Brief history of the emergence of the Russian language. Russian language: history and general characteristics

Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish.

Among the Slavic languages, Russian is the most common.

All Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves, but Belarusian and Ukrainian are closest to the Russian language. Together, these languages form East Slavic subgroup, which is part of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

Look at the tree of languages: Slavic branches grow from a powerful trunk - the Indo-European language family. This family also includes the Indian (or Indo-Aryan), Iranian, Greek, Italic, Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic language groups, Armenian, Albanian and other languages. Of all the Indo-European languages, the Baltic languages are closest to Slavic: Lithuanian, Latvian and the dead Prussian language, which finally disappeared by the first decades of the 18th century. The collapse of the Indo-European linguistic unity is usually attributed to the end of the III - the beginning of the II millennium BC. Apparently, at the same time, the processes that led to the emergence of Proto-Slavic, to its separation from the Indo-European.

Proto-Slavic is the ancestral language of all Slavic languages. It had no written language and was not fixed in writing. However, it can be restored by comparing the Slavic languages with each other, as well as by comparing them with other related Indo-European languages. Sometimes a less successful term is used to refer to Proto-Slavic Common Slavonic: it seems that it is better to call common Slavic language features or processes that are characteristic of all Slavic languages even after the collapse of Proto-Slavic.

A common source - the Proto-Slavic language - makes all Slavic languages related, endowing them with many similar features, meanings, sounds ... The consciousness of Slavic linguistic and ethnic unity was already reflected in the ancient self-name of all Slavs - Slovenia(*s1ověne). According to academician O. N. Trubachev, this is etymologically something like "clearly speaking, understandable to each other." This consciousness was also preserved in the era of the formation of the ancient Slavic states and peoples. The Tale of Bygone Years, an ancient Russian chronicle of the early 12th century, says: “And the Slovenian language and Russian are the same…”. Word language used here not only in the ancient meaning of "people", but also in the meaning of "speech".

Where, in what territory did our common ancestors live?

The ancestral home of the Slavs, that is, the territory where they developed as a special people with their own language and where they lived until their separation and resettlement to new lands, has not yet been precisely determined due to the lack of reliable data. And yet, with relative certainty, it can be argued that it was located in the east of Central Europe, north of the foothills of the Carpathians. Many scientists believe that the northern border of the ancestral home of the Slavs ran along the Pripyat River (the right tributary of the Dnieper), the western border - along the middle course of the Vistula River, and in the east the Slavs settled Ukrainian Polesie to the Dnieper.

The Slavs constantly expanded the lands they occupied. They also participated in the great migration of peoples in the 4th-7th centuries. The Gothic historian Jordanes wrote in his essay “On the Origin and Deeds of the Getae” (chronologically brought to 551) that “a crowded tribe of Venets” settled “in the boundless spaces” from the Middle Danube to the lower Dnieper (the Germans called all the Slavs Wenden, Winden; in Finnish Venaja means "Russia"). During the VI and VII centuries. waves of Slavic settlement poured into most of the Balkan Peninsula, including modern Greece, and including its southern part - the Peloponnese.

By the end of the Proto-Slavic period, the Slavs occupied vast lands in Central and Eastern Europe, stretching from the coast of the Baltic Sea in the north to the Mediterranean in the south, from the Elbe River in the west to the headwaters of the Dnieper, Volga and Oka in the east.

Years passed, centuries slowly changed centuries ... And following the changes in interests, habits, manners of a person, following the evolution of his spiritual world, his speech, his language. During its long history, the Proto-Slavic language has experienced many changes. In the early period of its existence, it developed relatively slowly, was highly uniform, although there were dialectal differences in it even then ( dialect, otherwise dialect- the smallest territorial variety of the language). In the late period (approximately from the 4th to the 6th century AD), the Proto-Slavic language underwent diverse and intense changes that led to its disintegration around the 6th century. AD and the emergence of separate Slavic languages.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into three groups:

The ancestor of modern Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian languages was Old Russian(or East Slavic) language. Two main eras can be distinguished in its history: pre-literate (from the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language to the end of the 10th century) and written. What this language was like before the emergence of writing can only be known through a comparative historical study of the Slavic and Indo-European languages, since no ancient Russian writing existed at that time.

