obsolete words
The process of archaization of vocabulary
Vocabulary that has ceased to be actively used in speech is not immediately forgotten. For some time, obsolete words are still understandable to speakers, they are familiar to them from fiction, although when people communicate, they no longer need them. Such words become part of the vocabulary of the passive stock, they are given in explanatory dictionaries with a note (obsolete). They can be used by writers, depicting past eras, or historians when describing historical facts, but over time, archaisms completely disappear from the language. So it was, for example, with the ancient Russian words komon- "horse" sleeping- “skin” (hence the hangnail), worm- type of footwear. Separate obsolete words are sometimes returned to the vocabulary of the active vocabulary. For example, words not used for some time soldier, officer, warrant officer, gymnasium, lyceum, promissory note, stock exchange, department now again actively used in speech.
The special emotional and expressive coloring of obsolete words leaves an imprint on their semantics. "To say that, for example, verbs muddle and march(...) have such and such meanings without defining their stylistic role, - wrote D.N. Shmelev, - this means, in essence, to abandon precisely their semantic definition, replacing it with an approximate formula of subject-conceptual comparisons. This places obsolete words in a special stylistic framework and requires great attention to them.
Composition of obsolete words
As part of the archaic vocabulary, historicisms and archaisms are distinguished. To historicism include words that are the names of disappeared objects, phenomena, concepts ( chain mail, hussar, tax in kind, NEP, October(a child of primary school age preparing to join the pioneers), enkavedist(worker of the NKVD - People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs), commissioner etc.). Historicism can be associated both with very distant epochs, and with events of relatively recent times, which, however, have already become facts of history ( soviet government, party activist, general secretary, politburo). Historicisms do not have synonyms among the words of the active vocabulary, being the only names of the corresponding concepts.
Archaisms are the names of existing things and phenomena, for some reason displaced by other words belonging to the active vocabulary (cf .: everyday - always, comedian - actor, gold - gold, to know - to know).
Obsolete words are heterogeneous in origin: among them there are primordially Russian ( full, with a shell), Old Church Slavonic ( smooth, kiss, shrine), borrowed from other languages ( absheed- "resignation" voyage- "travel").
Of particular interest in stylistic terms are words of Old Slavonic origin, or Slavicisms. A significant part of Slavicisms assimilated on Russian soil and stylistically merged with neutral Russian vocabulary ( sweet, captivity, hello), but there are also such Old Slavonic words that in the modern language are perceived as an echo of high style and retain its solemn, rhetorical coloring.
The history of poetic vocabulary associated with ancient symbolism and imagery (the so-called poetisms) is similar to the fate of Slavicisms in Russian literature. Names of gods and heroes of Greek and Roman mythology, special poetic symbols ( lyre, ellisium, Parnassus, laurels, myrtle), artistic images of ancient literature in the first third of the 19th century. formed an integral part of the poetic vocabulary. Poetic vocabulary, like Slavs, strengthened the opposition between sublime, romantically colored speech and everyday, prosaic speech. However, these traditional means of poetic vocabulary were not used for long in fiction. Already the successors of A.S. Pushkin's poeticisms are archaic.
New words
Replenishment of vocabulary with new words
Each era enriches the language with new words. During periods of the greatest activity of the socio-political and cultural life of the nation, the influx of new words especially increases. In our country, exceptionally favorable conditions have developed for the enrichment of vocabulary. The turbulent events of the last decade - the collapse of the totalitarian state, the rejection of the command-administrative system, the collapse of the socio-economic and spiritual foundations of social life that have developed over 70 years - have made fundamental changes in all spheres of human activity.
The emergence of new concepts also led to the influx of new words into the Russian language. They replenished the most diverse thematic groups of vocabulary, from the names of states ( Russian Federation, Republic of Sakha, Tuva, CIS), government agencies ( Duma, department, municipality, city hall, Federal Employment Service of Russia), officials ( manager, prefect, subprefect), educational institutions ( lyceum, gymnasium), representatives of public organizations, movements ( Labor Russians, Demorossians) etc. to the name of new commercial enterprises ( LLP [limited partnership], JSC[joint-stock company]) and the realities that have become signs of economic restructuring ( voucher, privatization, shares, dividends). Many of these words were present in the Russian language as foreign names for concepts from the life of other states ( mayor, prefecture), or as historicisms assigned to the era of pre-revolutionary Russia ( department, lyceum, gymnasium). Now this vocabulary is perceived as new, it becomes very common.
The fate of new words develops in the language in different ways: some get recognition very quickly, others pass the test of time and are fixed, but not immediately, and sometimes they are not recognized at all, they are forgotten. Words that are widely used become part of the active vocabulary. So, in different periods of the XX century. words entered the Russian language university, educational program, salary, cosmonaut, moon rover, gum, shuttle business, feds etc. In the late 90s, they no longer seem new to us.
In contrast, words that are not fully mastered by the language retain a shade of unusualness. So, the word that appeared in the 30s farsightedness has now given way to its synonym - a television; in the first name for transmitting an image over a distance, the shade of novelty and freshness has not yet been erased, since it has not become part of the active vocabulary. Neologisms that appear in the language as the names of new objects can remain part of the passive vocabulary for a long time if the corresponding concepts do not receive universal recognition. We cannot foresee how the fate of such, for example, neologisms as pulsar(electronic ignition device used by motorists), biofidoc (kefir enriched with biofidobacteria that protect against intestinal infections), Euro(European currency). But time will pass, and they will declare themselves or be forgotten.
Of stylistic interest are new words that have not yet had time to get used to, which are not yet in dictionaries. Almost all new words remain in this capacity for some time. But over time, some of them lose their stylistic connotation of novelty, others even become archaic (compare historicisms: comedians, Stakhanovite, Red Army soldier). Of the latest innovations, this fate is prepared for the notorious vouchers, financial company MMM, GKChP and under.
Types of neologisms
Neologisms called words that retain a shade of freshness, novelty. The term "neologism" narrows and concretizes the concept of "new word": when highlighting new words, only the time of their appearance in the language is taken into account, while classifying words as neologisms emphasizes their special stylistic properties associated with the perception of these words as unusual names. With this in mind, compilers of explanatory dictionaries usually refuse stylistic marks that indicate new words.
Neologisms appear and function in the language in different ways, which allows us to distinguish several groups in their composition. The classification of neologisms is based on various criteria for their evaluation. Depending on the methods of education, neologisms are distinguished lexical, which are created according to productive models or borrowed from other languages ( signatory- the official signing the document; post-communist, anti-perestroika, denationalization, party nomenklatura, special forces, armored personnel carriers, riot police, demoross, federal, video bar), and semantic, which arise as a result of assigning new values to already known words ( shuttle- a small trader in imported goods, bringing them from abroad, go clubbing- communicate in a friendly atmosphere, steep(guy, motive) collapse(national currencies) etc.).
