1. Definition of the methodology of science.
2. Structure and functions of methodological knowledge.
3.Methodology of science and psychology.
Literature
1. Problems of methodology of science. Novosibirsk, 1985 Ed. Kochergin A.N. , Fofanov V.P. pp. 7 – 37.
2. Psychology. - Dictionary-2nd ed. - M - 1990. Ed. Petrovsky and Yaroshevsky. Article "Methodology".
3. Philosophical dictionary. Ed. 6th, 1991 Ed. Frolova I.T. Article "Methodology".
4. V.P. Zinchenko and S.D. Smirnov. Methodological issues of psychology. Ed.
Moscow State University, 1983, ch.1.
5. B.F. Lomov. Methodological and theoretical problems of psychology. Introduction. M. 1984
1. Definition of the methodology of science.
Methodology (from the Greek word Methodos- way of research or knowledge, logos - doctrine, concept)
The totality of cognitive means, methods, techniques used in any science;
A field of knowledge that studies the prerequisites, principles of organizing cognitive and practical-transformative activities.
In teaching about the basics knowledge is analyzed those philosophical representation, to which the researcher based on the learning process. This part of the methodology is related
With philosophy, with a worldview.
In teaching about ways and means studies are considered commonhand private methods of cognition that make up the general methodology of research (for example, implementation of the principle of objectivity or consideration of phenomena in development).
Yadov V.A.:
“Methodology is any theoretical system taken in the context of its heuristic functions.”
(Sociological research. Methodology. Program. Methods. M.-1972, p. 30.)
The methodological culture of a scientist turns out to be a necessary prerequisite for his scientific activity.
The development of the methodology of science in the 2nd half of the 20th century in the West and in the USSR
one). General reasons for the intensive development of the methodology of science
Bringing tasks to the fore forecasting;
The empirical approach (trial and error method) is very expensive in accumulating scientific knowledge;
The explanatory approach (based on the theoretical and methodological study of the problem) is much cheaper.
From here, the society's order for development is being updated
methodological knowledge.
2). The predominant development of theoretical and methodological research in the USSR is connected with the stronger role of ideology in science. Under such conditions, the scientist is forced to carefully work out the theoretical and methodological foundations of his research.
The development of methodology is determined by the needs of society in this knowledge, associated with the urgent task of reducing the cost of predicting the development of society, various conditions for its existence.
Tasks of science methodology
1. Definition of the subject of science.
2. Identification of the main areas of research (for example, in optimizing the HD: what to study?).
3. Ensuring the correctness of the problem statement.
4. Development of methods and means of scientific research.
5. Providing general approaches to the subject of research (for example, within the framework of a dynamic or factorial approach in personality studies).
6. Providing scientists with intelligent research technologies.
7. In order to isolate the essence of phenomena, the establishment of a general strategy for scientific research (from I to B or / and from B to I).
8. Carrying out the adjustment of the study on the subject content.
9. Detection of the fundamental structure and basic relationships in the object under study (for example, I-V-Sem. conditional).
10. Development of criteria for evaluating the results of the study (including statistical ones, except for meaningful ones).
11. Development of a holistic picture of research activity (the depth of study of the problem and the level of conceptualization of the results obtained are assessed; according to the relevant criteria, whether or not the study reaches the level of scientific theory is checked).
Opposition of subject and methodological activity
subject activities are carried out in accordance with regulations(acts of activity that function as a model for subsequent acts) accepted in this science (inventors “hack” subject the content of the activity, change it).
Methodological activity - creation of new standards, changing the normative space of this science.
Let's emphasize again: a scientist is engaged in methodological activity if he makes efforts in the following directions:
Seeks to set a new task;
Looking for a new solution method;
Gives a new formulation of the subject of science (for example, behaviorism, depth psychology, etc.);
Formulates a new rule for research procedures;
Creates new research patterns (eg, psychological research in RND: cyclogram);
Builds new research programs.
In its most general form, the essence of the methodological activity is as follows: in adapting to a new task or a new
situations
Previous cognitive experience of all sciences;
Practical experience;
Involvement of all human culture (not only Soviet, domestic, etc.).
Methodological activity - heuristics, art, based insight. For example, use only to determine the weight, but also
this is a search, an invention, on fiction, intuition, weighing procedures are not
To determine the area of a figure (according to the layer of sand covering this figure),
The area of the graph by the weight of the paper strip cut according to the graph;
Degrees of conscious regulation of deactivating
direction according to the weight of the hand placed on the scales. The development of a new method for solving these problems was methodological activity, and its further use is already subject activity in science. In culture, a type of measurement was found that was significantly different from the measurement
area, measuring the effectiveness of self-regulation, but possessed features necessary to solve the problem set by the researcher.
2.Structure and functions of methodological knowledge .
Structure
1) Vertically (hierarchical structure):
The level of philosophical methodology,
The level of general scientific methodology, general scientific principles,
The level of specific scientific methodology,
The level of methodology and research technique.
Philosophical methodology
- carries out constructive criticism of scientific knowledge with t. sp. conditions and limits of application;
Gives an ideological interpretation of the results of science (for example, the interpretation in psychiatry of the word “desident”);
Promotes a new understanding of the value system of this science;
New understanding of the moral foundations of scientific activity;
New understanding of the aesthetic ideal in science.
Level of general scientific methodology
This level has been developed and widely used in
20th century It includes:
General Systems Theory L. von Bertalanffy;
Structural-functional analysis in sociology;
System analysis;
Conceptual ideas about the development of organic
integrity (V.I. Kremyansky).
This theoretical conceptual knowledge performs function of logical organization and formalization of special scientific content. They are interdisciplinary in nature.
Specific scientific methodology
Methodological knowledge related to this level is applicable for a certain field of knowledge, for a separate science. This includes:
Identification of the methodological problems of this science (for example, in the application of mathematical modeling methods in psychology, it is required to solve the problem
way of representing the mental in a mathematical model);
Introduction of objects of research of a new type, expansion, change in the subject of science (for example, formulating ideas about a group image as a socio-psychological phenomenon and finding a way to study it);
Statement of new tasks (for example, the study of changes in socio-psychological phenomena in the context of the use of technical mediators in interpersonal interactions);
Development of new research rules and procedures ;
Formulation of new norms of rigor and evidence.
Level of methodology and research technique
Methodological knowledge of this level most closely adjoins research practice. It includes:
Description of methods and techniques for obtaining relevant information (eg, use of self-observation, subjective reporting in research);
Requirements for the data collection process;
Development of a scheme for constructing a number of methods and techniques, for example, a questionnaire for the study of IPL (1 - the discovery of new information, 2 - an adequate assessment of new information, 3 - innovative activity, i.e. the use of new information; all three directions in the interaction of man with nature , society, with culture, with oneself);
Development of procedures for assessing the reliability and validity of methods;
Development of new research methods and tools (e.g. spectral analysis of speech, automatic analysis
communication and presentation of results in RPG, mathematical modeling of the HD, etc.).