The collapse of the Old Russian language led to the emergence Russian(or Great Russian) language other than Ukrainian and Belarusian. This happened in the XIV century, although already in the XII-XIII centuries. in the Old Russian language, phenomena were outlined that distinguished the dialects of the ancestors of the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians from each other. The basis of the modern Russian language was the northern and northeastern dialects of Ancient Russia (by the way, the Russian literary language also has a dialect basis: it was made up of the central Middle Great Russian akaya dialects of Moscow and the villages surrounding the capital).

But this is the era of writing.

* South Slavic in origin is and Old Slavonic language- the first common Slavic literary language.

Russian is the largest language in the world. In terms of the number of people speaking it, it ranks 5th after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish.

Origin

Slavic languages, to which Russian belongs, belong to the Indo-European language branch.

At the end of III - beginning of II millennium BC. the Proto-Slavic language separated from the Indo-European family, which is the basis for the Slavic languages. In the X - XI centuries. the Proto-Slavic language was divided into 3 groups of languages: West Slavic (from which Czech, Slovak arose), South Slavic (developed into Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbo-Croatian) and East Slavic.

During the period of feudal fragmentation, which contributed to the formation of regional dialects, and the Tatar-Mongolian yoke, three independent languages emerged from East Slavic: Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian. Thus, the Russian language belongs to the East Slavic (Old Russian) subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European language branch.

History of development

In the era of Muscovite Russia, the Middle Great Russian dialect arose, the main role in the formation of which belonged to Moscow, which introduced the characteristic "acane", and the reduction of unstressed vowels, and a number of other metamorphoses. The Moscow dialect becomes the basis of the Russian national language. However, a unified literary language had not yet developed at that time.

In the XVIII-XIX centuries. Special scientific, military, maritime vocabulary was rapidly developed, which was the reason for the appearance of borrowed words, which often clogged and weighed down the native language. There was a need to develop a single Russian language, which took place in the struggle of literary and political trends. The great genius of M.V. Lomonosov in his theory of "three" established a connection between the subject of presentation and the genre. Thus, odes should be written in the "high" style, plays, prose works in the "medium" style, and comedies in the "low" style. A.S. Pushkin in his reform expanded the possibilities of using the “middle” style, which now became suitable for ode, tragedy, and elegy. It is from the language reform of the great poet that the modern Russian literary language traces its history.

The appearance of sovietisms and various abbreviations (prodrazverstka, people's commissar) is connected with the structure of socialism.

The modern Russian language is characterized by an increase in the number of special vocabulary, which was the result of scientific and technological progress. At the end of the XX - beginning of the XXI centuries. the lion's share of foreign words comes into our language from English.

The complex relationships of various layers of the Russian language, as well as the influence of borrowings and new words on it, led to the development of synonymy, which makes our language truly rich.

A Brief History of the Russian Language

Russian is one of the most widely spoken languages in the world, the fifth largest in terms of the total number of speakers. Moreover, it is the most widely spoken Slavic language in Europe. According to the classification, it belongs to the East Slavic subgroup of the Indo-European family of languages.

In the prehistoric period, the language of the Slavs was a complex group of dialects of different tribes. At the same time, the Old Russian language was divided into three ethnolinguistic groups: South Russian, North Russian and Central Russian (East Russian).

The origin of the Old Russian literary language dates back to the 11th century AD, that is, to the period of the formation of Kievan Rus. Greek culture had a certain influence on the formation of writing. However, the use of the Greek alphabet could not fully convey the features of the Slavic language, so the Byzantine emperor Michael III ordered the creation of a new alphabet for the Old Church Slavonic language.

This process contributed to the simplified translation of Greek religious texts into Slavonic. As a rule, the creation of the Russian literary language is associated with the Christian preachers Cyril and Methodius. The rapid spread of writing and the development of the language in Ancient Russia led to the fact that the Slavic language was on a par with the leading languages of the era.

The language became the main factor in the unification of the Slavic peoples from the 9th to the 11th century. One of the outstanding literary monuments of that period is "The Tale of Igor's Campaign" - a work about the campaign of Russian princes against the Polovtsians. The author of the epic has not been identified.

In the period from the 13th to the 14th century, due to feudal fragmentation, the increased influence of the Mongol-Tatar yoke and frequent raids by the Polish-Lithuanian troops, changes occurred in the development of the Russian language. Since then, it has been divided into three groups: Great Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian.