Semantic neologisms are inferior in number to lexical ones, although in the 1980s and 1990s many words acquired meanings unusual for them. The peculiarity of semantic neologisms lies in the fact that, as lexemes, they have long been known in the language, but, having updated their meaning, they move from the previous thematic groups to completely new ones, while changing lexical compatibility and often stylistic fixation, expressive coloring. Yes, the word collapse in the dictionaries of the Russian language is given in two meanings: 1. The fall of the separated mass ( building collapse); 2. Snow blocks or fragments of rocks that have fallen from the mountains. When used in this way, the word collapse stylistically neutral, semantics makes it related to words related to natural phenomena ( mudflow, rockfall, avalanche). The use of this word in publicistic speech of the early 90s radically changes its meaning: The collapse of the national currencies of Ukraine, Belarus; Record collapse of the dollar against the yen; In the Moscow market of interbank loans, there were practically no operations on mutual lending, which is clearly associated with the collapse of the banking system... No collapse will happen, - said the Minister of Finance(from gas). In a new meaning - collapse, catastrophe - collapse belongs to the thematic group of words related to financial transactions; it becomes expressively colored and is assigned to the journalistic style of the Russian language.
As part of semantic neologisms, words with bright expressive coloring are not isolated, it is no coincidence that fashionable new words are borrowed from jargons. So, go clubbing at first it was used by gamblers, it was commented on in his dictionary by V.I. Dal: Shuffle cards, interfere at random, shove them all over the deck. True, the figurative meanings of this word were also indicated here: shuffle goods - interfere with bulk goods of different denominations, as well as shuffle people - interfere with them. The literary version of the word required writing through A, since this verb is derived from the French tasser - to collect in a heap. A.S. Pushkin used it in a playful context in a meaning close to the modern one: I hang out with you without ranks. I love you with my soul, Fill the mug to the brim, - Reason! God be with you! Obviously, expression was the reason for the unusually wide use of this slang word, which entered our language with a new meaning. It does not leave the pages of magazines and newspapers, acquiring related words: ( party, party-goer, party-goer etc.): Our artists who are engaged in contemporary art have always stood apart in the European art community; The "pink" party that does not recognize authorities and the regulars of nightclubs, rapidly approaching them in their "Mers"; “Autumn, autumn, let's ask a party for a taste ...”(article title); the name of the column in the newspaper "Arguments and Facts" - tusovka etc.
No less expansive semantic neologism with vivid expression is another word - steep, whose new meaning has also developed not without the influence of jargon. As a lexeme, this adjective has been known for a long time, so in any dictionary it is given as common and neutral.
In the "Dictionary of the Russian language" S.I. Ozhegova adjective steep interpreted as follows: 1. sheer, abrupt. steep coast; 2. With a sharp, sudden change of direction. sharp turn; 3. Severe, strict. Cool character, cool measures; 4. Brought by cooking, kneading to a certain degree of density, density. Hard-boiled egg, hard-boiled porridge. Steep boiling water - bubbling boiling water. In these meanings, the word steep had limited possibilities of compatibility with nouns: combinations were impossible cool man, cool girl, cool motive. The use of the adjective in a new meaning - the highest degree of evaluation of the manifestation of quality - has changed its valency: now it can be combined with an unlimited range of nouns; the fashion for the word made it common. Here are some examples from various newspapers: The city, thank the saints, is not yet divided into “suburbs” on a communal basis, but its inhabitants have been in sharp discord with themselves for several years("AiF"); ... Then Alexander Ivanovich looked confused and clearly did not know what to do. With all his appearance, he seemed to be trying to say: “Actually, I’m cool, I’m just sick right now.”("MK"); Uncool evening with steep prices(heading in "MK"); heading in "Komsomolskaya Pravda" - The coolest events of the week; It is absurd to assume that someone's "cool" money was laundered under the roof of the branch("Work").
Depending on the conditions of creation, neologisms should be divided into two groups: words, the occurrence of which is not associated with the name of their creator, they can be called anonymous, and words introduced by specific authors, that is individual author's neologisms. The vast majority of neologisms belong to the first group. And although each newly created word has a creator, usually he remains unknown (no one can say who invented the words earthlings, marketer, Duma members, ownerless and the like). More often, a new word is created according to such a productive model that many people start using it at the same time ( readable, watchable, developments, advances, gekachepysts). The second group of neologisms includes, for example, the word created by V. Mayakovsky prosessed, which invariably makes us recall the poet's satirical work written about endless meetings.
Having crossed the boundaries of individual author's use, having become the property of the language, such words join the active vocabulary. So, the Russian language created by M.V. Lomonosov terms: constellation, full moon, attraction; introduced by N.M. Karamzin once "new" nouns industry, future and etc.
Depending on the purpose of creating new words, their purpose in speech, all neologisms can be divided into nominative and stylistic. The former perform a nominative function in the language, directly naming concepts; the latter give a figurative description of objects that already have names. The appearance of nominative neologisms is dictated primarily by the needs of the development of science and technology. These neologisms arise as the names of new concepts. Nominative neologisms usually do not have synonyms, although the simultaneous occurrence of competing names is possible (cf.: cosmonaut - astronaut), one of which eventually replaces the other. As part of nominative neologisms, there are many highly specialized terms, as a rule, stylistically neutral in an emotionally expressive sense. Inventors are trying to introduce both new objects and their names. This is facilitated by advertising of new goods, products. For example: pulsar(electronic ignition device used by motorists), biofidoc(kefir enriched with biofidobacteria that protect against intestinal infections).
New terms become known through the media, which publishes popular science articles on various topics. For example:
All equations of physics, along with particles, allow the existence of antiparticles with a reverse charge. And such particles (antiproton, antineutron, antielectron, aka positron) have long been discovered. At the Protvino accelerator, for example, there is an antiproton accumulator, where many unique experiments have been carried out. The problem, however, is to create a stable atom by anti-release of a large amount of energy.(from gas).
Stylistic neologisms are created as a bright expressive means, they always have a positive or negative connotation. For example, failures and abuses during the privatization of state-owned enterprises gave rise to the satirical phrase privatization.
The product of perestroika and glasnost were such stylistic neologisms as scoops(i.e. Soviet citizens), soviet; sharply satirical word member carrier(personal car of an official of the highest rank); horror movies(horror films), chernukha(revealing films); lawlessness and under.
Unlike nominative neologisms, the emergence of which is caused by the need to name a new phenomenon, object, scientific discovery, stylistic neologisms are created as the names of already known concepts. The new word contains its assessment, reflects the speaker's attitude towards it. Stylistic neologisms have synonyms that are usually inferior to them in intensity of expressive coloring. However, the frequent use of neologisms of this type in speech leads to the neutralization of their stylistic coloring.
Depending on whether neologisms are included in the language or are only facts of speech, they are created “just in case”, neologisms are distinguished language(public) and occasional(from lat. occasionalis - random).
Language neologisms become, over time, the property of interstyle or special vocabulary, and are fixed in dictionaries. Like ordinary words, linguistic neologisms are reproduced in speech with meanings assigned to them. All the lexical and semantic, nominative and stylistic, anonymous and individual author's neologisms that we have considered can serve as examples of linguistic neologisms.
Occasional neologisms are words that are used only once in a certain context. These include, for example, childhood neoplasms: - Let me unpack the packages, - Look how the rain is pouring! Among them there can be not only lexical, but also semantic neologisms [ - Mom, look, there is a caterpillar with children!(about a goose); - Put this key in the closet]. Such occasionalisms occur especially often in oral speech, they are created involuntarily, which distinguishes them from other neologisms.
In written speech, occasionalisms can be quoted when transmitting someone's conversations, speeches, jokes. So, the newspaper tells about the festival "Golden Ostap", dedicated to comedians. In this regard, the Throne Speech of the President of the Russian Academy of Humor by Alexander I (Shirvindt) is published:
"GOLDEN OSTAP" is a wonderful nonsense among the general nonsense that exists in the country. (Senseless applause.) The funniest nonsense ever. (Happy clapping). Ostap and today, oddly enough, is relevant in all respects. (Exclamations: "He speaks truly!"). No matter how they celebrate it, it always turns out modern.
