars and his seat was Spain, verily, with his rents and with what came from the Indies, all Spain would be as overflowing with treasures as it was in Peru during his time kings » .
War in Spain (1808-1813)
As early as May 2, 1808, with the news of Hernando's withdrawal to France, Madrid rebellion broke out, which the French managed to suppress only after a bloody struggle; formed provincial juntas, guerillas armed in the mountains, and all accomplices of the French were declared enemies of the fatherland. The brave defense of Zaragoza, the removal of Joseph from Madrid, and the general retreat of the French contributed to the enthusiasm of the Spanish. At the same time Wellington landed in Portugal with an English corps and began to oust the French from there. The French, however, prevailed over the Spaniards and on December 4 again entered Madrid.
In Spain, a guerrilla war began, led by the established in September 1808 in Aranjuez central junta. At first, all sections of Spanish society, nobles, clergy and peasants, with the same zeal, sought to expel the invaders, who controlled only large cities and responded to the resistance of the Spaniards with cruel terror. By early 1810, the odds had shifted to the side of the French, as the Spanish elite became more loyal to Joseph. The defenders of the independence of the country in Cadiz established a regency, convened Cortes and accepted constitution(March 18, 1812), based on the old Spanish traditions of communal self-government and the principles of democracy. At the same time, only British troops provided organized resistance to the French. Wellington, who defeated the French at Salamanca on July 22, 1812, but could not hold out in Madrid.
14th of April 1931 as a result of mass demonstrations, the monarchy was overthrown, and Spain became a republic again. This did not bring stability to Spanish society, since the traditional contradictions between the conservative-monarchist and the republican wing were supplemented by disagreements between the Republicans themselves, in whose ranks there were various forces - from supporters of liberal capitalism to anarchists. The ongoing terror, the inability of the authorities to solve economic problems, the threatening international situation led to an increase in popularity in army circles.
This review contains information about the origin of the name Spain, as well as a description of the states on the basis or ruins of which modern Spain arose.
Origin of the name Spain: rabbits and the far shore
The founders of Spain, surrounded by saints, on a sketch by the Spanish artist Federico Madrazo (1815-1894), from a drawing kept in the Prado Museum in Madrid: Pelayo (standing on the left, kneeling), the first king of Asturias, who created a tiny state on the fragments of the Visigothic Christian kingdom in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, which could prevent the undivided rule of the Arabs in the territory of modern Spain and gradually began the reconquest (reconquista); Isabella of Castile and her husband Ferdinand of Aragon (kneeling on the right), often referred to today by the title they received from the Pope - "Catholic Kings".
The founders of Spain, surrounded by saints, in a sketch by the Spanish artist Federico Madrazo (1815-1894), from a drawing kept in the Prado Museum in Madrid:
Pelayo (standing on the left, kneeling), the first king of Asturias, who, on the fragments of the Visigothic Christian kingdom, created a tiny state in the north of the Iberian Peninsula, which was able to prevent the undivided rule of the Arabs in the territory of modern Spain and gradually began the reconquest (reconquista);
Isabella of Castile and her husband Ferdinand of Aragon (kneeling on the right), often referred to today by the title they received from the Pope - "Catholic Kings".
They, 700 years after Pelayo, completed the reconquest by conquering the last Islamic state on the peninsula - the Emirate of Granada, and by their marriage united Castile and Aragon, which marked the beginning of modern Spain.
They also helped Columbus organize the discovery of the New World;
Pelayo, on the one hand, and the Catholic couple, on the other, who lived in different eras, could not meet.
But the artist depicted them together in his fantastic drawing, because it is to these three characters that Spain, to a large extent, owes its origin.
The word from which the modern name of the country is Spain(in Spanish España, in English Spain) is the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula, on which modern Spain is located - Hispania.
During the Republican Period in Ancient Rome, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania Citerior (Near Spain) and Hispania Ulterior (Far Spain).
During the principate, Hispania Ulterior was divided into two new provinces: Baetica and Lusitania, and Hispania Citerior was renamed the Tarraconian province - Tarraconensis (In the autonomous community of Catalonia, in modern Spain, it still exists, located on the Mediterranean coast and near Barcelona, large city of Tarrakona, which in the Roman period was the capital of this province).
Subsequently, the western part of the Tarraconian province was separated, first under the name of Hispania Nova, and then under the name of Callaecia (or Gallaecia, whence the name of the modern Spanish region of Galicia comes from).
The origin of the Roman Latin name of Spain - Hispania has many interpretations.