With the formation of Muscovite Rus, some reforms took place in written speech. The sentences became short, with an abundance of everyday vocabulary and folk sayings. A vivid example of this language was the work "Domostroy", printed in the middle of the 16th century. Printing has played a significant role in the development of the literary language.

In the 17th century, the Polish language became the supplier of scientific, technical, legal and other terms in Europe. So, gradually there was a modernization of the Russian language. At the beginning of the 18th century, the alphabet underwent reforms and became closer to the European model. The Russian literary language henceforth existed independently of church ideology.

In the second half of the 18th century, the influence of the French language increased in Europe, and along with this, the Europeanization of Russian society also intensified. Around the same period, M.V. Lomonosov introduced new norms of the literary language, establishing a system of styles and combining all varieties of the Russian language (order, oral speech, regional variations).

Other writers who influenced the formation of the Russian language in the 18th - 19th centuries were Fonvizin, Derzhavin, Karamzin, Gogol, Lermontov and, of course, Pushkin. It was A. S. Pushkin who was able to show all the richness and beauty of the Russian language to the fullest, freeing it from stylistic restrictions.

In the 20th century, under the influence of the social and political life of Russia, the Russian language was enriched with many new words and expressions. In many ways, the development of these lexical forms was facilitated by the media and Internet communications.

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Secondary school No. 2

abstract

on the topic:Origin of the Russian language

9th grade student

Umerova F.A.

Simferopol, 2014

Introduction

1. The formation and development of the book and writing tradition in Russia and the main stages in the history of the Russian language

2. Formation of the literary Russian language

Conclusion

Bibliography

Introduction

Russian is one of the largest languages in the world: in terms of the number of speakers, it ranks fifth after Chinese, English, Hindi and Spanish. The modern Russian language is a continuation of the Old Russian East Slavic language. The Old Russian language was spoken by the East Slavic tribes, which formed in the 9th century. Old Russian nationality within the limits of Ancient Russia.

All Slavic languages (Polish, Czech, Slovak, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian, Macedonian, Bulgarian, Ukrainian, Belarusian, Russian) come from a common root - a single Proto-Slavic language that probably existed until the 10th-11th centuries. Slavic languages show great similarities among themselves.

In 1949, about s. Gnezdovo (near Smolensk), excavations were carried out at mound No. 13, dating from the first quarter of the 10th century, which give us valuable information about the history of culture and writing of the peoples of Ancient Russia. Among the many items of everyday life and life of the villagers discovered there, shards of a korchaga were found - an amphora, on which scientists were able to read the inscription in Cyrillic - gorushna (gorushna).

In the XIV-XV centuries. as a result of the collapse of Kievan Rus, on the basis of a single language of the ancient Russian people, three independent languages arose: Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian, which, with the formation of separate nations, took shape in national languages. They are the closest and most similar to each other and form the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic group of the Indo-European family.

The Slavic branch originates from the Indo-European language family, which also includes Indian (Indo-Aryan), Iranian, Greek, Italian, Romance, Celtic, Germanic, Baltic language groups, as well as Armenian, Albanian and other languages. Of all the Indo-European languages, the Baltic languages are closest to Slavic: Lithuanian, Latvian and the dead Prussian language, which finally disappeared by the first decades of the 18th century. The collapse of the Indo-European linguistic unity is usually attributed to the end of the III - beginning of the II millennium BC. Apparently, at the same time, processes took place that led to the emergence of the Proto-Slavic language, to its separation from the Indo-European.

A common source - the Proto-Slavic language - makes all Slavic languages related, endowing them with many similar features, meanings, sounds ... The Tale of Bygone Years, an Old Russian chronicle of the beginning of the 12th century, says: "But the Slovenian language and Russian are one ... ". The word language is used here not only in the ancient meaning of "people", but also in the meaning of "speech".

The ancestral home of the Slavs, that is, the territory where they developed as a people with their own language and where they lived until their separation and resettlement to new lands, has not yet been precisely determined due to the lack of reliable data. However, with relative certainty it can be argued that it was located in the east of Central Europe, north of the foothills of the Carpathians. Many scientists believe that the northern border of the ancestral home of the Slavs ran along the Pripyat River (the right tributary of the Dnieper), the western border - along the middle course of the Vistula River, and in the east the Slavs settled the Ukrainian Polesie to the Dnieper.