("Arguments and Facts")
An occasional word can be heard on TV; for example, the host of the Morning program promises to appear on the screen daily. In a literary literary language, occasionalisms can be used if a dialogue is reproduced in the text. For example, in an interview with former presidential press secretary, journalist Sergei Medvedev:
- Can you remember any funny incident from your TV practice?
- The scariest thing on the air is when a laughterbird attacks and it's terribly hard to keep from laughing ...
("News")
The radio commentator, talking about the English parliament, uses occasionalism, which, in his opinion, will help listeners vividly imagine the debate of the British: Sir John, the back bencher, delivered a speech... Such innovations are not always successful, but, created by chance, they do not cause much damage to the language, as they are quickly forgotten.
The problem of occasionalisms has not been sufficiently studied: occasionalisms are usually considered as part of neologisms, however, some linguists rightly emphasize that occasionalisms, being facts of speech, are not included in the language.
A special place in the composition of neologisms is occupied by the so-called individual stylistic neologisms- words created by writers, publicists with a specific artistic purpose [ utreyet(Bl.), leaflet(Es.), nightly(Past.)]. Individual stylistic neologisms are united with occasionalisms by their use within the context; they live only in the work of art in which the author used them. In special cases, these neologisms can be repeated, but at the same time they are not reproduced, but are “born again”. For example, A. Blok introduced a new word into the text of the poem "On the Islands" Newly snow-covered columns. Yelagin bridge and two fires. And the voice of a woman in love. And the crunch of sand and the snoring of a horse. Six years later, A. Akhmatova used the same definition in her poem "December 9, 1913": So I realized that no words are needed, the snow-covered branches are light ... The bird-catcher has already spread the nets on the river bank. However, no one will argue that such word usage indicates the dependence of the style of one poet on another, especially the desire to repeat the "poetic find" or imitation.
Individual stylistic neologisms have a number of significant differences from occasionalisms. Occasionalisms are used in colloquial speech mainly in oral communication, individual stylistic neologisms belong to book speech and are fixed in writing. Occasionalisms arise spontaneously, individual stylistic neologisms are created in the process of conscious creativity with a specific stylistic goal.
From non-Slavic languages
Grecisms
A noticeable trace (some believe that the greatest) was left by the Greekisms, which came into the Old Russian language mainly through the Old Slavonic in connection with the process of completing the Christianization of the Slavic states. Byzantium played an active role in this process. The formation of the Old Russian (East Slavonic) language begins. The Greekisms of the period of the X-XVII centuries include the words:
§ from the field of religion: anathema, angel, bishop, demon, icon, monk, monastery, lampada, sexton;
§ scientific terms: mathematics, philosophy, history, grammar;
§ household terms: lime, sugar, bench, notebook, lantern;
§ names of plants and animals: buffalo, beans, beets and others.
§ Later borrowings relate mainly to the field of art and science: trochee, comedy, mantle, verse, logic, analogy and others. Many Greek words that received international status entered the Russian language through Western European languages.
Turkisms
Words from the Turkic languages have penetrated into the Russian language since Kievan Rus coexisted with such Turkic tribes as the Bulgars, Cumans, Berendeys, Pechenegs and others. Around the 8th-12th centuries, such ancient Russian borrowings from the Turkic languages as boyar, tent, hero, pearls, koumiss, gang, cart, horde belong. It should be noted that historians of the Russian language often disagree about the origin of certain borrowings. So, in some linguistic dictionaries, the word horse is recognized as Turkism, while other experts attribute this word to primordially Russian.
Latinisms
By the 17th century, translations from Latin into Church Slavonic appeared, including the Gennadiev Bible. Since then, the penetration of Latin words into the Russian language has begun. Many of these words continue to exist in our language to this day (bible, doctor, medicine, lily, rose and others).
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The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way of development. Our vocabulary consists not only of native Russian words, but also of words borrowed from other languages. Foreign sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others relatively recently.
Replenishment of Russian vocabulary went in two directions.
- New words were created from word-forming elements (roots, suffixes, prefixes) available in the language. Thus, the original Russian vocabulary expanded and developed.
- New words were poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples.
The composition of Russian vocabulary in terms of its origin can be schematically represented in the table.
Vocabulary of the modern Russian language
Original Russian vocabulary
The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.
The most ancient among the original Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words that have survived from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. e. there was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living on a rather vast territory. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danubian, or South Russian, localization1 Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages (for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).
Words denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of management, types of kinship, etc. go back to the Indo-European parent language: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew, etc.
Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious even in our time.
There are a lot of nouns among common Slavic words. These are, first of all, concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, seine, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.
From other parts of speech in the common Slavic vocabulary, verbs are presented: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one, two, three; pronouns: I, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, as well as some service parts of speech: over, a, and, yes, but, etc.
The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.
The Slavic languages, which had the ancient Proto-Slavic language as their source, separated themselves into three groups according to sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern.
The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here go back to the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, as a rule, both in Ukrainian and in Belarusian, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.
As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, one can distinguish: 1) the names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch; 2) names of tools: axe, blade; 3) names of household items: boots, ladle, chest, ruble; 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller; 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.
The fourth layer of primordially Russian words is the native Russian vocabulary, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of the independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages already have their own equivalents for words belonging to the proper Russian vocabulary. Wed lexical units:
Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative basis: a mason, a leaflet, a locker room, a community, an intervention, etc.
It should be emphasized that in the composition of the Russian vocabulary itself there may also be words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and acquired Russian suffixes, prefixes: party spirit, non-party, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex stem: a radio station, a steam locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper, etc.
The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.
See also the new theory of the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans Gamkrelidze T.V., Ivanov V.V. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Reconstruction and historical-typological analysis of proto-language and proto-culture. Tbilisi, 1984.
Borrowings from Slavic languages
A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms (Church Slavonicisms). These are the words of the most ancient Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).
Being the language of liturgical books, the Old Church Slavonic language was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experiences a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and, in turn, leaves its mark on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect numerous cases of mixing of these related languages.
The influence of the Old Church Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched our language, made it more expressive and flexible. In particular, Old Slavic words began to be used in Russian vocabulary, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no names yet.
As part of the Old Slavonicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, several groups can be distinguished: 1) words that go back to the common Slavic language, having East Slavic variants of a different sound or affixal design: gold, night, fisherman, boat; 2) Old Slavonicisms, which do not have consonant Russian words: finger, mouth, cheeks, persi (cf. Russian: finger, lips, cheeks, chest); 3) semantic Old Slavonicisms, that is, common Slavic words that received a new meaning in the Old Slavonic language associated with Christianity: god, sin, sacrifice, fornication.
Old Slavonic borrowings have characteristic phonetic, derivational and semantic features.
The phonetic features of Old Slavonicisms include:
- disagreement, i.e. combinations -ra-, -la-, -re-, -le- between consonants in place of full-vowel Russians -oro-, -olo-, -ere-, -ele, -elo- as part of one morpheme: brada - beard, youth - youth, a series - a series, a helmet - a helmet, a milk - milk,
- combinations of ra-, la- at the beginning of the word in place of Russian ro-, lorab, boat; cf. east slavic rob, boat,
- a combination of zhd in place of Russian w, ascending to a single common Slavic consonance: clothing, hope, between; cf. East Slavic: clothes, hope, between;
- consonant u in place of Russian h, also ascending to the same common Slavic consonance: night, daughter; cf. East Slavic: night, daughter,
- the vowel e at the beginning of the word in place of the Russian o deer, one, cf. East Slavic: deer, one;
- the vowel e under stress before a hard consonant in place of the Russian o (e): cross, sky; cf. godfather, palate.