2)Structuring methodological knowledge on substantive grounds around the dominant methodological principles or worldviews leads to the formation methodological approaches. Often this structuring is carried out according to a dichotomous principle:
Heuristic - Algorithmic
Energy - information
Atomistic - holistic (holistic)
Analytical - Synthetic
Dialectical - metaphysical.
Science must be prepared "from below" to apply this or that approach. Obviously, a progressive approach cannot be launched "from above" if there is no readiness "from below". Thus, a systematic approach cannot "catch" on the material of private science if it is not ready for this.
Functions of methodological knowledge
1. Stimulation of the process of cognition, problematization and critical understanding of functioning ideas, the formation of the creative personality of a scientist, the education of a culture of thinking.
2. Organization and structuring of scientific knowledge through the development of general scientific means and forms of cognition (general scientific concepts, categories, methods, approaches), by highlighting the philosophical and ideological principles of cognition.
3. Development of a strategy for the development of science in the planning of complex research and targeted programs. For example, in
4. Worldview interpretation of the results of science from the point of view. one or another picture of the world (nucleus fission, the use of freon, the discovery of the principle of operation of an internal combustion engine, cloning, etc.).
Functions of normative methodological knowledge, having the form of prescriptions and norms
1. Ensure the correct formulation of the problem, both in terms of its content and form.
2. Provide intellectual technology for scientific activities.
3. Improve the organizational side of research.
For the successful use of the achievements of methodological thought, a combination of creative movement "top down" and "bottom up" is necessary.
3.M methodology of science and psychology
In the interaction of psychology and the methodology of science, two points should be highlighted:
1. Psychology is one of the human sciences, therefore the initial principles of psychological research and its results cannot but have a pronounced ideological character.
2. Psychology is able to provide knowledge about the very process of cognition and its development, which is what it is mainly “interested in”
methodology.
Making a contribution to methodological knowledge in general, psychology should appreciate the importance of methodology for itself all the more highly.
L.S. Vygotsky wrote:
“In no other science are there so many difficulties, insoluble controversies, combinations of different things in one as in psychology. The subject of psychology is the most difficult of all that is in the world, the least amenable to study; the way of knowing it must be full of special tricks in order to get what is expected of it.
and the fullness of methodological problems, such tightly tied knots, insoluble contradictions, like ours. Therefore, one cannot take a single step here without taking a thousand preliminary calculations and warnings.
L.S. Vygotsky. Sobr. soch., vol. 1, M., 1982, p. 417-418.
Aseev V.G. we read:
“In no other scientific field do the results of a particular study depend to such an extent directly and directly on the initial methodological premises and the methodological techniques used, as in psychology.”
Aseev V.G. On the dialectic of the determination of mental development. - In the book. The principle of development in psychology. pp. 21-37.
So, the reasons for the interest of psychology in methodology are as follows:
1. The complexity and diversity of the subject of research itself, its qualitative originality.
2. Psychology has accumulated a huge amount, which is simply impossible to cover without new methodological approaches (A.N. Leontiev. D.S.L., p. 4; B.F. Lomov VP No. 5, 1978, p. 36).
3. Exceptionally high requirements for methodological literacy of any psychological research.
4. A great responsibility resting on psychologists in diagnosing and determining professional suitability, level of development, in making a clinical diagnosis, in conducting a forensic psychological examination.
Typical methodological mistakes
1. Conducting psychological research, without a clear designation of its subject (research "on the topic"), insufficient reflection of one's own interpretation of the subject of psychological science, in the absence of correlation of what the researcher does, what and how he talks with
the fundamental question of cognizability world (it is easier to understand the methodological attitudes of a psychologist, knowing his answer to the last fundamental question and his ideas about the subject of psychological science).
2. Uncritical borrowing and use of approaches and procedures (primarily tests) developed on humans
a different culture, a different socio-economic community.
For example, in the questionnaire "Expert", worked out on a sample of our compatriots, there is a trace. questions:
Does not fulfill many of its intentions and promises.
Misunderstandings often arise in relationships with people.
Abroad: instant dismissal
Works well with documents, any certificate will be quickly, in a businesslike way.
Abroad: an indispensable condition for qualification
He is not good at optimizing the climate in the team.
Abroad: this is the business of a specialist
Emotionally experiencing the events taking place in the team.
Abroad: why should he worry about it
Most people who work with him complain about
difficulties.
Abroad: it is not clear what difficulties we are talking about, they should be fired
The statements of some foreign scientists about a number of methodological and theoretical ideas that have become widespread in psychology are significant.
J. Weizenbaum (computer scientist): “Few scientific concepts have made such a strong confusion in the thinking of both scientists and the general public as the intelligence quotient ... The very idea that intelligence can be measured using a simple linear scale has caused untold harm our society in general and education in particular.
Weizenbaum. The possibilities of computers and the human mind. M., 1982. S. 262.
D. Mk. Kelland (American psychologist): "Psychologists should be ashamed that they contributed to the concept of general mental development that gave rise to such a testing program." (Weizenbaum. Ibid.)
Beginning researchers should be warned against prescription understanding and application of notions of methodology. Methodological work requires creativity, taking into account the fact that any conceptual scheme has a certain limitation on the number of degrees of freedom, limited scope.
Each researcher should start his R&D by solving the following questions:
How can one formulate the methodological problem to be solved?
What level of methodological knowledge does this task belong to?
What function will the found solution implement?
METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE
METHODOLOGY OF SCIENCE
The systematic methods used to obtain scientific knowledge and those general principles that guide scientific knowledge. Methodological research can be divided into general, particular and specific.
The general one deals with the issues of substantiating scientific knowledge, regardless of which of the specific scientific disciplines it is received, the problem of the role of experience in scientific knowledge, the differences between the sciences and the sciences of culture, the structures of such universal operations of scientific knowledge as understanding, the problem of the unity of scientific knowledge, etc. .P.
Private methodology explores the methodological problems of individual sciences or their narrow groups. One can speak, for example, of the methodology of physics, the methodology of biology, the methodology of the sciences of the historical series, and so on. Both physics and biology use explanations. At the same time, many biological explanations use a goal that it loses in relation to physical objects. What is a goal, or teleological, biological explanation, and why can it be used only in the biological sciences, but not in physics, cosmology, or chemistry? Can the teleological explanation be replaced by the usual explanation for other natural sciences through a scientific law? These and similar questions belong to private methodology.
In the social and human sciences, particular methodologies of sociology, economic science, psychology, and a number of historical sciences are relatively well developed. A characteristic feature of any particular methodology is that, being important for some particular science or a narrow group of sciences, it is almost of no interest to other sciences. For example, the objects of study of all social and human sciences are in a process of constant change, and each of them cannot be fully understood in abstraction from its history; based on this circumstance, it is sometimes said that it is in a sense a “general science”, since all others are forced to turn to it. And at the same time, the peculiar methodology of historical research can hardly cause a linguist, psychologist or economist. History is not a paradigm of the social and human sciences, just as it is not a paradigm of natural science knowledge.