According to the degree of their proximity to each other, Slavic languages are usually divided into three groups:

South Slavic - Bulgarian, Serbo-Croatian, Slovenian and Macedonian;

West Slavic - Polish, Czech, Slovak, Kashubian, Upper and Lower Lusatian languages and the dead Polabian language, which completely disappeared by the end of the 18th century;

East Slavic - Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian.

The ancestor of modern Russian, Ukrainian, Belarusian languages was Old Russian (or East Slavic) language. Two main eras can be distinguished in its history: pre-literate (from the collapse of the Proto-Slavic language to the end of the 10th century) and written.

The collapse of the Old Russian language led to the emergence of the Russian language, which differs from Ukrainian and Belarusian. This happened in the XIV century, although already in the XII-XIII centuries. in the Old Russian language, phenomena were outlined that distinguished the dialects of the ancestors of the Great Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians from each other. The modern Russian language is based on the northern and northeastern dialects of Kievan Rus.

1. The formation and development of the book and writing tradition in Russia and the main stages in the history of the Russian language

The first texts written in Cyrillic appeared among the Eastern Slavs in the 10th century.

After the baptism of Russia in 988, book writing arose. In Kievan Rus, a mixed language was used, which was called Church Slavonic. All liturgical literature, being written off from Old Slavonic, Byzantine and Bulgarian sources, reflected the norms of the Old Slavonic language. The originals for the East Slavic handwritten books were mainly South Slavic manuscripts dating back to the works of the students of the creators of the Slavic script Cyril and Methodius. In the process of correspondence, the original language was adapted to the East Slavic language, and the Old Russian book language was formed - the Russian version of the Church Slavonic language. However, words and elements of the Old Russian language penetrated into this literature.

In parallel to this style of language, secular and business literature also existed. If the Psalter, the Gospel, and so on serve as examples of the Church Slavonic language, then the Tale of Igor's Campaign, The Tale of Bygone Years, and Russkaya Pravda are considered an example of the secular and business language of Kievan Rus.

Secular and business literature reflects the linguistic norms of the living spoken language of the Slavs, their oral folk art. Based on the fact that Kievan Rus had such a complex dual language system, it is difficult for scientists to explain the origin of the modern literary Russian language. Their opinions differ, but the most common is the theory of Academician V.V. Vinogradov, according to which two varieties of the literary language functioned in Kievan Rus:

1) book-Slavonic literary language, based on Old Church Slavonic and used mainly in church literature;

2) folk-literary language, based on the living Old Russian language and used in secular literature.

According to V.V. Vinogradova, these are two types of language, and not two special languages, i.e. there was no bilingualism in Kievan Rus. These two types of language interacted with each other for a long time. Gradually they became closer, and on their basis in the XVIII century. a unified literary Russian language was formed.

2. Formation of the literaryRussianlanguage

The Russian language of the era of Muscovite Russia (XIV-XVII centuries) had a complex history. Dialect features continued to develop. Two main dialect zones took shape - Northern Great Russian (approximately north of the line Pskov - Tver - Moscow, south of Nizhny Novgorod) and South Great Russian (south of this line to the Belarusian and Ukrainian regions) dialects, overlapping with other dialect divisions. Intermediate Middle Russian dialects arose, among which the dialect of Moscow began to play a leading role. Initially, it was mixed, then it developed into a harmonious system. For him became characteristic: akanye; pronounced reduction of vowels of unstressed syllables; explosive consonant "g"; the ending "-ovo", "-evo" in the genitive singular masculine and neuter in the pronominal declension; hard ending "-t" in the verbs of the 3rd person of the present and future tense; forms of pronouns "me", "you", "myself" and a number of other phenomena. The Moscow dialect is gradually becoming exemplary and forms the basis of the Russian national literary language.

The language of writing remains motley. Religion and the rudiments of scientific knowledge were mainly served by book-Slavonic, by origin Old Bulgarian, which experienced a noticeable influence of the Russian language, cut off from the popular colloquial element. The language of statehood (the so-called business language) was based on Russian folk speech, but did not coincide with it in everything. Speech cliches developed in it, often including purely bookish elements; its syntax, in contrast to the spoken language, was more organized, with the presence of cumbersome complex sentences; the penetration of dialect features into it was largely prevented by standard all-Russian norms. Written fiction was diverse in terms of linguistic means. Since ancient times, the oral language of folklore played an important role, serving until the 16th-17th centuries. all segments of the population. This is evidenced by its reflection in ancient Russian writing (tales about the Belogorod jelly, about Olga's revenge, etc. in The Tale of Bygone Years, folklore motifs in the Tale of Igor's Campaign, vivid phraseology in Daniil Zatochnik's Prayer, etc. ), as well as archaic layers of modern epics, fairy tales, songs and other types of oral folk art.