Other Old Church Slavonicisms retain Old Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, a complex stem characteristic of Old Church Slavonic word formation:
- prefixes voz-, from-, bottom-, through-, pre-, pre-: sing, exile, send down, extraordinary, transgress, predict;
- suffixes -stvi(e), -eni(e), -ani(e), -zn, -tv(a), -h(s), -ush-, -yush-, -ash-, -yash-: advent, prayer, torment, execution, prayer, helmsman, leading, knowing, screaming, smashing;
- complex foundations with elements typical of Old Slavonicism: God-fearing, good-naturedness, malevolence, superstition, gluttony.
It is also possible to classify Old Slavonicisms based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words.
- Most Old Slavonicisms are distinguished by book coloring, solemn, upbeat sound, youth, breg, hand, sing, sacred, imperishable, ubiquitous, etc.
- From such Old Slavonicisms, those that do not stylistically stand out against the background of the rest of the vocabulary (many of them replaced the corresponding East Slavic variants, duplicating their meaning) sharply differ: helmet, sweet, work, moisture; cf. obsolete Old Russian: shelom, licorice, vologa.
- A special group is made up of Old Slavonicisms, used along with Russian variants that have received a different meaning in the language: dust - gunpowder, betray - transfer, head (of government) - head, citizen - city dweller, etc.
The Old Church Slavonicisms of the second and third groups are not perceived by the speakers of the modern Russian language as alien - they have become so Russified that they practically do not differ from native Russian words. Unlike such, genetic, Old Slavonicisms, the words of the first group retain their connection with the Old Slavonic, bookish language; many of them in the last century were an integral part of the poetic vocabulary: Persian, cheeks, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young, etc. Now they are perceived as poeticisms, and G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavisms1
From other closely related Slavic languages, separate words came to the Russian language, which practically do not stand out among the original Russian vocabulary. From the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, the names of household items were borrowed, for example, Ukrainianisms: borscht, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. A lot of words came to us from the Polish language: town, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Through the Polish language, Czech and other Slavic words were borrowed: ensign, impudent, angle, etc.
1 See. Vinokur G.O. On Slavicisms in the Modern Russian Literary Language // Selected Works in the Russian Language, Moscow, 1959. P. 443.
Borrowings from non-Slavic languages
The history of our people was reflected in the borrowing of foreign words by the Russian language in different eras. Economic, political, cultural contacts with other countries, military clashes left their mark on the development of the language.
The very first borrowings from non-Slavic languages penetrated into the Russian language as early as the 8th-12th centuries. From the Scandinavian languages (Swedish, Norwegian) came to us words related to sea fishing: skerry, anchor, hook, hook, proper names: Rurik, Oleg, Olga, Igor, Askold. In the official business speech of Ancient Russia, the now obsolete words vira, tiun, sneak, brand were used. From the Finno-Ugric languages, we borrowed the names of fish: whitefish, navaga, salmon, herring, shark, smelt, herring, as well as some words associated with the life of northern peoples: sleigh, tundra, snowstorm, sledges, dumplings, etc.
Among the ancient borrowings are individual words from the Germanic languages: armor, sword, shell, cauldron, hill, beech, prince, boron, pig, camel and others. Scientists argue about the origin of some words, so the number of borrowings from the ancient Germanic languages seems ambiguous to different researchers (from 20 to 200 words).
The close proximity of the Turkic peoples (Polovtsy, Pechenegs, Khazars), military clashes with them, and then the Mongol-Tatar invasion left Turkic words in the Russian language. They relate mainly to the nomadic life of these peoples, clothing, utensils: quiver, lasso, pack, hut, beshmet, sash, heel, pouch, kumach, chest, flail, shackles, bondage, treasury, guard, etc.
The most significant influence on the language of Ancient Russia was the influence of the Greek language. Kievan Rus carried on a lively trade with Byzantium, and the penetration of Greek elements into Russian vocabulary began even before the adoption of Christianity in Russia (VI century) and intensified under the influence of Christian culture in connection with the baptism of the Eastern Slavs (IX century), the distribution of liturgical books translated from Greek into Old Church Slavonic.
Greek in origin are many names of household items, vegetables, fruits: cherry, cucumber, doll, ribbon, tub, beet, lantern, bench, bath; words related to science, education: grammar, mathematics, history, philosophy, notebook, alphabet, dialect; borrowings from the field of religion: angel, altar, pulpit, anathema, archimandrite, antichrist, archbishop, demon, oil, gospel, icon, incense, cell, schema, icon lamp, monk, monastery, sexton, archpriest, memorial service, etc.
Later borrowings from the Greek language refer exclusively to the sphere of sciences and arts. Many Greekisms came to us through other European languages and are widely used in scientific terminology that has received universal recognition: logic, psychology, pulpit, idyll, idea, climate, criticism, metal, museum, magnet, syntax, lexicon, comedy, tragedy, chronograph, planet, stage, stage, theater and so on.
The Latin language also played a significant role in the enrichment of Russian vocabulary (including terminology), associated mainly with the sphere of scientific, technical and socio-political life. The words ascend to the Latin source: author, administrator, audience, student, exam, external, minister, justice, operation, censorship, dictatorship, republic, deputy, delegate, rector, excursion, expedition, revolution, constitution, etc. These Latinisms came to our language, as well as to other European languages, not only through direct contact of the Latin language with any other (which, of course, was not excluded, especially through various educational institutions), but also through other languages. Latin in many European states was the language of literature, science, official papers and religion (Catholicism). Scientific writings up to the XVIII century. often written in Latin; medicine still uses Latin. All this contributed to the creation of an international fund of scientific terminology, which was mastered by many European languages, including Russian.
In our time, scientific terms are often created from Greek and Latin roots, denoting concepts unknown in the era of antiquity: astronaut [gr. kos-mos - Universe + gr. nautes - (sea) - swimmer]; futurology (lat. futurum - future + gr. logos - word, doctrine); scuba gear (Latin aqua - water + English lung - light). This is due to the exceptional productivity of Latin and Greek roots included in various scientific terms, as well as their international character, which facilitates the understanding of such foundations in different languages.
The later lexical influence of European languages on Russian began to be felt in the 16th-17th centuries. and especially intensified in the Petrine era, in the XVIII century. The transformation of all aspects of Russian life under Peter I, his administrative and military reforms, the success of education, the development of science - all this contributed to the enrichment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words. These were numerous names of then new household items, military and naval terms, words from the field of science and art.
The following words were borrowed from the German language: sandwich, tie, decanter, hat, office, package, price list, percentage, accountant, bill, share, agent, camp, headquarters, commander, junker, corporal, gun carriage, bandoleer, workbench, jointer, nickel, quartz, saltpeter, wolfral, potatoes, onions.
Maritime terms came from the Dutch language: shipyard, harbor, pennant, berth, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, yard, rudder, fleet, flag, fairway, skipper, navigator, boat, ballast.