A specific methodology, sometimes called methodology, deals with the methodological aspects associated with individual research operations within specific scientific disciplines. The scope of this methodology, which varies from science to science, includes, for example, the conduct of a physical experiment, the methodology of an experiment in biology, the methodology of a survey in sociology, the methodology of analyzing sources in history, etc.
The interpretation of scientific knowledge as a specific human activity carried out by a community of scientists dictates a broad understanding of M.S. Its central problems are: the study of ways to substantiate scientific knowledge, allowing to give hypotheses intersubjective or objective knowledge; analysis of acceptance criteria, or adequacy, of systems of scientific statements (scientific theories); the study of those systems of categories that are used as the coordinates of scientific thinking.
The social and human sciences (the sciences of culture) are fundamentally different from the natural sciences (the sciences of nature). This means that within the framework of the general M. n. along with the methodology of natural science knowledge, a completely independent methodology of social and humanitarian knowledge should also be developed. This does not deny the unity of science, and in particular the scientific method. However, this unity itself has yet to be revealed and investigated, since it is obvious that it cannot be reduced to likening the sciences of culture to the sciences of nature. For a long time it was believed that there is a unified methodology of scientific knowledge, although it is developed mainly on the basis of the natural sciences. It was assumed that as soon as the social and human sciences, which lagged significantly in their development from the natural sciences, became full-fledged scientific disciplines, everything said about the methods of the natural sciences would be applicable to social and humanitarian knowledge. While this t. sp. dominated, for the approval of which in the 20th century. did a lot, M.N. culture was in its infancy. It began, in essence, only in. 19th century and was associated with the names of V. Windelband, G. Rickert, M. Weber, V. Dilthey and others. However, even now under “M. n." often understood as the methodology of natural science, and under the "philosophy of science" - natural sciences.
Significant methodological differences between the sciences of nature and the sciences of culture are associated with the special role of values (and, accordingly, assessments) in the sciences of culture (with the exception of the sciences of the historical series, which gravitate toward pure description and seek to avoid assessments). In the social and human sciences, values are not just scaffolding used in the construction of theories, but integral structural elements of these sciences themselves and the theories constructed within them. These sciences should, ultimately, contribute to the rationalization of human activity, the clarification of its goals and prospects, which is impossible without the introduction and justification of certain values. The complexity of the problem of values in the case of the social and human sciences is due primarily to the fact that these sciences do not (with rare exceptions) express explicit value judgments and do not establish prescriptive norms. Values enter the social and humanitarian usually in the form of dual, descriptive-evaluative statements or in the form of reference to values, which Weber spoke about in his time.
The social and human sciences widely use not only the usual empirical and theoretical methods for substantiating knowledge, but also contextual methods that involve tradition, authorities (“classics”), common sense, intuition, taste, etc. Discussion of the latter means the convergence of M.n. about culture with philosophy. hermeneutics.
Although the social and human sciences, focused on values, differ significantly from the natural sciences in their methods of justification, the originality of the knowledge of society and man is determined by ch.arr. the system of categories within which it takes place and which sets its main goals and values. A unified categorical scientific thinking is clearly divided into two systems of concepts, self-sufficient, but in a broader sense complementary to each other. The first of them includes absolute concepts: good, dynamic time series "was-is-will be", predestination (""), understanding, etc. The second system includes comparative concepts: probability, preference, static time series "earlier-simultaneously-later ”, a means, an explanation, etc. The system of absolute categories tends to represent the world as a formation, or a flow. In the system of comparative categories, it appears as an established one, as ( cm. ABSOLUTE). Binary oppositions "-" and "being -" are the central oppositions of scientific thinking. In line with the perception of the world as a stream and becoming, the humanities and partly the social sciences go, interpreting their objects as generating; , with the exception of those that gravitate towards the sciences of the historical series, give priority to the description of the world as being, the constant repetition of the same elements, their connections and interactions.
Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Gardariki. Edited by A.A. Ivina. 2004 .
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Any field of science is associated with methodology (from the Greek metodos - the path of research, or knowledge, theory and logos - a word, concept, teaching). Moreover, the quality of scientific knowledge directly depends on the level of development of methodology.
What is methodology
Methodology is a system of initial guidelines, methods and techniques for organizing and constructing theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system. In short, methodology is the doctrine of the methods of scientific knowledge of the world. The development of science presupposes the development of methodology. In addition to the subject matter, any scientific discovery also has a methodological content, because it involves a critical analysis and revision of a number of established concepts, laws of nature or social development. The same applies to pedagogy as well.
Its functions
Philosophers note a number of functions of methodology. This is epistemological (cognitive). It is obvious, since there is research activity on the scientific knowledge of the world, the disclosure of the secrets of nature, the phenomena of social life, consciousness, and the human intellect. The epistemological function satisfies the need for knowledge of the essential connections and relations of the surrounding world, for the knowledge of its laws.
The prognostic function of the methodology involves prediction, foreseeing the development of natural and social phenomena, any events, the development of the individual. This forecast cannot be "fortune-telling on the coffee grounds" or a mystical prophecy of a soothsayer. Forecast as a guess or assumption is based on preliminary observations, experience, intuition, logical reasoning of the researcher. The prognostic function of the methodology acts as a hypothesis, the validity of which has yet to be proven.
The transformative function of methodology lies in the fact that research methods contribute not only to the explanation of the phenomena being studied, but, which is very important, they also serve as a tool for effectively changing life and social phenomena.
And one more function - organizing - is connected with the coordination of the ways and forms of our actions with the conditions of the world around us, with the real circumstances that develop in a given situation.
Methodological levels
In the methodology of sciences, methods of different levels of generalization function. In a schematic presentation, they are reduced to the following.
The highest, ultimate general, and therefore universal, level applies to all sciences. This level is usually associated with philosophy, which reveals the most general laws and patterns of being, the development of the surrounding natural and social world, and the spiritual sphere of man. Different philosophers explain these laws in different ways. We do not set ourselves the task of controversy with any philosophical doctrine and trend, believing that this is the business of the philosophers themselves.
Methods at the philosophical level have an ideological orientation: philosophers raise the question of the relationship between being and consciousness, the primacy of matter or consciousness in relation to each other. Philosophers consider this question to be the main one. And depending on what is recognized as primary and what is secondary (matter or consciousness), they distinguish between a materialistic worldview (the primacy of matter) and an idealistic one (the primacy of consciousness). We mention this because the worldview of the researcher, as a rule, determines his approach to explaining the surrounding world. But this position is not strictly unambiguous: there are many cases in science when a researcher who adheres, for example, to idealistic views, produces scientific results that coincide with materialism. For example, Academician I.P. Pavlov, an Orthodox Christian, in his teaching on conditioned reflexes, gave them a completely materialistic explanation. K.D. Ushinsky - also a Christian - directly urged not to mix science with religion; and when critics accused him - some of materialism, others of idealism, then Konstantin Dmitrievich directly answered: "I do not attach any importance to whether they call me a materialist or an idealist." Examples can be continued.