The most common interpretation is that the name Hispania is a corrupted Phoenician phrase. Ancient Rome at one time competed with Carthage, and Carthage (now its ruins on the territory of modern Tunisia) was just founded by Phoenician settlers from the city of Tyre (modern Lebanon). The Phoenicians had colonies on the Spanish coast, even before the Romans, and, according to the version in their favor, the word Hispania comes from the Phoenician word formation ishephaim, meaning "shore of rabbits."
There is also a Greek version of the origin of the name Spain. The name Hispania supposedly comes from a Greek word. It is written in Latin as Hesperia. Translated "western lands". For Roman authors, it sounded like Hesperia Ultima (Far Hesperia). Since Hesperia was simply called the Apennine Peninsula.
There is also a Basque version. In the Basque language, the language of one of the oldest and possibly authentic peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, there is a word e zpanna, which means "border, edge". Note that in the Basque language, modern Spain is called Espainia. In turn, the name Iberia comes from the ancient tribe of the Iberians, who lived here before the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans.
Origin
Spain and its history in maps
Below are maps showing, in approximate chronological order, what happened in the Iberian Peninsula from Roman times to the liberation and unification of Spain under Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. The reign of the latter is the period from which the Spain we know originates.
The maps are from the Atlas de Historia de España and Community Wiki.
Spain during the Roman Empire - in 218
Spain in the period of the Roman Empire - in 218 BC - 400 AD.
Then on the Iberian Peninsula there were first two - Hispania Citerior and Hispania Ulterior (signed in red), and then three provinces of the Roman Empire.
The map also shows the history of Roman expansion in the Iberian Peninsula.
Here the Romans conquered territories where the tribes of the ancient population of the island, the Iberians, and the Celts who came later, used to live, and there were also colonies of the Carthaginians.
(Recall that the powerful city-empire of Carthage (in North Africa, on the territory of modern Tunisia) developed from a Phoenician colony. The Phoenicians, a now disappeared people of seafarers and merchants, whose homeland was modern Lebanon).
Spain as part of the Roman Empire.
Spain in the Roman period.
Spain ca.
Spain ca. 420 AD
The Romans still control a number of territories on the peninsula, but Spain has already been conquered by the Indo-Iranian tribe of the Alans and another well-known tribe - relatives of the Germanic tribes of the Goths - the Vandals (Andalusia is named after them), also by the Germanic tribe of the Suebi (not to be confused with the Svei).
All three peoples created their own separate state formations on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula.
In the far north of the country at that time, the most ancient local tribes of the Cantabri and Basques, related to each other, retained their tribal formations.
Note that the Alans and Vandals did not linger in Spain, after several decades they migrated to North Africa, where their kingdom was already defeated by Byzantium by 534, and the tribes themselves disappeared among other peoples.
Visigothic Spain around 570
Visigothic Spain around 570 AD
By 456 AD the dominant position in Spain was taken by the Germanic tribe of the Visigoths, who migrated here from France, creating their own kingdom of the Visigoths (Spanish: Reino Visigodo).
The map shows the conquests of the Visigoth king Leovigild (569-586) against the Suebi, Basques and Cantabri.
Note that the territories on the southern coast of the Iberian Peninsula (indicated in light brown) at that time were captured by the growing Byzantine Empire (with its capital in Constantinople, modern Istanbul), the eastern part of the former divided Roman Empire.
We also note that the Western Roman Empire, to which the Roman territories in Spain went during the division, by that time had not existed for more than a century, and Germanic tribes had long dominated its provinces in Italy, France, Germany and Spain.
Iberian Peninsula from 460 to 711
Iberian Peninsula from 460 to 711 AD, in the period before the Arab invasion.
The map shows the conquests of the kingdom of the Visigoths (Spanish: Reino Visigodo) against the Suebi, Basques and Cantabri (red arrows), as well as offensive campaigns against the Visigothic and Basque lands of the Franks related to the Visigoths (lilac arrows).
Note that later the Franks, having mixed with the Celtic tribe of the Gauls and the Roman population of the territory, will become the ancestors of the modern French.
Also marked are the Byzantine territories of Spain, which the Visigoths occupied shortly before the Arab invasion.
And finally, the beginning of the invasion (green arrow) of the Muslim Arabs from North Africa and the key battle of 711 lost by the Visigoths to the Muslims at the Guadaleta River, near Cadiz, are indicated.
Arab conquest of Spain.
Arab conquest of Spain. The map shows the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arab-Muslim army, beginning in 711 AD. and by 731 AD.
The dark pink color indicates the Christian state of Tudmir, dependent on the Arabs (the state of the Visigoth prince Theodomir), which, until the change of the Umayyads by the Emirate of Cordoba, maintained autonomy for several decades, paying tribute to the Umayyad governor.
