Definition of emotionally charged words to write. Theme: Words with emotional overtones

Emotionally colored words

Imagine that you are listening to your friend's story about your newly born brother. The speaker calls it like this: child, newborn, brother. Can you use these words to say how your friend feels about the baby? Unlikely. These words do not express any feelings. In the science of language they are called emotionally neutral . But if the story had other words: brother, baby, baby? Of course, according to these words, it is quite possible to understand that your friend has already fallen in love with the baby, treats him gently and affectionately.

The vocabulary of the Russian language can be divided into two groups according to the ability to express feelings and attitudes. Emotionally neutral words name objects, actions, signs, quantities, but do not evaluate them in any way. These are words like dog, run, red. The words of the second group not only name objects, actions and signs, but also evaluate the speaker's attitude towards them. If the speaker calls doggie, then his attitude is beyond doubt. If used instead of the word "to run" other - for example, "rush", then we will understand that the one they are talking about is not just running, but running, fearing not to be in time, in a hurry. Word "red", used in place of "red", indicates that the speaker really likes the object itself or the shade of red that he is talking about.

Words expressing the speaker's attitude to objects, signs and actions are called emotionally colored. Emotional coloring can be positive, approving, or maybe negative, disapproving.

In dictionaries, emotionally colored words are accompanied by special markings:

ü simple. (colloquial),

ü high (high, solemn)

ü iron. (ironic, mocking)

ü bran. (abusive, rude).

Thus, the dictionary, using such labels, already gives us an idea that we have an emotionally colored word in front of us.

Such words are most characteristic of colloquial speech, they are used in fiction. But you will never meet them in scientific or business texts: they use only emotionally neutral words.

Emotionally colored words can be, in relation to those who call the same thing, simply neutral synonyms and may be single root, formed with the help of special suffixes that convey a certain emotional coloring.

For example, there is a neutral word " house', its rough colloquial synonym for ' hut"and affectionate" house". Word " house"- cognate to the word" house", it is formed with the help of a diminutive suffix -ik.

Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the attitude of the speaker towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lily. These adjectives are emotionally colored: the positive assessment contained in them distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral word white. The emotional coloring of the word can also express a negative assessment of the concept called (white-haired). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative (emotional-evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment is their very lexical meaning (and the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not belong to emotional vocabulary (bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).

A feature of emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is “superimposed” on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it, the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker’s attitude to the phenomenon being called.

As part of the emotional vocabulary, the following three varieties can be distinguished. 1. Words with a bright evaluative meaning, as a rule, are unambiguous; “the evaluation contained in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings.” These include the words “characteristics” (forerunner, herald, grumbler, idler, sycophant, slob, etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action (purpose, destiny, business, fraud, marvelous, miraculous , irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, mischief). 2. Polysemantic words, usually neutral in the main meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, they say about a person: a hat, a rag, a mattress, an oak tree, an elephant, a bear, a snake, an eagle, a crow; in a figurative sense, verbs are used: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink, etc. 3. Words with subjective assessment suffixes that convey various shades of feeling: containing positive emotions - son, sun, granny, neatly, close, and negative - beards, kid, bureaucracy, etc. Since the emotional coloring of these words is created by affixes, the estimated meanings in such cases are determined not by the nominative properties of the word, but by word formation.

The image of feeling in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness (from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing a special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good, we say beautiful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; I can say I don't like it, but stronger words can be found: I hate, I despise, I abhor. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress (cf.: misfortune - grief - disaster - catastrophe, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - frantic - furious). Vivid expression highlights the words solemn (unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations, announce), poetic (azure, invisible, sing, incessant). vaunted), familiar (good-natured, cute, mooing, whispering). Expressive shades delimit the words disapproving (pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), scornful (painting, pettiness), contemptuous (sneak, servility, sycophancy), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar (grabber, lucky), swear words (boor, fool ).

Expressive coloring in a word is superimposed on its emotional and evaluative meaning, and in some words expression prevails, in others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that "the typology of expressiveness is, unfortunately, not yet available." This leads to difficulties in developing a common terminology.