Maritime terms were also borrowed from English: boat, brig, barge, schooner, yacht, midshipman. The influence of the English language turned out to be relatively stable: words penetrated from it into the Russian language throughout the entire 19th century. and later. So, words from the sphere of public relations, technical and sports terms, names of household items go back to this source: leader, department, rally, boycott, parliament, station, elevator, dock, budget, square, cottage, trolleybus, rail, mac, beefsteak , pudding, rum, whiskey, grog, cake, plaid, sweater, jacket, jacket, finish, sports, athlete, football, basketball, volleyball, boxing, croquet, poker, hockey, jockey, bridge, spinning, etc.
The French language left a significant mark in Russian vocabulary. The first gallicisms penetrated into it in the Petrine era, and then, at the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries, in connection with the gallomania of secular society, borrowings from the French language became especially popular. Among them are everyday words: suit, hood, corset, corsage, jacket, vest, coat, coat, blouse, tailcoat, bracelet, veil, jabot, floor, furniture, chest of drawers, study, sideboard, salon, toilet, dressing table, chandelier , lampshade, curtain, service, footman, broth, cutlet, cream, stew, dessert, marmalade, ice cream, etc.; military terms: vanguard, captain, sergeant, artillery, march, arena, cavalry, redoubt, attack, breach, battalion, salute, garrison, courier, general, lieutenant, dugout, recruit, sapper, cornet corps, landing force, fleet, squadron.
Many words from the field of art also date back to the French language: mezzanine, parterre, play, actor, prompter, director, intermission, foyer, plot, role, stage, repertoire, farce, ballet, genre, role, stage. All these words became the property of our language, therefore, there was a borrowing not only of names, but also of concepts necessary for the enrichment of Russian culture. Some French borrowings, reflecting the narrow circle of interests of an exquisite noble society, did not take root on Russian soil and fell into disuse: rendezvous, pleisir, politeness, and so on.
Some Italian words also came to us through the French language: baroque, carbonary, dome, mezzanine, mosaic, cavalier, pantaloons, gasoline, arch, barricade, watercolor, credit, corridor, bastion, carnival, arsenal, bandit, balcony, charlatan, basta , balustrade, etc.
Musical terms came from Italian to all European languages, including Russian: adagio, arioso, aria, viola, bass, cello, bandura, cappella, tenor, cavatina, canzone, mandolin, libretto, forte, piano, moderato, etc. The words harpsichord, ballerina, harlequin, opera, impresario, bravo also go back to the Italian source.
There are single borrowings from Spanish, which often penetrated into Russian through French: alcove, guitar, castanets, mantilla, serenade, caramel, vanilla, tobacco, tomato, cigar, lemon, jasmine, banana.
Among foreign borrowings, one should include not only individual words, but also some word-forming elements: Greek prefixes a-, anti-, arches-, pan-: immoral, anti-perestroika, arch-absurd, pan-German; Latin prefixes: de-, counter-, trans-, ultra-, inter-. degradation, counterplay, trans-European, ultra-left, intervocalic; Latin suffixes: -ism, -ist, -or, -tor, etc. tailism, harmonist, combinator. Such prefixes and suffixes have become entrenched not only in the Russian language, they have become internationally widespread.
It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. Moreover, at different periods of our history, not only such Russian words as samovar, borscht, cabbage soup, cranberry, etc. penetrated into other languages, but such as satellite, soviets, perestroika, glasnost. The successes of the Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms of this sphere born in our language were perceived by other languages. astronaut, lunar rover.
Mastering borrowed words in Russian
Foreign words, getting into our language, are gradually assimilated by it: they adapt to the sound system of the Russian language, obey the rules of Russian word formation and inflection, thus losing, to one degree or another, the features of their non-Russian origin.
First of all, foreign language features of the sound design of a word are usually eliminated, for example, nasal sounds in borrowings from French or combinations of sounds characteristic of the English language, etc. Then, non-Russian word endings and gender forms change. For example, in the words postman, prompter, pavement, sounds characteristic of the French language (nasal vowels, traced [r]) no longer sound; in the words rally, pudding there is no English back-lingual n, pronounced with the back of the back of the tongue (in transcription [*ng], in addition, the first of them has lost the diphthong; the initial consonants in the words jazz, gin are pronounced with a characteristic Russian articulation, although their combination is for us The Latin word seminarium turned into a seminary and then into a seminar, the Greek analogos into an'alogue, and analogikos into a similar one. not neuter, but feminine: beet.German marschierep receives the Russian suffix -ovat and is converted to march.
Acquiring word-building affixes, borrowed words are included in the grammatical system of the Russian language and obey the relevant norms of inflection: they form paradigms of declensions and conjugations.
Mastering borrowed words usually leads to their semantic changes. Most of the foreign words in the Russian language lose their etymological connections with the related roots of the source language. So, we do not perceive the German words resort, sandwich, hairdresser as words of a complex basis (resort from kurie-rep - “treat” + Ort - “place”; hairdresser - literally “making a wig”; sandwich - “butter” and “bread” )
As a result of deetymologization, the meanings of foreign words become unmotivated.
However, not all borrowings are assimilated by the Russian language to the same extent: there are those that have become so Russified that they do not reveal their foreign origin (cherry, notebook, party, hut, soup, cutlet), while others retain certain features of the original language, thanks to which they stand out in Russian vocabulary as alien words.
Among the borrowings there are words not mastered by the Russian language, which stand out sharply against the background of Russian vocabulary. A special place among such borrowings is occupied by exoticisms - words that characterize the specific features of the life of different peoples and are used to describe non-Russian reality. So, when depicting the life of the peoples of the Caucasus, the words aul, saklya, dzhigit, arba, etc. are used. Exoticisms do not have Russian synonyms, therefore, referring to them when describing national specifics is dictated by necessity.
Barbarisms are allocated to another group, i.e. foreign words transferred to Russian soil, the use of which is of an individual nature. Unlike other lexical borrowings, barbarisms are not recorded in dictionaries of foreign words, and even more so in dictionaries of the Russian language. Barbarisms are not mastered by the language, although over time they can gain a foothold in it. Thus, almost all borrowings, before entering the permanent vocabulary, were barbarisms for some time. For example, V. Mayakovsky used the word camp as barbarism (I am lying, - a tent in a camp), later the borrowing camping became the property of the Russian language.
Foreign-language inclusions in Russian vocabulary adjoin barbarisms: ok, merci, happy end, pater familias. Many of them retain non-Russian spelling, they are popular not only in ours, but also in other languages. In addition, the use of some of them has a long tradition, like alma mater.
Phonetic and morphological features of loanwords
Among the phonetic signs of borrowed words, the following can be distinguished.
- Unlike native Russian words that never began with the sound [a] (which would be contrary to the phonetic laws of the Russian language), borrowed words have an initial a: questionnaire, abbot, paragraph, aria, attack, lampshade, arba, angel, anathema.
- The initial e is distinguished mainly by Greekisms and Latinisms (Russian words never begin with this non-quoted sound): epoch, era, ethics, exam, execution, effect, floor.
- The letter f testifies to the non-Russian source of the word, since the Eastern Slavs did not have the sound [f] and the corresponding graphic sign was used only to designate it in borrowed words: forum, fact, lantern, sofa, film, scam, form, aphorism, ether, profile and under.
- The combination of two or more vowels in a word was unacceptable according to the laws of Russian phonetics, so borrowed words are easily distinguished by this feature (the so-called gaping): poet, halo, out, theater, veil, cocoa, radio, punctuation.