Note that in 732, the Muslim-Arab armies, having subjugated all of Spain, with the exception of the tiny mountainous region of Asturias in the very north, tried to reach almost as far as Paris.
Then the battle took place near the city of Tours, also known by the name of another nearby city as the battle of Poitiers.
This battle was won by the Franks, who stopped the Muslim advance into Western Europe.
The Frankish empire of the Carolingians in subsequent years began to go on the offensive and create vassal Christian states near the Pyrenees mountains, serving as a buffer with the caliphate in Spain.
Spain in 750 AD
Spain in 750 AD The entire territory of the Iberian Peninsula (indicated in green) is occupied by the province of the Arab-Muslim state of the Umayyads.
Only in the far north, in Asturias, did a Christian state survive. There, in 718, the kingdom of Asturias was created, headed by the Visigothic commander Pelayo.
In turn, the Frankish empire of the Carolingians, after some time, will begin to create several buffer Christian principalities on the border with Spain.
The territory of the maximum expansion of the world Arab Muslim state by 750 AD.
The territory of the maximum expansion of the world Arab Muslim state by 750 AD.
Lilac color marks the territory of the original state of the Prophet Muhammad by the time of his death in 632 AD.
Pinkish color marks the territory of the conquests of the first caliph and father-in-law of Muhammad Abu Bakr in 632-634.
And, finally, a shade of light brown indicates the conquests of the first world monarchical Arab dynasty, the Umayyads, who ruled from Damascus.
It was the governor of the North African province of Ifriqiya (Africa), which was part of the first Arab world Umayyad Caliphate, who conquered Spain.
Foothills of the Pyrenees, the border of the Caliphate and the Empire of the Franks c.
Foothills of the Pyrenees, the border of the Caliphate and the Empire of the Franks c. 810 AD
The map shows buffer Christian principalities, dependent on the Frankish empire of the Carolingians, created by it on the lands conquered from Muslims, located in the foothills of the Pyrenees, the so-called. "Spanish brand" of the Carolingians.
We note among them the Principality of Urgell, which also included the population of the Andorran valley, to which Charlemagne, according to legend, gave autonomy for their help as mountain guides during the wars of the Franks with the Muslim army, while placing the Andorran shepherds under the sovereignty of the Urgell princes (later the Urgell princes). bishops). Then Andorra was born.
On the map we also see the Basque principality. Note that the Basques resisted the Carolingians, trying to remain independent from both the Franks and the Muslims.
Spain in 929
Spain in 929 AD
The Umayyads in Spain were replaced by the Emirate of Cordoba. The Emirate of Cordoba arose on the territory of the Iberian Peninsula after in 750 AD. the new Abbasid dynasty overthrew the Umayyads, and then began to exterminate the representatives of their family, one of the Umayyads, and it was the 20-year-old Abdelrahman, fled from the Middle East to North Africa.
Then he crossed over to Spain and proclaimed his emirate here in Cordoba.
Thus, the Spanish province of the Arab Caliphate forever separated from the unified Arab state.
The Abbasids were unable to return the Spanish territories, although they sent a military expedition.
At the same time, they continued to rule the second world Arab state from Baghdad for several centuries.
On the map we also see a significant expansion of Christian territories in the Iberian Peninsula.
Since the Christians had a tradition of dividing their lands between their sons and giving lands to vassals, then over time, Leon, Castile, Galicia arose on the reclaimed lands of the Kingdom of Asturias.
They pursued an independent policy.
In the course of successions among relatives, the crown of León swallowed up the crown of Asturias, which disappears as an independent state.
Also on the conquered Christian lands there was the kingdom of Navarre with the Basque dynasty, and also the county of Barcelona (the prototype of the current Catalonia), which is gradually becoming independent from the Franks.
The map also shows the large county of Ribacorsa, created by the Franks and later annexed by Navarre.
Iberian Peninsula ca.
Iberian Peninsula ca. 1030 The period of many small states (taifa) began on the Islamic part of the peninsula after the collapse of the Emirate of Cordoba.
Muslim and Christian territories on the map are separated by a black and white line, in the middle of the peninsula, no man's land is indicated in brown.
On the Christian side of the Iberian Peninsula, Leon dominated at that time, as well as Navarre (also called the Kingdom of Pamplona after its capital).
The latter in that period, under the reign of Sancho III of Navarre, united, thanks to a fortunate combination of dynastic circumstances, Castile, while still not highlighting Aragon.