The philosophical level of methods confirms the idea of the universal interconnection of sciences.
The general scientific level of methods is characterized by the fact that these methods are used in the study of various areas of reality. And this is possible because different phenomena of the surrounding world objectively, regardless of whether we study them or not, are subject to the same laws and function in accordance with them. General scientific methods include theoretical methods: modeling, formalization, probability theory, systemic, structural-functional, statistical, cybernetic, informational, etc. The same group includes logical methods: comparison and comparison, analysis and synthesis, classification and systematization, generalization and abstraction.
Specific scientific level of methods. These methods reveal laws specific to a single science, cause-and-effect relationships and relationships that are specific to this particular science. As a rule, they cannot be claimed and used to study the phenomena of other sciences. For example, the methods of mechanics can hardly be used in genetics and vice versa; the methods of psychology are difficult to use to explain astronomical and cosmic phenomena, while the opposite is possible.
There is another level of methods, let's conditionally call it intrascientific. Its meaning is as follows. Some laws, firmly established and well-established in science, can be used as a concept (methodological function) in the study of other problems of the same science. For example, the law of interiorization-exteriorization in psychology became the conceptual basis for the development of the theory of the gradual formation of mental actions (in the same psychology). The law of natural selection, first discovered in the development of flora and fauna, has become a research concept in microbiology as well. At the same level are the private laws of individual sciences, which can be taken by another science as a concept. For example, the law of conservation of matter and energy, first discovered in the field of chemistry, has become a concept for the study of many phenomena in physics.
The methodology of science is heuristic in its essence. This means that the methods of science push researchers to productive creative thinking. They contribute to the search and generation of procedures and techniques aimed at solving creative problems, at cutting off unpromising options when searching for solutions. The methodology prompts to look for new, non-traditional, original ways of solving the tasks.
Everything that has been said about the methodology of science in general applies entirely to pedagogy as a science. Let's move on to a more detailed consideration of this issue.
The term "methodology" (Greek Methodos - the path of research or cognition, logos - concept, teaching) denotes a set of methods, techniques and operations of the practical or theoretical basis of reality, i.e. path of knowledge.
Methodology:
is the doctrine of the scientific method of cognition; the basic principles or set of research techniques used in any science.
This is the doctrine of the research principles of human cognitive activity, which is an open system of multi-aspect and multi-level approaches to the knowledge of phenomena in their historical conditionality, continuity and globality, which is improved on the basis of experience and critical argumentation.
From a philosophical point of view, this is the doctrine of the method, considering the correspondence of the method to the subject of study, it seeks to create an integral system of principles of activity.
In modern science, the term "methodology" is applied to three different levels of scientific knowledge.
1. General methodology is a set of general principles, methods of organization (construction) and standards for the reliability of scientific knowledge, explores the laws of development of scientific knowledge in general. Examples can be the principles of determinism, development, conformity, complementarity, etc.
2. Private methodology - a system of private principles, postulates, premises, etc., applied to a specific field of knowledge, is based on the laws of individual sciences, the features of the knowledge of individual phenomena.
3. Methodological techniques - a variety of research methods, experiments, experiments, etc.
In science, a large number of definitions of "methodology" have been developed, which indicates the complexity and versatility of this scientific concept. The basis of general and particular methodology is the methodology of science.
Methodology of science - a part of science that studies the structure of scientific knowledge, means and methods of scientific knowledge, ways of substantiating and developing knowledge.
The main goal of the methodology of science is the study of those methods, means and techniques by which new knowledge about science is acquired and substantiated. But in addition to this main task, methodology also studies the structure of scientific knowledge in general, the place and role of various forms of cognition in it, and methods for analyzing and building various systems of scientific knowledge (3).
A systematic solution of methodological problems is given in a methodological concept created on the basis of certain epistemological (knowledge) principles. The methodological concept is influenced not only by philosophical principles. Since it is a theory of the structure and development of scientific knowledge, in so far as it - to one degree or another - is also oriented towards science and its history. It is necessary to point out one more fact that influences the methodological concept, the concepts preceding and coexisting with it. Each new concept emerges and develops in the environment created by its predecessors. Mutual criticism of competing concepts, problems posed by them, solutions to these problems, methods of argumentation, prevailing interests at the moment - all this puts inevitable pressure on a new methodological concept. It must develop its own attitude to all the preceding material: accept or reject existing solutions to problems, recognize the problems discussed as meaningful or discard some of them as pseudo-problems, develop a critique of existing concepts, and so on. Considering that the methodological concept is influenced, on the one hand, by philosophy, and on the other hand, is always focused on certain areas of scientific knowledge, it is easy to understand why there is a huge variety of methodological concepts in this area (10).
The methodology of science becomes an independent area of research in the middle of the 19th century. The expansion of the range of methodological problems is associated with the studies of B. Bolzano, E. Mach, J.A. Poincare. From the end of the 20s of the XX century. The concept of logical positivism (M. Schlick, R. Carnap, G. Feigl, etc.) gained the greatest influence in the methodology of science, which proceeded in understanding the nature of scientific knowledge from the subjective-idealistic views of E. Mach and the logical atomism of B. Russell and L. Wittgenstein. Logical positivism considered science as a system of statements based on special "protocol" sentences that describe the sensory experiences and perceptions of the subject. The logical positivists saw the main task of the methodology of science in the logical analysis of the language of science in order to eliminate pseudo-statements from it, to which they attributed primarily philosophical statements.
Since the late 50s of the twentieth century. the focus is on the problems of analyzing the development of science. There are concepts that claim to describe the development of scientific knowledge in general or in separate periods. The methodological concepts of K. Poper, the theory of scientific revolutions by T. Kuhn, the historical model of the development of scientific knowledge by S. Tulmin, the concept of research programs by I. Lokatos acquire significant influence. These concepts are characterized by a close connection with the history of science and a critical attitude towards the neo-optzitivist model of science.
In the modern scientific world, the following problems come to the fore: analysis of the structure of scientific theories and their functions; the concept of scientific law; procedures for testing, confirming and refuting scientific theories, laws and hypotheses; scientific research methods; reconstruction of the development of scientific knowledge. At the same time, the following is typical for scientific research from the standpoint of modern methodology of science:
The presence of a specific object of study;
Differentiated solution of empirical (identification of facts, development of measurement methods), logical (inference of some provisions from others, establishment of links between them) and theoretical (clarification of causes, statement of principles, formulation of hypotheses and laws) cognitive tasks;
A clear distinction between established facts and hypotheses;
Explanation and forecasting of facts and phenomena.