- The consonances ge, ke, heh, which underwent phonetic changes in the original words, turned out to be possible in the borrowed words: cedar, hero, scheme, agent, ascetic.
- The sequence of vowels and consonants, which is not characteristic of the Russian language, highlights borrowings in which the unfamiliar consonances of parachute, puree, communique, jeep, jury are transmitted by means of the Russian phonetic system.
- A special phonetic feature of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony (vowel harmonism) - the regular use of only one row of vowels in one word: back [a], [y] or front [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, shoe, lasso , chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.
Among the morphological features of borrowed words, the most characteristic is their immutability, the absence of inflections. So, some foreign nouns do not change by case, do not have correlative singular and plural forms: taxi, coffee, coat, beige, mini, maxi.
The word-building signs of borrowings include foreign prefixes: interval, deduction, individualism, regression, archimandrite, rear admiral, antichrist and suffixes: dean's office, student, technical school, editor, literature, proletariat, populism, socialist, polemize, etc.
Tracing
One of the methods of borrowing is tracing, i.e., building lexical units on the model of the corresponding words of a foreign language by accurately translating their significant parts or borrowing individual meanings of words. Accordingly, lexical and semantic tracings are distinguished
Lexical calques arise as a result of a literal translation into Russian of a foreign word in parts: a prefix, a root, a suffix with an exact repetition of the method of its formation and meaning. For example, the Russian word look is formed according to the German model aussehen as a result of tracing the prefix you = German aus-; verb stem – to look = German sehen. The words hydrogen and oxygen are tracing papers of the Greek hudor - "water" + genos - "kind" and oxys - "sour" + genos - "kind"; likewise the German Halbinsel served as the model for the peninsula tracing paper; the English sky-scraper in Russian has a tracing-paper skyscraper (cf. Ukrainian hmaroches). The following borrowings came to us through tracing: biography (gr. bios + grapho), superman (German über + Mensch); welfare (fr. bien+ktre), spelling (gr. orthos+grapho) and many others. Such tracing papers are also called derivational, more precisely lexical and derivational.
Semantic papers are original words that, in addition to their inherent meanings in the Russian lexical system, acquire new meanings under the influence of another language. For example, the Russian word picture, which means “work of painting”, “spectacle”, under the influence of the English language, was also used in the meaning of “film”. This is a tracing paper of the English polysemantic word picture, which has the following meanings in the source language: “picture”, “drawing”, “portrait”, “movie”, “shooting frame”.
Many semantic cripples from the French language were introduced by N. M. Karamzin: touch, touching, taste, refined, image, etc. Appeal to them at the beginning of the 19th century. was a distinctive feature of the "new style" developed by the Karamzin school and approved by Pushkin and his associates.
Lexical-derivative calquing was used when replenishing the Russian lexicon from Greek, Latin, German, French sources.
Another kind of borrowings are lexical half-calques - words that combine word-for-word translated foreign and Russian word-building elements. For example, the word humanity has the Latin root human-us, but the Russian suffix -ost is added to it (cf. humanism), or the Greek (tele) and Russian (vision-e) bases are combined in the compound word television.
Relation to borrowed words
In relation to borrowed words, two extremes often collide: on the one hand, a glut of speech with foreign words and phrases, on the other hand, their denial, the desire to use only the original word. At the same time, in polemics, they often forget that many borrowings have become completely Russified and have no equivalents, being the only names for the corresponding realities (remember Pushkin's: But pantaloons, tailcoat, vest - all these words are not in Russian ...). The lack of a scientific approach to the problem of mastering foreign language vocabulary is also manifested in the fact that its use is sometimes considered in isolation from the functional and stylistic consolidation of language means: it is not taken into account that in some cases the appeal to foreign book words is not stylistically justified, while in others it is necessary, since these words are an integral part of the vocabulary assigned to a certain style serving a particular area of communication.
In different periods of the development of the Russian literary language, the assessment of the penetration of foreign language elements into it was ambiguous. In addition, with the activation of the process of lexical borrowing, the opposition to it usually intensifies. So, Peter I demanded from his contemporaries to write "as intelligibly as possible", without abusing non-Russian words. M.V. Lomonosov in his "theory of three calms", highlighting the words of various groups in the Russian vocabulary, did not leave room for borrowings from non-Slavic languages. And creating Russian scientific terminology, Lomonosov consistently sought to find equivalents in the language to replace foreign terms, sometimes artificially transferring such formations into the language of science. Both A.P. Sumarokov and N.I. Novikov opposed the clogging of the Russian language with French words that were fashionable at that time.
However, in the XIX century. the emphasis has shifted. Representatives of the Karamzin school, young poets led by Pushkin, had to fight for the use of lexical borrowings on Russian soil, since they reflected the advanced ideas of the French Enlightenment. It is no coincidence that tsarist censorship eradicated from the language such borrowed words as revolution, progress.
In the first years of Soviet power, the most urgent cultural and educational task was to familiarize the broad masses of the people with knowledge, to eliminate illiteracy. Under these conditions, prominent writers and public figures put forward the demand for the simplicity of the literary language.
In our time, the question of the appropriateness of using borrowings is associated with the assignment of lexical means to certain functional styles of speech. The use of foreign words that have a limited scope of distribution can be justified by the circle of readers, the stylistic affiliation of the work. Foreign terminological vocabulary is an indispensable means of concise and accurate transmission of information in texts intended for narrow specialists, but it can also be an insurmountable barrier to understanding a popular science text by an unprepared reader.
It is necessary to take into account the trend towards the creation of international terminology, emerging in our age of scientific and technological progress, common names for concepts, phenomena of modern science, production, which also contributes to the consolidation of borrowed words that have acquired an international character.
Questions for self-examination
- What explains the replenishment of Russian vocabulary with foreign words?
- What are the ways of penetration of lexical borrowings into the Russian language?
- What lexical layers are distinguished in the Russian language depending on the origin of words?
- What place do Old Slavonic words occupy in Russian vocabulary?
- How are foreign words mastered by the Russian language?
- By what phonetic and morphological signs can borrowed words be distinguished from the composition of the Russian vocabulary?
- What are calques?
- What types of cripples in Russian do you know?
- What are the criteria for the use of foreign words in speech?
Exercises
24. Analyze the composition of the vocabulary in the text in terms of its origin. Highlight foreign words, noting the degree of their assimilation by the Russian language. Specify Old Slavonicisms. For reference, refer to etymological dictionaries and dictionaries of foreign words.
The southern facade of the Saltykovs' house faces the Field of Mars. Before the revolution, the present growing park was a huge square where parades of the troops of the Guards Corps took place. Behind it was the gloomy Engineering Castle with its gilded spire. Now the building is covered with old trees. In Pushkin's time they were only ten or three years old.
The façade of the embassy's mansion had not yet been damaged by the later addition of the fourth floor.
Eight windows of the ambassador's former apartment overlook the Champ de Mars, one of which is blocked; the extreme windows on the right and left are triple. In the middle of the floor, a glass door leads to a balcony, designed in strict proportions of the Alexander Empire style. Its massive cast-iron grate is very beautiful. The balcony was probably erected in 1819 at the same time as the entire third floor from the side of the Champ de Mars. ...Arriving in Leningrad, I asked permission to inspect the southern part of the third floor of the Institute of Culture.
Now here, basically, his library is placed. Book riches (at present more than three hundred thousand volumes) are already cramped in the enfilade of the former rooms of Countess Dolly ...