Also among the Christian states was the County of Barcelona, \u200b\u200bwhich since 988 became de facto independent from the Frankish state, with the end of the Carolingian dynasty.
On the territory of the Kingdom of León, we see for the first time the modest county of Portugal, which arose as a fief granted by the king, whose rulers, with the advancement of Leon to the south, reconquering former Christian lands, will gradually begin to identify themselves more and more with the local population, who continued to speak the local Galician dialect. Later they decide to declare independence.
Iberian peninsula in 1090-1147.
After a period of anarchy (taifas) caused by the collapse of the Emirate of Cordoba, from 1090 to 1147. The Muslim territories of present-day Spain and Portugal were ruled by the Berber dynasty of the Almoravids.
The center of her state was in North Africa.
It should be noted that another Berber dynasty, the Hammudids, had a hand in the disintegration of the Emirate of Cordoba, whose representatives had allotments in the Emirate of Cordoba and after the fall of the emirate came to power for some time (North African possessions of the Hammudids, whose ancestors ruled throughout Morocco (known as the Idrissids) and were ousted from there by the Almoravides (indicated on the map on the right).
African kingdoms are marked in lilac on the map (on the map below).
By the time the Almoravids came to power in the Muslim part of Spain, on the Christian side of the Iberian Peninsula, the kingdoms of Castile and Leon already existed, separated from the Asturian royal family.
Also from the kingdom of Navarre stood out the kingdom of Aragon.
The County of Barcelona became associated with the Catalan nation.
In 1147, another Berber dynasty, the Almohads, conquered the Almoravid capital of Marrakech (modern
In 1147, another Berber Almohad dynasty conquered the Almoravid capital of Marrakech (in modern Morocco), and the Almoravid state collapsed, including in Spain.
By that time, the Christian states had already conquered significant territories on the Iberian Peninsula.
The Almohads moved the capital of the Muslim Spanish possessions from Córdoba to Seville, with the Almohads' main capital being Marrakesh.
The map shows that the state of the Almohads bordered on the state of the Ayyubids, who ruled in Egypt and were actually independent, but formally recognizing the power of the Abassids.
It should be noted that even after the Egyptian independent Fatimid dynasty preceding the Ayyubids came to power in Egypt, there could no longer be a question of a single North African Arab province.
In other words, the Islamic states in North Africa and Spain no longer directly bordered the pan-Arab caliphate.
Iberian peninsula in 1300.
Of the Muslim possessions on the peninsula, only the Emirate of Granada remains (highlighted in green). The Emirate of Granada pays tribute to Castile.
Castile, in turn, has already annexed the lands conquered from the Muslims - the so-called. New Castile, as well as the old Christian kingdoms - Leon, Galicia and Asturias.
Another influential force on the territory of the peninsula is Aragon, who annexed the lands of the Barcelona County, the territory that became known as Catalonia.
The Christian states of Navarre and Portugal remain independent.
Iberian Peninsula in 1472-1515
What events and states are indicated on this map?
Castile and Aragon at that time remain the two main Christian states of the Iberian Peninsula.
Their union under the joint rule of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon in 1479 is reflected on the map with a double-headed arrow.
This association is already forever, although only the grandson of the "Catholic Kings", as they are called in Spain, Charles V will be officially called the King of Spain.
Isabella and Ferdinand in 1492 conquer the Emirate of Granada - the last Muslim state of the Iberian Peninsula (the map also shows the years of several previous expeditions against Granada).
Already after the death of Isabella, Ferdinand annexed in 1515 to Aragon, and, in fact, already to Spain, the small Christian kingdom of Navarre, which in the last years of its existence was under strong French influence.
In 1476 (Battle of Toro), Portugal unsuccessfully fought with Spain, because it does not consider Isabella the legitimate heir to the throne of Castile, wanting to place the daughter of her deceased brother, who married the Portuguese monarch, on the Castilian throne.
Also shown are expeditions to the Canary Islands, which Isabella and Ferdinand finally annex to Spain, crushing the resistance of the local population and Portugal.
The expedition against the Muslim Arabs of 1509 to conquer Oran (in modern Algeria), which Ferdinand carried out as regent of Castile and king of Aragon, is also reflected.
1469 and 1492:
Key dates in the origin of Spain
First Key Date − 1469 marriage of Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. By their marriage and the marriage agreement concluded, Isabella and Ferdinand created a state entity, which, although for another eighty years formally consisted of two separate territories with their own crowns and separate systems of government - Castile and Aragon, but, nevertheless, after the wedding of these monarchs became a single whole. . And, as it turned out, forever.