The methodology is based on general scientific concepts, which are its structural and content elements and represent the methodological foundations of scientific knowledge.
Section 1. Subject and structure of the methodology.
Section 2. Types methodology.
Section 3 Place methodology among other sciences.
Section 4. Methodology of scientific research.
- Subsection 1. Methods of scientific presentation.
- Subsection 2. Economic principles.
- Subsection 3. Methods of scientific research.
Methodology(from Greek μεθοδολογία - the doctrine of methods; from other Greek μέθοδος from μέθ- + οδος, lit. "the path following something" and other Greek λόγος - thought, reason) - This the doctrine of a system of concepts and their relationships, a system of basic principles, methods, techniques, ways and means of their implementation in a company and the construction of scientific and practical activities of people.
Methodology - this is the doctrine of firms activities.
Methodology - this is a goal search algorithm, a set of techniques, methods, means, methods, principles for achieving the goal.
Methodology - is the doctrine of structure, logical companies, methods and means of activity
methodology - it is a system of principles and methods of the firm and the construction of theoretical and practical activities, as well as the doctrine of this system
Subject and structure of the methodology
The insufficient interest of researchers in questions of methodology is also explained by the fact that in methodology itself there is much that is unclear in its essence, in questions of the correlation of methodological and theoretical problems of science, the correlation of methodology and philosophy.
All the more vague, obscure area is the methodology for practical workers in the sphere of production (we consider production in the broadest sense - both material and spiritual production), for artists, etc. - that is, for all specialists who are not professionally engaged in scientific activities.
Methodology in general for a long time was considered literally only as a doctrine of methods of activity (method and "logos" - doctrine). Such an understanding of methodology limited its subject matter to the analysis of methods (starting with R. Descartes). And such an understanding of the methodology had its own historical foundations: in the conditions of a class society, the division of labor into mental and physical labor (according to K. Marx), a relatively small group of people of “mental labor” set the goals of activity, and the rest of the workers of “physical labor” had these goals to fulfill, to realize. So there was a psychological scheme of activity, classical for that time: goal - motive - method - result. The goal was set to a person, as it were, "from outside" - a student at school by a teacher, a worker at a factory by a boss, etc.; the motive was either “imposed” on a person from the outside, or he had to form it himself (for example, the motive is to earn money in order to feed himself and his family). And, thus, for the majority of people for the free manifestation of their forces, for creativity, there was only one way: a synonym - a method (this phenomenon and its consequences are discussed in more detail in). Hence the prevailing narrow understanding of methodology.
Indeed: in the philosophical dictionary of 1972 we read: “methodology - 1) a set of research methods used in any science; 2) the doctrine of the method of cognition and transformation of the world. Such a narrow interpretation of methodology is still encountered today: “The concept of “methodology” has two main meanings: a system of certain methods and techniques used in a particular field of activity (science, politics, art, etc.); the doctrine of this system, the general theory of the method, the theory in action "-" Fundamentals of the Philosophy of Science "2005 edition.
Traditionally, there has been an idea that methodology is almost entirely related to science, to scientific activity. Up to the point that until recently, when the word “methodology” sounded, it was as if implicitly implied that we are talking about the methodology of science in general or the methodology of a particular science - mathematics, chemistry, etc. But scientific activity is only one of the specific types of human activity, along with art, religion and philosophy. All other professional activities of a person are related to practical activities. All these activities should also be covered by the concept of methodology, including the concept of methodology of practical activity, methodology of artistic activity, etc., which we will discuss below.
In the humanities, in the social sciences, due to the insufficient level of development of their theoretical apparatus in the past, yes, in general, even now, there is a tendency to attribute to methodology all theoretical constructions that are at a higher level of abstraction than the most common, well-established generalizations . For example, V.I. Zagvyazinsky defines the methodology of pedagogy as follows: “the methodology of pedagogy is the doctrine of pedagogical knowledge and the process of obtaining it, that is, pedagogical knowledge. It includes:
1) the doctrine of the structure and function of pedagogical knowledge, including pedagogical issues;
2) initial, key, fundamental, philosophical, general scientific and pedagogical provisions (theories, concepts, hypotheses) that have methodological meaning
3) the doctrine of the methods of pedagogical knowledge (methodology in the narrow sense of the word).
In this quote, from the standpoint of the modern understanding of the methodology:
The first point does not apply to the methodology of pedagogy, it is the subject of pedagogy itself, in particular theoretical pedagogy;
Point two. Yes, indeed, theory plays the role of a method of cognition. But only in the sense that previous theories are a method for further research, including the construction of subsequent theories. But since theories are considered here in this sense, in the sense of method, the second point is completely absorbed by the third point;
The third point refers only to the methods of pedagogical knowledge. But, as already mentioned, the structure of the activity of a research scientist is much broader than just methods.
Thus, in this definition there is, on the one hand, a split, ambiguity of the subject of methodology. On the other hand, its narrowness. And such approaches to the definition of methodology are quite typical. Indeed, in the recently published "methodology of scientific research" the author of the book G.I. Ruzavin writes: “The main goal of the methodology of science is the study of those methods, means and techniques by which new knowledge in science is acquired and substantiated. But, in addition to this main task, methodology also studies the structure of scientific knowledge in general, the place and role of various forms of cognition in it, and methods for analyzing and building various systems of scientific knowledge. The presence of the unions “and”, the words “and also”, “besides” once again speaks of the ambiguity, uncertainty, vagueness of the subject of methodology in this definition.
Another version of the bifurcation of the subject of methodology, which is also often encountered, is attempts to combine consciousness and activity in the subject of methodology. “Methodology is a discipline about the general principles and forms of a company's thinking and activities. "methodology is a type of rational-reflexive consciousness aimed at studying, improving and constructing methods ... in various areas of spiritual and practical activity." “In the field of general methodology, the methodologist studies and constitutes the “laws” of thought and activity as such...”.
In addition, in the physical and mathematical sciences, in the technical sciences, a completely simplified interpretation of the concept of "methodology" has become widespread - by methodology they began to understand either only a general approach to solving problems of a particular class, or to confuse methodology with a technique - a sequence of actions to achieve the desired result. . Both interpretations have the right to exist, but are too narrow.
Fourthly, some authors divided the methodology (meaning the methodology of science) into two types: descriptive (descriptive) methodology - about the structure of scientific knowledge, the laws of scientific knowledge, etc.; and normative (prescriptive) methodology - directly aimed at regulating activities and representing recommendations and rules for the implementation of scientific activities. But such a division, again, leads to a bifurcation, ambiguity of the subject of methodology. Obviously, in this case one should talk about two different functions - descriptive and normative of one doctrine - methodology.