During the period of the Muscovite state of the XIV-XVI centuries. the main styles of the Russian literary language were clearly defined:

1. Literary and artistic (ascending to the "Tale of Igor's Campaign);

2. Documentary and business style (these include ancient treaties, letters, "Russian Truth");

3. Journalistic style (correspondence of Ivan the Terrible with Kurbsky).

4. Industrial-professional style (various manuals and management manuals).

5. The style is epistolary.

Second half of the 16th century in the Muscovite state was marked by such a great event, which had a valuable cultural and historical significance, as the appearance of the first printed books. Typography was of great importance for the fate of the Russian literary language, culture and education. The first printed books were church books, primers, grammars, dictionaries. In 1708, a civil alphabet was introduced, on which secular literature was printed.

Since the 17th century the trend towards convergence of book and spoken language is increasing. In petitions, in various kinds of private letters and letters, words and expressions of an everyday nature that have not previously been encountered in book speech are increasingly being used. For example, in the "Life of the Prototope Avvakum" the colloquial elements of Russian colloquial and everyday speech are presented very fully. Non-colloquial words and expressions are used here ( lying on his belly, they suddenly shout, fools, there are a lot of fleas and lice etc.), but also colloquial meanings of well-known words.

In the XVIII and early XIX centuries. secular writing became widespread, church literature was gradually relegated to the background and, finally, became the lot of religious rituals, and its language turned into a kind of church jargon. Scientific and technical, military, nautical, administrative and other terminology developed rapidly, which caused a large influx into the Russian language of words and expressions from Western European languages. Especially great impact from the second half of the XVIII century. French began to render Russian vocabulary and phraseology. The clash of heterogeneous linguistic elements and the need for a common literary language posed the problem of creating unified national language norms. The formation of these norms took place in a sharp struggle of different currents. Democratic-minded sections of society sought to bring the literary language closer to folk speech, the reactionary clergy tried to preserve the purity of the archaic "Slovenian" language, which was incomprehensible to the general population. At the same time, an excessive passion for foreign words began among the upper strata of society, which threatened to clog the Russian language. The language theory and practice of M.V. Lomonosov, the author of "Russian Grammar" - the first detailed grammar of the Russian language, who proposed to distribute various speech means, depending on the purpose of literary works, into high, medium and low "calms".

The development of grammatical science in the second half of the XVIII century. and in the first decades of the nineteenth century. led to the emergence of two main points of view on grammatical phenomena: structural-grammatical and logical-semantic. In the XVIII century. The Russian language is becoming a literary language with generally recognized norms, widely used in both book and colloquial speech. M.V. Lomonosov, V.K. Trediakovsky, D.I. Fonvizin, G.R. Derzhavin, A.N. Radishchev, N.M. Karamzin and other Russian writers paved the way for the great reform of A.S. Pushkin.

19th century can be considered the first period of development of the modern literary Russian language. The beginning of the stage of development of the modern Russian literary language is considered to be the time of the great Russian poet Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin, who is sometimes called the creator of the modern Russian literary language. The language of Pushkin and writers of the 19th century. is a classic example of the literary language up to the present day. The creative genius of Pushkin synthesized various speech elements into a single system: Russian folk, Church Slavonic and Western European, and the Russian folk language, especially its Moscow variety, became the cementing basis. The modern Russian literary language begins with Pushkin, rich and diverse linguistic styles (artistic, journalistic, scientific, etc.) are closely related to each other. All-Russian phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms, obligatory for all those who know the literary language, are determined, the lexical system is developed and enriched. slav cyrillic colloquial literary

In his work, Pushkin was guided by the principle of proportionality and conformity. He did not reject any words because of their Old Slavonic, foreign or common origin. He considered any word acceptable in literature, in poetry, if it accurately, figuratively expresses the concept, conveys the meaning. But he opposed the thoughtless passion for foreign words, and also against the desire to replace mastered foreign words with artificially selected or composed Russian words.