Note that Castile and Aragon by that time already represented almost the entire territory of present-day Spain. In some sources, the year of the unification of Spain is called 1479, when Ferdinand, after the death of his father, became king of Aragon, and thus was able to become the real co-ruler of his wife, who was crowned Queen of Castile after the death of her brother in 1474.
current province Granada in the autonomous region, Andalusia was the last of the lands under Islamic rule in the Iberian Peninsula (it housed modern Spain and Portugal), which was reclaimed by the Christians. This happened in 1492. This is one of the key dates in the process of creating the Spanish state.
Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon were those people who not only completed the reconquista (“reconquest”, in Spanish, reconquista (r econquista), i.e. the process of recapturing the lands of Spain from the Muslims) with the conquest of the Emirate of Granada, but also helped Columbus with the organization of his expedition “on opening the way to India.” As a result, Columbus discovered America.
The conquest of America began, known in Spain as the "conquest", conquista, (Spanish conquista). And this happened also in 1492.
The discovery of America gave Spain that then emerged not only new lands in the New World, but also wealth - South American silver, which allowed the country to become a world superpower for about a century. In the same time new resources from the New World, giving the country scope, slowed down its development, while maintaining feudal institutions.
But back to the reconquest of the lands of the Iberian Peninsula from the Muslims.
The process of reconquest, known as the reconquista, continued for nearly 700 years. He left an imprint on the social mores of the emerging Spain. In view of the constant struggle and the feeling of being in the forefront of the front, in Castile, for example, the Inquisition was the most merciless among all Christian countries.
The most honorary title of Isabella and Ferdinand was the title of "Catholic King and Queen", which was given to them by Pope Alexander VI in 1496 for the defense of Catholicism and the reconquest of territories.
In contemporary Spain, Isabella and Ferdinand are often not referred to in historical publications even by their first names, only using the title "Catholic Kings".
Reconquista
The Christian reconquest of the reconquista that marked the origin of Spain actually began almost immediately after the Arab conquest.
The Arab conquest of the Ibean Peninsula took place in 710-714., when the Arabs, under the leadership of Musa ibn Nusayra, a native of Yemen, the governor of the province of Ifriqiya (Africa) of the Umayyad state and his commander Tariq ibn Ziyad (Gibraltar is named after him - from the Arab. Jabal al-Tariq, i.e. Mount Tariq), invading from North Africa, very quickly conquered almost the entire territory of the Iberian Peninsula, defeating the kingdom of the Visigoths that existed here on the former lands of the Roman Empire, who by that time had long become Christians.
The Visigoths lost the decisive Battle of the Guadalete River, in the modern province of Cadiz (Andalusia region, in the very south of the Iberian Peninsula).
Recall that the Umayyads are the first worldwide Arab Muslim dynasty, they ruled from Damascus.
In Medieval Spain, Muslims (modern Spanish musulman) were called Moors (The Spanish word moro ("Moor") comes from the Latin m auri, and from the Greek ma uros (meaning "dark", tanned ").
In the Roman Empire, there were two African provinces - Mauritania Tingitana and Mauritania Caesariensis with a Berber population (they occupied the territories of present-day Morocco and Algeria, respectively). It was from there, centuries later, after the Muslim conquest, that the Arab invasion of the Iberian Peninsula began.
In the Islamic conquest, the Berbers, Islamized by that time, will take an active role, and later the territories of present-day Spain will be ruled by two Berber dynasties. (See more about this later in this review).
Asturias - the ancestral home
all newSpanish
Christian states
and the last refuge from the Moors
It is the Visigoths who are considered the ancestors of modern Spaniards and Portuguese..
After the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula by the Arabs, the remnants of the Visigothic nobility and troops took refuge in a mountainous region, in the extreme north of the Iberian Peninsula.
There, in 718, the kingdom of Asturias was created, headed by a commander(Note that the last king of the united state of the Visigoths, Roderic, died, presumably, in 711, during the battle at the Guadaleta River mentioned above).
Kingdom of Asturias revives
Christian kingdoms and disappears
During the slow expansion of the kings of Asturias, the lands of the old Visigothic regions on the northern coast of the Iberian Peninsula, Galicia (in the west) and Cantabria (in the east), were gradually conquered.
As a result of the dynastic divisions of the ruling dynasty of Asturias, the Kingdom of León arises in Galicia.
León was created as a separate kingdom when the king of Asturias, Alfonso the Great, divided his realm among his three sons. Leon went to Garcia I (911-914).
In 924 AD King Fruela II of Asturias, taking advantage of the death of his older brother, the King of Galicia and Leon Ordoño II, and ignoring the hereditary rights of the sons of Ordoño, united these lands into a single state with the capital in Leon.