The five apartments overlooking the Champ de Mars are bright and invariably warm rooms. And in the most severe frosts it is never fresh here. The Countess's favorite camellias and her other flowers probably did well in these rooms even in the cloudy St. Petersburg winters. Darya Fyodorovna was also comfortable there, who, as we know, in some respects herself resembled a hothouse flower.
In real terms, the countess, having lived for many years in Italy, at least in the first years after her arrival in St. Petersburg, could hardly endure domestic frosts. The very arrival of the northern winter oppressed her.
Having settled in the Saltykovs’ house, she writes down on October 1 of the same 1829: “Today the first snow fell - the winter, which will last for seven months, made my heart shrink: the influence of the north on a person’s mood must be very strong, because among such a happy existence like mine, I have to struggle with my sadness and melancholy all the time. I reproach myself for this, but I can’t do anything about it - beautiful Italy is to blame for this, joyful, sparkling, warm, which turned my first youth into a picture full of colors, comfort and harmony. She has thrown, as it were, a veil over the rest of my life, which will pass outside of her! Few people would understand me in this regard - but only a person brought up and developed in the south truly feels what life is and knows all its charm.
There are no words, the young ambassador, like a few, knew how to feel and love life. I only felt it - let's repeat - one-sidedly. So it was before, in Italy, and in the red drawing room of the Saltykovsky house, where, probably, she filled out the pages of her diary ... But it is difficult to walk through her former private rooms without excitement. Probably, they are no less than the front apartments of the embassy, they were what has long been called the “salon of the Countess Ficquelmont”, where, according to P.A. Vyazemsky, "both the diplomats and Pushkin were at home."
(N. Raevsky.)
25. In sentences from the works of A. S. Pushkin, highlight Old Slavonicisms. Indicate their stylistic functions, name, where possible, Russian correspondences.
1. Leaning on an alien plow, submitting to scourges, here lean slavery drags along the reins of an inexorable owner. Here everyone drags a heavy yoke to the grave, not daring to feed hopes and inclinations in the soul, here young virgins bloom for the whim of an insensitive villain. 2. Fear, O army of foreigners! Russia's sons moved; both old and young arose; they fly at the bold, their hearts are kindled with vengeance. 3. I love rabid youth ... 4. ... There, under the shadow of the wings, my young days rushed by. 5. Listen to my sad voice... 6. I did not want to kiss the lips of the young Armides with such torment, or roses of fiery cheeks, or Persians full of languor... 7. It's time to leave the boring shore... 8. ...Fields ! I am devoted to you in soul. 9. But thank God! you are alive, unharmed... 10. Hello, young, unfamiliar tribe! 11. And I always considered you a faithful, brave knight... 12. I opened granaries for them, I scattered gold for them, I found work for them... 13. Neither power nor life amuse me... 14. Then - is not it? - in the desert, far from the vain rumors, you did not like me ... 15. I listened and listened - involuntary and sweet tears flowed.
Each era enriches the language with new words. During periods of the greatest activity of the socio-political and cultural life of the nation, the influx of new words especially increases. In our country, exceptionally favorable conditions have developed for the enrichment of vocabulary. The turbulent events of the last decade - the collapse of the totalitarian state, the rejection of the command-administrative system, the collapse of the socio-economic and spiritual foundations of social life that have developed over 70 years - have made fundamental changes in all spheres of human activity.
The emergence of new concepts also led to the influx of new words into the Russian language. They replenished the most diverse thematic groups of vocabulary, from the names of states (Russian Federation, the Republic of Sakha, Tuva, CIS), government agencies (Duma, department, municipality, mayor's office, the Federal Employment Service of Russia), officials (manager, prefect, subprefect), educational institutions (lyceum, gymnasium), representatives of public organizations, movements (trudorossy, demorossy), etc. to the names of new commercial enterprises (LLP [limited liability partnership], JSC [joint stock company]) and the realities that have become signs of economic restructuring (voucher, privatization, shares, dividends). Many of these words were present in Russian as foreign names for concepts from the life of other states (mayor, prefecture), or as historicisms assigned to the era of pre-revolutionary Russia (department, lyceum, gymnasium). Now this vocabulary is perceived as new, it becomes very common.
The fate of new words develops in the language in different ways: some get recognition very quickly, others pass the test of time and are fixed, but not immediately, and sometimes they are not recognized at all, they are forgotten. Words that are widely used become part of the active vocabulary. So, in different periods of the XX century. the words university, educational program, salary, astronaut, moon rover, chewing gum, shuttle business, feds, etc. entered the Russian language. In the late 90s, they no longer seem new to us.
In contrast, words that are not fully mastered by the language retain a shade of unusualness. Thus, the word far-sightedness, which appeared in the 1930s, has now given way to its synonym - television; in the first name for transmitting an image over a distance, the shade of novelty and freshness has not yet been erased, since it has not become part of the active vocabulary. Neologisms that appear in the language as the names of new objects can remain part of the passive vocabulary for a long time if the corresponding concepts do not receive universal recognition. We cannot predict how the fate of neologisms such as pulsar (an electronic ignition device used by motorists), biofidoc (kefir enriched with biofidobacteria that protect against intestinal infections), euro (European currency) will turn out. But time will pass, and they will declare themselves or be forgotten.
Of stylistic interest are new words that have not yet had time to get used to, which are not yet in dictionaries. Almost all new words remain in this capacity for some time. But over time, some of them lose their stylistic connotation of novelty, others even become archaic (compare historicisms: comedians, Stakhanovite, Red Army man). Of the latest innovations, this fate is destined for the notorious vouchers, the MMM financial company, the State Emergency Committee, and so on.
Golub I.B. Stylistics of the Russian language - M., 1997
The changes taking place in society primarily affected the spheres of politics and economics. New political and economic terms have appeared: "new political thinking", "open civil society", "single economic space", etc.
For neologisms of recent years, a more productive way of education was a descriptive one (open joint stock company, network marketing, etc.), in contrast to the previously actively functioning trend towards saving language means and ways of word formation:
1. the formation of words from phrases: electric train, record book, progressive;
2. formation of words with the help of a zero suffix: heating, tailoring, firing;
3. phrases: car park, cinder block, rail layer.
However, the method of abbreviation is still frequent: CJSC (closed joint stock company), CAO (central administrative district).
The debate about the benefits and harms of borrowed words has not subsided for many decades. On the one hand, the speeches of linguists against the use of foreign words unnecessarily evoke a lively response and sympathy from most people. On the other hand, the appearance of new words is caused by the emergence of new life realities that did not exist before and for which there is no language analogue in Russian (see the same job titles: logistics, marketing, office manager; or: mixer, toaster, mobile (cellular ) telephone, fax, pager).
The attitude towards borrowed words is not only a linguistic, but also a social problem that requires a thoughtful and cautious approach.
Along with the actualization of part of the outdated vocabulary, which has returned to the active vocabulary (gymnasium, lyceum, banker, governor, cadets, liberal democrats), a part of the vocabulary is being deactualized in the vocabulary of the Russian language. The reason for the deactualization of entire lexical groups was the dismantling of the existing political and economic systems. Words and phrases lost their relevance: five-year plan, collective farmer, team leader, pioneer, Komsomol member, shock worker of communist labor, winner of socialist competition, etc.