If the scientific and literary works of the Lomonosov era look rather archaic in their language, then the works of Pushkin and all literature after him became the literary basis of the language we speak today. A.S. Pushkin streamlined the artistic means of the Russian literary language and significantly enriched it. Based on various manifestations of the folk language, he managed to create in his works a language that was perceived by society as a literary one. “With the name of Pushkin, the thought of a Russian national poet immediately dawns,” wrote N.V. Gogol. “He, as if in a lexicon, contained all the richness, strength and flexibility of our language. He is more than anyone, he further pushed his boundaries and more showed all its space.

Of course, since the time of A.S. Pushkin, a lot of time has passed and a lot has changed, including the Russian language: something has gone out of it, a lot of new words have appeared. Although the great poet did not leave us a grammar, he was the author of not only artistic, but also historical, journalistic works, he clearly distinguished between the author's speech and characters, i.e. practically laid the foundations for the modern functional and stylistic classification of the literary Russian language.

End of the 19th century and up to the present time - the second period of development of the modern literary Russian language. This period is characterized by well-established linguistic norms, but these norms are being improved to this day. In the development and formation of the modern Russian literary language, such Russian writers of the 19th-20th centuries also played a big role. like A.S. Griboyedov, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, M. Gorky, A.P. Chekhov and others.

Since the second half of the XX century. the development of the literary language and the formation of its functional styles - scientific, journalistic and others - are also beginning to be influenced by public figures, representatives of science and culture.

The development of phonetic, grammatical and lexical norms of the modern Russian literary language is governed by two related trends: established traditions, which are considered exemplary, and the constantly changing speech of native speakers. The established traditions are the use of speech means in the language of writers, publicists, theater artists, masters of cinema, radio, television and other means of mass communication. For example, the exemplary "Moscow pronunciation", which became common Russian, developed in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. at the Moscow Art and Maly theatres. It changes, but its foundations are still considered unshakable.

Conclusion

The modern Russian language is represented by a number of stylistic, dialectal and other varieties that are in complex interaction. All these varieties, united by a common origin, a common phonetic and grammatical system and the main vocabulary, constitute a single national Russian language, the main link of which is the literary language in its written and oral forms. Shifts in the very system of the literary language, the constant impact on it of other varieties of speech lead not only to its enrichment with new means of expression, but also to the complication of stylistic diversity, the development of variance.

List of literaturecheers

1. Old Russian language: textbook. allowance for ist. fak. un-tov / N.G. Samsonov. - M.: "High School", 1973. - 295 p. : ill.

2. History of Russian linguistics: textbook. allowance for philol. specialties / F.M. Berezin. - M.: Higher. school, 1979. - 223 p.

3. History of the Russian literary language: textbook. allowance for students ped. in-t on spec. "Russian language and literature in the national school." / L.V. Sudavichen, N.Ya. Serdobintsev, Yu.G. Kadkalov; ed. I.F. Protchenko. - 2nd ed. finalized - L.: Enlightenment; Leningrad. Department, 1990. - 319 p.

4. History of the Russian literary language / A.N. Gorshkov. - M.: Higher. school, 1969. - 366 p.

5. Historical grammar of the Russian language: textbook. for students ped. in-t on spec. "Russian language and lit." / V.V. Ivanov. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M. : Enlightenment, 1990. - 400 p. : ill.

6. History of the Russian literary language: a course of lectures / A.I. Efimov. - M.: Publishing House of Moscow. un-ta, 1954. - 431 p.

7. History of the Russian literary language / A.I. Efimov. - 3rd ed., corrected. - M.: Publishing House "Higher School", 1971. - 295.

8. P.Ya. Chernykh. On the issue of the Gnezdovskaya inscription / P.Ya. Chernykh // Izv. Dep. Liter. and language. - 1950. - Vol. 9, issue. 5. - S. 401.

9. Legends about the beginning of Slavic writing / rev. ed. V.D. Korolyuk. - M.: Publishing house "Nauka", 1981. - 197 p. - Monuments of the medieval history of the peoples of Central and Eastern Europe.

10. Reader on the history of grammatical teachings in Russia / comp. V.V. Shcheulin, V.I. Medvedev. - M.: Publishing house "Higher school", 1965. - 355 p.