After that, Asturias no longer appears in the chronicle.kah as an independent kingdom.
Note that in modern Spain there is an autonomous community of Asturias, officially called the Principality of Asturias (Principado de Asturias). The title of Prince of Asturias is held by the heir to the Spanish crown.
The ancient name of the region was restored in 1977, before that the region was called the province of Oviedo(by the name of the main city).
On the stage
history appears Castile
In 850 AD, still under the Asturian king Ordoño I, his brother Rodrigo was appointed the first count of Castile, which also included Cantabria.
Thus Castile was separated from the kingdom of León as a marque, or dependent territory.
This is how a new feudal formation that did not exist before arises, whose name, by the way, comes from Spanish. castillo - castle - "country of fortresses" for castles around Burgos. The center of Castile was originally located in Burgos and later in Valladolid.
The counts of Castile did not originally inherit the throne, but were appointed by the kings of León., and then more and more intensified, finally proclaiming themselves kings.
The first king of Castile is considered to be Ferdinand I, who ruled in 1037-1065, King of Leon, who abolished the title of Count of Castile and assumed the title of King of Castile. He, as can be seen from the title, also ruled in Leon, however, after his death, the two thrones were again divided between the eldest and second son of Ferdinand I.
Only in 1230, after the death of King Alfonso IX of Leon and Galicia, did his son King Ferdinand III, who ruled in Castile, become the sole ruler of the two kingdoms. Then Castile and León finally unite.
Note that during the dynastic divisions of the royal family of Leon, at some points, there was also an independent Galician kingdom.
It is interesting that Castile and León sometimes, in their disputes among themselves, turned for military assistance to the Muslim states of Spain - the Moor M.
However, exactly Castile was the main driving force behind the struggle for the reconquest, the reconquista.
Here some stages of the war of Castile against the Moors:
The former Visigothic capital of Spain, Toledo, was recaptured from the Muslims in 1085, and in 1212, after another lost battle at Las Navas de Tolosa, the Islamic states of the Iberian Peninsula lost most of southern Spain.
In 1230, as a result of a dynastic marriage, the Christian kingdom of León joined Castile.
In 1236, Cordoba, liberated from the power of the Moors, was annexed to Castile, in 1243 Murcia and in 1248 Seville.
From 1460, the ownership of the Canary Islands was ceded by Portugal to Castile.
Note that the county of Portugal arose in 868 with the conquest of Porto from the Muslims, as a vassal unit of the kingdom of Leon (Independent of Castile and Leon since 1143).
Navarre and Aragon
Adjacent to the territory of Leon was the region of Navarre bordering the Franks, the mountainous part of which retained its independence even at the very peak of the expansion of Muslim conquests.
The Kingdom of Navarre also included the current Basque Country.
Navarre was ruled by local Basque Christian dynasties for many years..
On the Muslim side, a feudal entity adjoined Navarre, a buffer state of rulers from the Basques, who were Christians in Visigothic times, but then converted to Islam.
In the early period of the Umayyad state, the Banu Qasi, who were vassals of the Islamic rulers, carried out joint actions with the Basque dynasty of Navarre against the Franks, who tried to bring Navarre under their control.
Later, however, Navarre, where in 905 AD. the local dynasty of Arista was overthrown by the kingdom of Asturias and replaced by other local ones - Jimenez, began to pursue a more militant policy against Muslim states.
In 800 AD The Franks founded the County of Aragon on the territory conquered from the Moors, which in 933 fell under the influence of Navarre.
Under Sancho III of Navarre, his kingdom briefly claimed power over Castile.
In 1035, as a result of the dynastic division of territories between the sons of Sancho, an Aragonese fief was allocated to one of his sons, and thus the kingdom of Aragon arose.
From 1164, the house of Barcelona (former counts of Barcelona) began to rule in Aragon, and from 1334, the ruling branch of the Burgundian dynasty of Trastamara became the ruling branch of the Burgundian dynasty in Aragon.
One of the two rulers of the dualistic but united kingdom of Castile and Aragon, representing Aragon in this bundle, King Ferdinand (r. 1479-1516) conquered the southern part of Navarre, while the other part went to France.
After the death in 1504 of the wife of Ferdinand Isabella of Castile, Castile and Aragon formally separated again, but not for long. Ferdinand, who had married a second time by that time, was called to Castile as regent.
As for Aragon, the daughter of Isabella and Ferdinand Juan the Mad, after the death of her father in 1516, was formally considered the monarch of Aragon until her death in 1555, but she was really incapacitated and was in a monastery in Castile.