Fifth. There were reasons for the appearance of such uncertainty and ambiguity of the subject of methodology. The fact is that methodology as such, primarily the methodology of science, began to take shape in Soviet times only in the 60s and 70s of the last century. Prior to that, and even in those days, party organs believed that the whole methodology was contained in the Marxist-Leninist teaching, and any talk about any other “methodology” was harmful and dangerous. Despite this, the methodology of science, thanks to the works of P.V. Kopnina, V.A. Lektorsky, V.I. Sadovsky, V.S. Shvyreva, G.P. Shchedrovitsky, E.G. Yudin and other authors began to develop. And this is their great merit, because they were able to resist ideological pressure. But, at the same time, they divided the methodology (considering only the methodology of science) into four floors:
Philosophical;
general scientific;
Specific scientific;
Technological (specific research methods and techniques).
This division of methodology was recognized by almost all methodologists and became like a "sacred cow" - it was not questioned. But such a division led to the fact that scientists had to deal with methodology or use it in their research only on a certain “floor” - separately. What about a single picture? What about a unified methodology? And we still have this confusion in methodology.
Indeed, apparently, the upper first and second floors of the above construction of the structure of methodology are reserved for philosophers. But philosophers themselves do not conduct specific scientific research (with the exception of proper philosophical research). They analyze only the most general results obtained in various branches of scientific knowledge in past studies, as a rule, in the past decades or even centuries. Their works, therefore, should be attributed mainly to epistemology as a science of cognition, the logic of science, etc., that is, to those aspects that are associated with science as an established system of scientific knowledge (past activity has died, only its results). And scientists - representatives of specific sciences: physicists, chemists, teachers, etc. - need a methodology as a weapon of their own activity for their own research, which is currently being carried out. In addition, the works of philosophers on the problems of epistemology and methodology are often written in such a complex, abstruse language that they are simply inaccessible to "simple" scientists.
Further, the third “floor” from the top is assigned, as it were, to methodologists of specific sciences - methodologists of physics, biology, psychology, etc. But the position, the position of these methodologists "freezes" - they are no longer philosophers, but not actually scientists who produce new scientific knowledge. These methodologists, as a rule, do not delve into specific methods and techniques of scientific research. Therefore, their results are rarely of interest to researchers in specific subject areas.
And it seems that “simple” scientists (fourth floor) should deal with specific methods and techniques of research, often in a significant or complete separation from the upper floors of such a structure of methodology.
Thus, summing up a brief introductory digression into the methodology of scientific research (methodology of science), we have to state that with all the large amount of accumulated useful materials, a paradoxical situation has developed in it: on the one hand, the ambiguity of its subject, on the other hand, its narrowness.
At sixth. In recent decades, primarily due to work and educational activities of G.P. Shchedrovitsky, groups of specialists began to form, calling themselves “methodologists” and their scientific direction “systemic-thinking-activity” methodology. These groups of methodologists (O.S. Anisimov, Yu.V. Gromyko, P.G. Shchedrovitsky and others) began to conduct “organizational and activity games” in various regions of the country with teams of workers, first in the field of education, then agriculture, with political scientists, etc., aimed at comprehending innovative activity, which brought them quite wide popularity, although opinions about their activities are often very contradictory.
In parallel with this, the publications of scientists began to appear in the press, devoted to the analysis and scientific substantiation of innovative activity - in education, in engineering, in economics, etc.
In addition, in recent years, the term “methodology” has spread among programmers in a completely new “sound”. By methodology, programmers began to understand one or another type of strategy, that is, one or another general method for creating computer programs.
So, in fact, along with the methodology of research activities, a new direction began to form - the methodology of practical activity. And they, according to the authors, must be considered in the same vein, from a unified standpoint, namely from the standpoint of the modern design-technological type of organizational culture.
In general, probably, the main objective reason for the emergence of various ambiguous interpretations of the concept of "methodology" is the fact that humanity has moved into a new post-industrial era of its development, accompanied by such phenomena as: the informatization of society, the globalization of the economy, the changing role of science in society, etc. d.
Now that we have considered the reasons for the vagueness and ambiguity of the subject of methodology that have developed in the literature, let's move on to formulating the authors' own positions. Let's ask ourselves a question - what is the fundamental difference between the methodology of science (the methodology of scientific activity, the methodology of scientific research - synonyms) and the methodology of any other human activity? And how, in particular, if we talk about the methodology of science, the methodology, for example, of pedagogy as a science differs from the methodology of the science of psychology? Or the methodology of physics?
Indeed, it is impossible to single out any methods, principles or means of research that are purely specific to any particular science. So, the features of scientific activity, the principles of cognition, etc. are the same for all science in general, science as a whole. The requirements, for example, for an experiment are the same for physics, and for biology, and for pedagogy, and for any other industries scientific knowledge. Even, it would seem, such exotic methods as drilling wells in geology or excavations in archeology are varieties of experimental work as well as in pedagogy and psychology. Another thing is that, for example, the axiomatic method, methods of mathematical modeling are widely used in physics, but in sociology, pedagogy, etc. their use is still very limited. Or vice versa - the study and generalization of advanced experience is widely used in pedagogy, in economics, in labor and production firms, and in physics and chemistry their application is meaningless. But this is only the specificity of the application of certain methods, but in principle the general structure of the methodology of science is the same.
This thesis is also confirmed by the personal experience of the authors who once studied at the Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology (at different times), where mathematics and physics were taught, as they say, at the level of aerobatics and where the most serious attention was paid to the methodology of scientific research. In preparing the methodological manuals “How to work on a dissertation”, “Doctoral dissertation?”, “Educational project” and other authors, the authors had to read hundreds of abstracts of candidate and doctoral dissertations, talk with colleagues from a variety of industries scientific knowledge. And all this allows, on the one hand, to assert that the general principles, means, methods of research in different sciences are the same. Although the content of research in different scientific fields is different.
On the other hand, one of the co-authors (A.N.) has been dealing with the problem of the formation of labor skills for a long time. And since skills are the ability to carry out this or that activity, it was necessary to study in detail the practical professional activities of people of different professions. Another co-author (D.N.) has been dealing with the construction and practical application of mathematical models in various sectors of the national economy for many years. And again, the question arises that the authors address to the respected Reader - what is the fundamental difference between the practical activity of a teacher and the company of activity, for example, a doctor? Or an engineer? Or a technologist? Of course, the content of activities is different, but in principles, in methods (methods), in firms of practical activity, etc. there are common grounds.
Now back to the above two general encyclopedic definitions of methodology. These definitions are correct, but there is some vagueness in them. First of all, due to the presence in the definition given in the philosophical encyclopedic dictionary, the dyad "theoretical activity" and "practical activity", and there is obviously a lot of different interpretations. So, some authors consider methodology as a way, means of communication between science and practice (for example, V.V. Kraevsky). Other authors, for example, N.A. Masyukov - as a means of helping science practice. Etc.