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Origin of the Indo-European languages

About 6 thousand years ago there lived a people who are considered to be the carriers of the Proto-Indo-European language. Where he lived exactly is today the subject of fierce debate among historians and linguists. The steppes of Eastern Europe and Asia Minor, and the territory on the border between Europe and Asia, and the Armenian Highlands are called the ancestral home of the Indo-Europeans.
In the early 80s of the last century, linguists Gamkrelidze and Ivanov formulated the idea of two ancestral homes: at first there was the Armenian Highlands, and then the Indo-Europeans moved to the Black Sea steppes. Archaeologically, the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language are correlated with representatives of the “pit culture”, who lived in the east of Ukraine and on the territory of modern Russia in the 3rd millennium BC.

Isolation of the Balto-Slavic branch

Subsequently, the Proto-Indo-Europeans settled throughout Asia and Europe, mixed with the local peoples and gave them their own language. In Europe, the languages of the Indo-European family are spoken by almost all peoples, except for the Basques; in Asia, various languages \u200b\u200bof this family are spoken in India and Iran. Tajikistan, Pamir, etc. About 2 thousand years ago, the Proto-Balto-Slavic language emerged from the common Proto-Indo-European language.

The Proto-Baltoslavs existed as a single people speaking the same language, according to a number of linguists (including Ler-Splavinsky) for about 500-600 years, and this period in the history of our peoples corresponds to the archaeological culture of Corded Ware. Then the language branch divided again: into the Baltic group, which henceforth began to live an independent life, and the Proto-Slavic, which became the common root from which all modern Slavic languages originated.

Old Russian language

All-Slavic unity persisted until the 6th-7th century AD. When carriers of East Slavic dialects stood out from the common Slavic array, the Old Russian language began to form, which became the ancestor of modern Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. The Old Russian language is known to us thanks to numerous monuments written in the Church Slavonic language, which can be considered as a written, literary form of the Old Russian language.
In addition, written monuments have survived - birch bark letters, graffiti on the walls of temples - written in everyday, colloquial Old Russian.

Old Russian period

The Old Russian (or Great Russian) period covers the time from the 14th to the 17th centuries. At this time, the Russian language finally stands out from the group of East Slavic languages, phonetic and grammatical systems close to modern ones are formed in it, other changes take place, including dialects. The leading among them is the “aking” dialect of the upper and middle Oka, and, first of all, the Moscow dialect.

Modern Russian

The Russian language we speak today began to take shape in the 17th century. It is based on the Moscow dialect. The literary works of Lomonosov, Trediakovsky, Sumarokov played a decisive role in the formation of the modern Russian language. Lomonosov also wrote the first grammar, fixing the norms of the literary Russian language. All the richness of the Russian language, which has developed from the synthesis of Russian colloquial, Church Slavonic elements, borrowings from other languages, is reflected in the works of Pushkin, who is considered the creator of the modern Russian literary language.

Borrowings from other languages

Over the centuries of its existence, the Russian language, like any other living and developing system, has been repeatedly enriched by borrowings from other languages. The earliest borrowings include "Baltisms" - borrowings from the Baltic languages. However, in this case, we are probably not talking about borrowings, but about vocabulary that has been preserved from the time when the Slavic-Baltic community existed. The “Balticisms” include such words as “ladle”, “tow”, “stack”, “amber”, “village”, etc.
During the period of Christianization, “Grecisms” - “sugar”, “bench” entered our language. "lantern", "notebook", etc. Through contacts with European peoples, “Latinisms” - “doctor”, “medicine”, “rose” and “Arabisms” - “admiral”, “coffee”, “lacquer”, “mattress”, etc. entered the Russian language. A large group of words entered our language from the Turkic languages. These are words such as “hearth”, “tent”, “hero”, “cart”, etc. And, finally, since the time of Peter I, the Russian language has absorbed words from European languages. At first, this is a large layer of words from German, English and Dutch related to science, technology, maritime and military affairs: “ammunition”, “globe”, “assembly”, “optics”, “pilot”, “sailor”, “deserter ".
Later, French, Italian and Spanish words related to household items, the field of art settled in Russian - “stained-glass window”, “veil”, “couch”, “boudoir”, “ballet”, “actor”, “poster”, “pasta” ”, “Serenade”, etc. And finally, these days we are experiencing a new influx of borrowings, this time from English, in the main language.

Portal for the student. Self-training

Brief history of the emergence of the Russian language. Russian language: history and general characteristics

Origin

History of development

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