The crown of Castile and Aragon was succeeded by her son Charles V, who became not only the king of all Spanish lands, but also the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
This monarch, as well as his son Philip II, became the first monarchs to be titled kings of Spain., and not just the historical kingdoms - Castile, Leon and so on.
Spain was no longer divided into different kingdoms.
Barcelona
county - present-day Catalonia
The Frankish Empire, after the Muslim conquest of the territory of present-day Spain, acted as an ally of the Christian states of the Iberian Peninsula.
So in 801 the son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious conquered Barcelona from the Muslims, known in the Visigothic period as the capital of the Gotalonia region.
After the liberation from the Arabs under the protectorate of the Franks, the County of Barcelona was founded here (the so-called Spanish brand Marca Hispanica).
Note that at the same time, the dwarf state that still exists was founded, whose then Visigothic Christian population (now the Catalans) was thus thanked for helping the army of Charlemagne in the fight against the Arabs.
Gradually, the County of Barcelona became independent of the Frankish Empire. In 1137, the Count of Barcelona married the Queen of Aragon, as a result of which a single Kingdom of Aragon was created, which later included not only the regions of Aragon and Catalonia, but also Valencia (recaptured from the Muslims in 1238, a buffer kingdom was created there, then a vice-kingdom) , the Balearic Islands (recaptured by Aragon from the Muslims in 1229), as well as in the area in modern Italy (Naples, Sicily).
After the marriage in 1469 of King Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, the united state of Castile and Aragon arose, which became the prototype of today's Spain.
From the Muslim side
Thus, the main unifiers of Spain were Castile (whose name, by the way, comes from the Spanish castillo - castle - “country of fortresses”, after the castles around Burgos), and Aragon.
And now a brief look at the Muslim history of Spain.
As already mentioned, the Arabs conquered the Iberian Peninsula in 710-714, when the forces of the governor of the province of Ifriqiya (Africa), which was part of the first Arab world Umayyad caliphate, invaded here.
The Arabs called their Spanish acquisition . The term Al-Andalus is now understood to mean all the Muslim territory and culture that flourished in what is now Spain.
Note that the modern southern region of Spain is also called Andalusia from the name Al-Andalus.
The name Al-Andalus has pre-Islamic and pre-Arab roots, and comes from the name of the Vandal tribe, who in 415 captured the Roman provinces in the territory occupied by modern Spain.
Later, they were replaced by the Visigoths, who, as noted above, are the ancestors of modern Spaniards and Portuguese. The Visigoths entrenched themselves in the Iberian Peninsula and adopted Christianity.
Of great importance for the history of Al-Andalus by the Arabs was the connection with the North African Arab-Berber territories (modern Morocco), which were also originally part of a single Arab caliphate.
New Al-Andalus dynasties came from North Africa. Many Muslims fled there, in the end, after the reconquest of Granada by the Christians.
The European name of the most ancient population on the territory of modern Morocco Algeria, Libya, parts of Mali and Niger - Berbers (self-name Amazigh), with the Arab conquest of Islamized and Arabized tribes, carries a distorted lat. name barbari (barbarians). So the Romans called all people who did not belong to their culture.
But back to the chronology.
In September 755 A.D. e. the future founder of the Emirate of Cordoba, Abdelrahman I, landed with a small detachment on one of the beaches of the settlement, which is now known as Almunecar.
At that time, the vast majority of the Iberian Peninsula (with the exception of the north) had been part of the province of the Umayyad Caliphate for fifty years, a single Arab state centered in Damascus.
However, after the new Abbasid dynasty overthrew the Umayyads in 750, and then began to exterminate the representatives of their family, one of the Umayyads, and this was a 20-year-old, fled from the Middle East to North Africa (namely, to the territory occupied by modern Morocco ) belonging to the Caliphate.
There he tried to create his own state, but then crossed over to Spain and proclaimed his emirate here in Cordoba, ruling it from 756-788. Thus, the Spanish province of the Arab caliphate was forever separated from the single Arab state.
The Abbasids were unable to return the Spanish territories, although they sent a military expedition. At the same time, they continued to rule the second world Arab state from Baghdad for several centuries.
In turn, a descendant of the Emir of Cordoba, Abdelrahman III, proclaimed himself caliph in 929.
The Emirate of Cordoba successfully resisted the expansion of the Arab state of the Fatimids, which later arose on its borders, who ruled from Egypt and sought to expand their power in Morocco.