Methodology is the doctrine of a company's activities. Such a definition unambiguously determines the subject of methodology - activity. We use this definition.
At the same time, it should be noted that, probably, not every activity needs a firm to apply the methodology. As you know, human activity can be divided into reproductive and productive activities.
Reproductive activity is a cast, a copy from the activity of another person, or a copy of one's own activity, mastered in previous experience. Such activities as, for example, the monotonous activity of an op-operator turner in any machine shop, or the routine daily activities of a teacher - "lesson giver" at the level of once and for all mastered technologies, in principle, are already organized (self-organized) and, obviously, do not need to apply the methodology.
Another thing is a productive activity aimed at obtaining an objectively new or subjectively new result. Any research activity, if it is carried out more or less competently, by definition is always aimed at an objectively new result. The innovative activity of a practitioner can be aimed at both objectively new and subjectively new (for a given specialist or for a given enterprise, institution) result. Educational activity is always aimed at a subjectively new (for each specific student) result. Here, in the case of productive activity, the need for her company arises, that is, there is a need to apply the methodology.
If we consider methodology as a doctrine of firm activity, then, of course, it is necessary to consider the content of the concept of "company". In accordance with the definition given in, the company - 1) internal order, consistency of interaction of more or less differentiated and autonomous parts of the whole, due to its structure; 2) aggregate processes or actions leading to the formation and improvement of the relationship between the parts of the whole; 3) association of enterprises of people jointly implementing a certain program or goal and acting on the basis of certain procedures and rules
In our case, we use the concept of "company", mainly in the first and second meanings, that is, both process(second value), and as a result of this process (first value). The third meaning is also used (but to a lesser extent) - when describing collective scientific activity, project management in organizations, etc.
With such a definition of methodology given above, it can be considered very broadly - as a doctrine of the company of any human activity: scientific, and any practical professional activity, and artistic, and gaming, etc. - one side. On the other hand, both individual and collective activity.
Methodology types
Theoretical goal - models of ideal knowledge (under conditions given by the description, for example, the speed of light in a vacuum); Practical goal - a program (algorithm) of techniques and ways of how to achieve the desired practical goal and not sin against the truth, or what we consider to be true knowledge.
Methodology can be considered in two sections: both theoretical, and it is formed by the section of philosophical knowledge epistemology, and practical, focused on solving practical problems and purposeful transformation of the world.
Methodologists are people involved in methodology: the study and development of principles for the formation of methods, developing methods and technologies for their application.
The quality (success, effectiveness) of the method is tested by practice, by solving scientific and practical problems - that is, by searching for principles for achieving the goal, implemented in a complex of real cases and circumstances.
If we generalize these definitions and give greater rigor, we can give the following:
methodology - is the doctrine of firm activities. Such a definition unambiguously determines the subject of the methodology - the firm of activity.
In this case, the methodology can be considered very broadly - as a doctrine of the company of any human activity: scientific, and any practical professional activity, and artistic, and gaming, etc. - one side. On the other hand, both individual and collective activity.
Methodologies of game activity;
Methodology of labor, professional activity. In turn, professional activity can be divided into:
Specific forms of professional activity: philosophy, science, art, religion.
To date, it seems possible to state the methodology of scientific activity (methodology of scientific research), the methodology of practical activity, the methodology of educational activity, as well as to outline the beginnings of the methodology of artistic and gaming activities.
Therefore, the methodology considers the company's activities. To organize an activity means to streamline it into an integral system with clearly defined characteristics, a logical structure and the process of its implementation - a temporal structure (based on a pair of dialectic categories "historical (temporal) and logical").
Historically, different types of firm activity culture are known. Modern is the design-technological type, which consists in the fact that the productive activity of a person (or company) is divided into separate completed cycles, which are called projects2.
The process of carrying out activities is considered within the framework of a project implemented in a certain time sequence in phases, stages and stages, and this sequence is common to all types of activities. The completion of the cycle of activity (project) is determined by three phases:
1. Foundations of the methodology: philosophy, psychology, system analysis, science of science, ethics, aesthetics;
2. Characteristics of activity: features, principles, conditions, norms of activity;
3. The logical structure of activity: subject, object, subject, forms, means, methods, result of activity;
4. Time structure of activity: phases, stages, stages.
This understanding and construction of the methodology allows:
From a unified position and in a single logic, generalize the various approaches and interpretations of the concept of “methodology” available in the literature and its use in a wide variety of activities;
To cut off from the methodology the superfluous layers traditionally attributed to it;
To find the general logic of such issues widely discussed in modern literature as innovation, system design, technology, reflection, etc.
If we proceed from the classification of activities according to the target orientation: game-learning-work, then we can talk about:
Methodologies of play activities (meaning, first of all, children's play);
Methodologies of educational activity;
Methodologies of labor, professional activity;
In turn, professional activity can be divided into:
Practical activity both in the sphere of material and in the sphere of spiritual production. In this sense, the majority of people are engaged in practical professional activities;
Specific forms of professional activity: philosophy, science, art, religion. Accordingly, these are: philosophical activity, scientific activity, artistic activity, religious activity.
To date, it seems possible to state the methodology of scientific activity (methodology of scientific research), the methodology of practical activity, the methodology of educational activity, as well as to outline the beginnings of the methodology of artistic activity, and the methodology of gaming activity.
At the same time, the problem of constructing a methodology for philosophical activity remains open for further research (although it can be conditionally considered that philosophy is simultaneously a branch of science and, in particular, the methodology of scientific activity can be extended to it).
As for the methodology of religious activity, the authors do not undertake to consider this complex and ambiguous problem.
Thus, the methodology considers the firm of activity (activity is the purposeful activity of a person). To organize an activity means to streamline it into an integral system with clearly defined characteristics, a logical structure and the process of its implementation - a temporal structure (the authors proceed from a pair of dialectic categories "historical (temporal) and logical").
The logical structure includes the following components: subject, object, object, forms, means, methods of activity, its result.
External in relation to this structure are the following characteristics of activity: features, principles, conditions, norms.
Historically, there are different types of company culture of activity. Modern is the design-technological type, which consists in the fact that the productive activity of a person (or company) is divided into separate completed cycles, which are called projects.
We will consider the process of carrying out activities within the framework of a project implemented in a certain time sequence in phases, stages and stages, and this sequence is common to all types of activities. The completion of the cycle of activity (project) is determined by three phases:
The design phase, the result of which is a constructed model of the system being created and a plan for its implementation;
Technological phase, the result of which is the implementation of the system;
The reflexive phase, the result of which is the assessment of the implemented system and the determination of the need for either its further correction or the “launch” of a new project.
Thus, the following “methodology structure scheme” can be proposed:
1. Activity characteristics:
peculiarities,
principles
activity standards;
2. Logical structure of activity:
facilities,
result of activity;
3. Time structure of activities:
stages of activity.