Word compatibility
Of particular difficulty, from the point of view of word usage, is the compatibility of words. The possibilities of combining words with each other are very different. The service parts of speech (conjunctions, prepositions) have the greatest ability to enter into combinations with other words. Significant parts of speech can be conditionally divided into two groups. Some are characterized by compatibility, practically unlimited within their subject-logical connections: a specific noun ( man, house, book), verbs ( live, know, go), especially auxiliary verbs ( be, become, begin), evaluative adjective ( good, big). Other words have limited compatibility ( possess, ticklish, blue).
Restrictions in the compatibility of words can be semantic: there should be no contradictions in the connected concepts (expressions like huge house, square circle, blooming January).
Combining some words into phrases becomes impossible due to their grammatical nature ( fast - sad, five - laugh). And, finally, limitations in compatibility can be caused by the lexical features of words (it is customary to say win a victory, not accepted - defeat; accepted - laughter, evil, fear takes, not accepted - joy takes).
Errors in the combination of words are often made in the essays of schoolchildren and applicants, in the oral answers of students in exams. For example: “A child is born with a blank slate in his head, and something correct needs to be written on it”; “His character is not Nordic, but frail, and maybe even queer, but he hides it intently”; “A comprehensive education program consists of pieces of different subjects and labor, which is also studied as a subject.”
Avoiding such mistakes will help to refer to special dictionaries, which provide typical examples of the compatibility of certain words with others, for example, to the "Dictionary of the compatibility of words in the Russian language" / Ed. P.N. Denisova and V.V. Morkovkin.
Norms of word compatibility cannot be too strict, set once and for all.
In the language there is a redistribution of connections between words. Much of what was generally accepted in the language earlier becomes obsolete and becomes unusual for the present. For example: instigator of the story(now the meaning of the word "instigator" is narrowing), hotbed of enlightenment, promote processes, come from Komsomol. At the same time, many new phrases appear and are legalized by speech practice: complex of problems, burning ticket, computer virus, cellular communication, helpline, luxury train.
Test questions:
1. Designate the role of figurative and expressive means of language in speech communication.
2. Name the trails, describe them.
3. List the stylistic figures, give them a description.
4. What are the conditions for successful word choice?
5. Due to what is the replenishment of Russian vocabulary?
6. What can serve as a restriction in a combination of words?
6.7. Seminar*.
The origin of the vocabulary of the modern Russian language
The vocabulary of the modern Russian language has come a long way: it consists not only of eternally Russian words, but also of words taken from other languages. Foreign language sources replenished and enriched the Russian language throughout the entire process of its historical development. Some borrowings were made in antiquity, others - relatively not so long ago.
Replenishment of the Russian vocabulary went on two fronts:
1. New words were created from the word-forming parts available in the language (roots, suffixes, prefixes). This is how the eternal Russian vocabulary expanded and developed: head, throat, heart, palm, kind, young, dog, squirrel, ladle, ruble, throw, very, currant, necessary.
2. New words poured into the Russian language from other languages as a result of the economic, political and cultural ties of the Russian people with other peoples: a sandwich(German), pate(German), pavilion(French) pasta(Italian), soprano(Italian).
The composition of the Russian vocabulary, based on the beliefs of its origin, it is possible to schematically present in the table:
Eternally Russian words
Taken words
latin,
Greek,
scandinavian,
german,
french,
English and other borrowings
A. Eternally Russian vocabulary
The eternal Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous by its origin: it consists of several layers, which differ in the time of their formation.
1. The most ancient among the eternally Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms- words preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennium BC. was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living in a wide area. So, according to the studies of some linguists, it stretched from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was the Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization. The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages \u200b\u200b(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).
2. Another layer of the eternal Russian vocabulary is the words pan-Slavic, inherited by our language from the common Slavic (proto-Slavic) language, which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This language-base existed in the prehistoric era in the area between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. AD the common Slavic language fell apart, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are simply distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is clear even in our time.
Among common Slavic words there are words of various parts of speech:
The common Slavic vocabulary has about 2 thousand words, nevertheless, this is the core of the Russian dictionary, it includes more common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.
3. The 3rd layer of eternally Russian words consists of East Slavic(Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language of the Eastern Slavs, one of the 3 groups of ancient Slavic languages (Slavic languages, which had the ancient common Slavic (Proto-Slavic) language as their source, separated into three groups according to sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern).
The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. AD on the territory of Eastern Europe. The tribal unions that lived here are the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities. Therefore, the words that have remained in our language from this period are known, most of all, in Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian, but are absent in the languages of the Western and Southern Slavs.
As part of the East Slavic vocabulary, it is possible to distinguish:
also other lexico-semantic groups.
4. The 4th layer of eternally Russian words is actually Russian vocabulary, formed after the 14th century, i.e. in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. The language of this period already has its own words that actually belong to the Russian vocabulary.
In fact, Russian words are distinguished, most often, by a derivative basis: bricklayer, flyer, dressing room, community, intervention and under.
As part of the actual Russian vocabulary, there are also words with foreign roots that have passed the path of Russian word formation and “overgrown” with Russian suffixes and prefixes: partisanship, non-partisan, anger; ruler, glass, teapot; compound words: radio station, locomotive, as well as a huge number of complex abbreviated words that replenished the language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry, wall newspaper and etc.
The eternally Russian vocabulary and at the moment continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a variety of processes corresponding to Russian word formation.
B. Borrowings from Slavic languages
1. A special place in the composition of Russian vocabulary among Slavic borrowings is occupied by Old Slavonic words, or Old Slavonicisms(Church Slavism). These are the words of the ancient Slavic language, well known in Russia since the spread of Christianity (988).
Being the language of liturgical books, Old Church Slavonic was at first far from colloquial speech, but over time it experienced a noticeable influence of the East Slavic language and, in turn, left its mark on the language of the people. Russian chronicles reflect countless cases of mixing of these similar languages.
The influence of the Old Slavonic language was very fruitful, it enriched the Russian language, made it more expressive and flexible. Namely, in the Russian vocabulary, Old Slavonicisms began to be used, denoting abstract concepts for which there were no own names yet.
As part of the Old Church Slavonicisms that have replenished the Russian vocabulary, it is possible to distinguish a few groups:
Old Slavonic borrowings have corresponding phonetic, derivational and semantic features.
The phonetic features of Old Slavonicisms include:
Old Slavonicisms retain Old Slavonic prefixes, suffixes, a complex base, corresponding to Old Slavonic word formation:
The systematization of Old Slavonicisms is also likely, based on their semantic and stylistic differences from Russian words:
The Old Slavicisms of the 2nd and 3rd groups are not perceived by the speakers of the modern Russian language as alien, they have become so Russified that they do not actually differ from the eternal Russian words. Unlike similar, genetic, Old Slavonicisms, the words of the first group retain their connection with the Old Slavonic, bookish language; many of them in the past century were an integral part of the poetic vocabulary: percy, cheeks, mouth, sweet, voice, hair, golden, young and under. Now they are perceived as poetisms, and the linguist G.O. Vinokur called them stylistic Slavisms.
2. From other closely related Slavic languages, separate words came to the Russian language, which in fact do not stand out among the eternal Russian vocabulary. From Ukrainian and Belarusian languages the names of household items were borrowed, for example, Ukrainianisms: borscht, dumplings, dumplings, hopak. Many words came to us from Polish: place, monogram, harness, zrazy, gentry. Borrowed through Polish Czech and other Slavic words: ensign, cheeky, corner etc.
Source - chapters from the manual of Rosenthal D.E., Golub I.B., Telenkova M.A. "Modern Russian language":
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