Many Berber Islamic clans from North Africa settled in the Emirate of Cordoba, to whom the emirs provided allotments. The Berbers were one of the driving forces behind the collapse of the Emirate of Cordoba in 1031, when representatives of the Berber Hammudid dynasty took Cordoba and overthrew the last Caliph of Cordoba.
From 1031 to 1106 on the territory of the former Emirate of Cordoba, the final disintegration into many specific Islamic principalities, known as the period of taifa (t aifa from Arabic plural), began.
From 1090 to 1147 the Muslim territories of present-day Spain and Portugal were ruled by the Berber Almoravid dynasty (with capitals in Agmata and then Marrakesh in present-day Morocco). The Almoravids in 1086 were first invited to Spain by the Islamic taifa principalities to support the struggle against the Christian states, but then the dynasty annexed the southern part of the Iberian Peninsula.
In 1147, another Berber Almohad dynasty conquered Marrakech and the Almoravid state collapsed. By that time, the Christian states had already conquered significant territories on the Iberian Peninsula.
The Almohads moved the capital of the Muslim Spanish possessions from Córdoba to Seville, with the Almohads' main capital being Marrakesh. AT
In 1225, the Almohads, pressed by the Castilians and the Islamic rebels al-Beasi (al-Bayyasi), who collaborated with them, lost Cordoba, where the dynasty of the latter was established for some time. Later, the Almohads regained control of Cordoba, but the last period of their reign was spent in armed strife between representatives of the dynasty in North Africa, and riots of the local population in the territory of their Spanish province, which lost faith in the ability of the weakened Almohads to stop the onslaught of Christian states and establish order.
In 1212, the Almohads lost the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa against the combined armies of the Christian states of the Iberian Peninsula - Castile, Navarre, Portugal, formations from Aragon, as well as military orders and French knights, after which they lost most of the possessions of the Muslims on the Iberian Peninsula .
In 1228, ibn Had, one of the Muslim rulers in Murcia, who had once lost the ancient Muslim taifa in Zaragoza (conquered in 1118 by Aragon), announced the transition to the sovereignty of the Abbasid caliphs in Baghdad.
It should be noted that the local Muslim taifas in the Iberian Peninsula in the last period of their existence, and especially after the fall of the Almohad state, were already largely dependent on the Christian states of the peninsula.
The last state of the Muslims of the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada was founded by the Nazaris (Nasrids) in 1238, seven years after the last ruler of the Almohad dynasty, who ruled the Iberian Peninsula, ibn Indris, left these lands and left for Morocco, where he soon died fighting for power in civil strife. Note that the Almohads ruled the region and the city of Marrakech in Morocco for a long time. In Morocco, they were replaced by the Berber dynasty of the Marinids, which until 1344 still retained several fortresses on the coast of the Iberian Peninsula, which remained to them from the Almohads. These fortresses were then recaptured by Castile.
G During the 250 years of its existence, from 1238 to 1492, the Ranadian emirate paid tribute to Castile, and even helped the latter in conquering the neighboring Islamic taif principalities.
The vassalage of Granada began with a deal between the Castilian king Ferdinand III of Castile and Mohammed I ibn Nasr, a major landowner who waged successful wars against the ruler of the taifa of Murcia, founding the taifa of Jaén (now also in the Spanish region of Andalusia), then moving to Granada, became the first ruler of the founded Emirate of Granada from the Nazari dynasty. In 1244, after the siege of Granada by Ferdinand III of Castile, an agreement was concluded between the Emirate of Granada and Castile on a truce. In 1248, the Emirate of Granada sent 500 of its soldiers to help Ferdinand III in the Christian conquest of the taifa of Seville.
At the same time, the Emirate of Granada, at certain points in its history, waged several wars with the Christian states of the peninsula, including Castile.
The Emirate of Granada was conquered by the Catholic kings Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon in 1492. .
The Muslims who remained in Spain after the reconquest of the entire country by Christians began to be called Mudejars (mudéjar, from Arabic “tamed”, “home”).
After the conquest of Granada in 1492, all Mudejars at first enjoyed relative freedom of religion, but by decree of Isabella and Ferdinand of 1502 they were converted to Christianity and received the name Moriscos (Those who refused to accept Christianity were expelled from the country to the Arab countries of North Africa with the help of the ships of Ottoman Turkey ) .
But the Moriscos who converted to Christianity were also expelled from Spain in 1609, on suspicion of disloyalty. Some of them returned to North Africa and converted to Islam again, while others remained Christians and settled in neighboring Christian countries.
It should be noted that during the Christian reconquest of Spain, Jews who lived in former Islamic states in this territory were faced with a choice: they were ordered to either accept Christianity or leave the country.
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