Such an understanding and construction of methodology allows us to generalize from a unified position and in a single logic the various approaches and interpretations of the concept of “methodology” available in the literature and its use in a wide variety of activities.
At the same time, it becomes possible to integrate all these approaches into a single doctrine of firm activity only in the era of development of the design-technological type of organizational culture, when there was an understanding of the presence and characteristics of previous types of organizational culture, and, first of all, an understanding of the differences between professional (scientific) ) and design-technological types of organizational culture.
This approach allows:
First, to cut off from the methodology the superfluous layers traditionally attributed to it;
Secondly, to find the general logic of such issues widely discussed in modern literature as innovation, system design, technology, reflection, etc.;
Thirdly, to consider from a unified position the company of the main types of human activity: research, practical, artistic, educational and gaming.
Placesaboutmethodologyamongother sciences
It is traditionally accepted to attribute methodology to philosophy or, at least, to place it, as it were, next to philosophy. So, in library classifiers, the corresponding section is called “philosophy and methodology”.
Indeed, philosophy is the basis of methodology, as well as other sciences that study activity: psychology, system analysis, etc. But at the same time, obviously, methodology is an independent science.
Based on the classification of sciences proposed by V.S. Lednev, then the methodology should be attributed to practical sciences. It is closely related to technological sciences, systems analysis, labor and production company, project management, etc.
Scientific research methodology
Economic theory deals with explaining the principles according to which the production and distribution of goods can be organized in the households of various societies. Generally speaking, economic theory must explain everything that happens in the economy. It must explain why the economy is arranged in this way and not otherwise. She should be able to determine the possible causes of any event (for example, why architects grew up in the city of Kaliningrad in such and such a year). As well as the consequences of any event (for example, what a possible increase in the price of oil will lead to). Economics can do all of this by building theoretical models—imaginary economic systems made up of imaginary people who need to make decisions about imaginary production, exchange, or consumption. The theoretical model is, as it were, a mental experiment, in the course of which the development of events is determined in a given set of conditions. Methodology arises and develops initially as a spontaneous accumulation of practical techniques, recipes, templates, instructions for performing all actions. This methodology retains its independent value to the present day. An interesting fact, not properly understood by economic science, is the spontaneous dialectical explanation of the economy by P. Proudhon, who tried to “build his teaching on the principles of Hegelian philosophy”
An economist can imagine, for example, an imaginary island with an imaginary supply of resources, place an imaginary person with an imaginary set of desires on it, and try to determine what, where, when and how this person will do to satisfy his desires. What is the purpose of such a thought experiment? The theoretical model is endowed with the characteristics of a real economy, and, therefore, the result of a thought experiment should correspond to the actual development of events in a real economy. Thus, the theory makes it possible to determine how the real economic system will develop in certain conditions.
Methods of scientific presentation
Economic theory can be positive or normative, depending on the questions it answers. The positive economic method studies the real state of the economy and how this state can change as a result of certain events. The positive method is based on the study of cause-and-effect relationships and argues on the principle of "if - then". A statement about what "is" in the economy, and not about what "should be." For example, the assertion that “tax cuts lead to an increase in the consumption costs of the population” can be confirmed or refuted in practice when studying the impact of taxation on spending. Positive economic theory seeks to reflect the relationship between economic variables, to measure these relationships, to find their quantitative characteristics. At the same time, positive theory does not evaluate all these events in terms of “good” or “bad” and approaches them impartially. It also sets itself the goal of foreseeing what can happen in economic processes when one or another variable changes. Positive economic theory is often called the field of "pure theory". The normative economic method is built in the style of what "should be" and not in the style of what "is". A normative theory is built on one or more major propositions. For example, a statement expressed by the phrase: “people with a higher profit should pay more income tax than those people who have a low profit" is the norm. This method of presenting material reflects people's subjective holistic judgments of what is good and what is bad, and is based on ethical concepts such as "fairness" rather than rigorous economic rationale. Normative theory can evaluate any event in terms of compliance with this "ideal" state. For example, "raising prices milk production is bad because people should be able to buy cheap milk" or "expanding production is good because more people will get jobs."
Normative and positive methods characterize two options for presenting the results of the analysis. In the style of "should", preparation of recommendations for the implementation of the economic policy of the organization, states or in the style of "scientific neutrality", conducting an abstract analysis of economic reality. The characteristic of this distinction was first proposed by A. Smith. Thus, positive theory studies what is, while normative theory studies what should be.
In addition to this alternative, in the modern economy there is another rivalry of scientific tools - the use of causal and functional methods when considering dependencies between economic phenomena. Economic theory, developing up to the XX century. in the form of classical political economy, focused on the use of the causal method - finding and designating well-defined cause-and-effect relationships between economic phenomena or circumstances. This method is characterized by a logical sequence of semantic blocks (concepts, categories), analysis of phenomena from a qualitative point of view; disadvantages of the causal method - the need to find the initial link, the complexity of quantitative measurement of dependencies between phenomena. For example, the relationship between the course of technological progress, the deepening of the division of labor, the growth of productivity and, as a result, the increase in the volume of GDP produced. The introduction of the functional method was associated with the marginal revolution at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. and active implementation of the mathematical apparatus of research. In the functional method - finding and designating certain interdependencies between economic phenomena or circumstances, the objects of study can change their status of cause or effect. For example, a presentation of the functional, mutual dependence between the processes of inflation and unemployment (Phillips curve graph). The functional method is characterized by the possibility of reflecting the mutual influence of economic phenomena, quantitative measurements; its disadvantages are the limitedness of mathematical models by a certain number of factors.
Economic principles
Economic theory studies the economy as if from the outside. But at the same time, people who are real participants in the economy have long been engaged in working out the principles of their behavior and in their own way study the same economy from the inside. Applied Economics called a set of disciplines about practical actions in a real economy. All actors in the economy are divided into three large groups: companies, consumers and the state. Therefore, applied economics is also divided into three large parts - depending on whose actions are the subject of study: applied economics of the organization, home economics and theory economic policy. Applied economics of a company is a set of disciplines that determine the actions of various managers of any organization. This set of disciplines includes such important subjects as finance, production planning, personnel management, accounting, etc. Since all these disciplines are aimed at one goal - increasing arrived companies, the applied economics of an organization is also called business theory (from the English business - literally “business”, employment, figuratively “making money”). Home economics is a body of knowledge about housekeeping, budget planning, shopping, consumer firms, etc. Any household performs these actions, and the principles by which it can be guided in this are the subject of the science of home economics. Theory economic policy- a body of knowledge about the regulation of the economy by the state, the regulation of money circulation, the capital market, domestic and foreign trade, the collection taxes, distribution of the budget, stimulation of the development of individual industries, etc.
Economists formulate economic principles that are useful in formulating policies that aim to solve economic problems. The goals can be summarized as follows:
1. Economic growth. It is desirable to ensure the production of more and better quality goods and services, in other words, a higher standard of living.