Combining words close in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the called concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include words high, affectionate, partly playful; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotionally expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:

The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. We have received a sharply negative assessment of such words as fascism, separatism, corruption, hired killer, mafia. Behind the words progressive, law and order, sovereignty, glasnost, etc. positive color is fixed. Even the different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of the word can be solemn (Wait, prince. Finally, I hear the speech of not a boy, but a husband. - P.), in another - the same word receives an ironic tinge (G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the fame of a learned man, so to speak, on my word of honor. - P.).

The development of emotional and expressive shades in the word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as paths get a vivid expression: burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (under adverse conditions), flaming (eye), blue (dream), flying (gait), etc. d. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mockingly ironic coloring; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuously. The appearance of additional expressive shades in a word, depending on the context, significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary.

The expressive coloring of words in works of art differs from the expression of the same words in non-figurative speech. In an artistic context, vocabulary acquires additional, secondary semantic shades that enrich its expressive coloring. Modern science attaches great importance to the expansion of the semantic volume of words in artistic speech, associating with this the appearance of a new expressive coloring in words.

The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary directs us to distinguish different types of speech depending on the nature of the speaker's influence on listeners, the situation of their communication, their relationship to each other and a number of other factors. It is enough to imagine, - wrote A.N. Gvozdev, - that the speaker wants to make laugh or touch, to arouse the disposition of the listeners or their negative attitude towards the subject of speech, so that it is clear how different language means will be selected, mainly creating a different expressive coloring. With this approach to the selection of language means, several types of speech can be identified: solemn (rhetorical), official (cold), intimately affectionate, playful. They are opposed to neutral speech, using linguistic means, devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of types of speech, dating back to the "poetics" of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists either.

The doctrine of functional styles does not exclude the possibility of using various emotional and expressive means in them at the discretion of the author of the work. In such cases, "methods for selecting speech means ... are not universal, they are of a particular nature." Solemn coloring, for example, can be received by publicistic speech; “Rhetorical, expressively saturated and impressive can be one or another speech in the sphere of everyday communication (anniversary speeches, ceremonial speeches associated with the act of a particular ritual, etc.).”

At the same time, it should be noted that the expressive types of speech are not well studied, and there is no clarity in their classification. In this regard, the definition of the relationship between the functional-style emotional-expressive coloring of vocabulary also causes certain difficulties. Let's dwell on this issue.

The emotionally expressive coloring of the word, layered on the functional, complements its stylistic characteristics. Emotionally-expressive neutral words usually belong to common vocabulary (although this is not necessary: terms, for example, in emotionally expressive terms, are usually neutral, but have a clear functional fixation). Emotionally expressive words are distributed between book, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary.

The book vocabulary includes lofty words that give solemnity to speech, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both positive and negative assessments of the named concepts. In book styles, vocabulary is ironic (beautifulness, words, quixotic), disapproving (pedantic, mannerisms), contemptuous (masque, corrupt).

Colloquial vocabulary includes words affectionate (daughter, dove), playful (butuz, laughter), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the concepts called (small, zealous, giggle, brag).

In common speech, words are used that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them, there may be words containing a positive assessment of the concept being called (hard worker, brainy, awesome), and words expressing the speaker’s negative attitude towards the concepts they denote (crazy, flimsy, vulgar).

Functional, emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades can intersect in a word. For example, the words satellite, epigone, apotheosis are perceived primarily as bookish. But at the same time, we associate the word satellite, used in a figurative sense, with the journalistic style, in the word epigone we note a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis - a positive one. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign origin. Such affectionately ironic words as sweetheart, motanya, zaleka, drolya combine colloquial and dialectal coloring, folk-poetic sound. The richness of stylistic shades of Russian vocabulary requires a particularly careful attitude to the word.

The main elements of the assessment:

subject (one who evaluates),

object (what is evaluated),

appraisal item.

Emotionally expressive colored words are part of the evaluative vocabulary. Expression is a vivid manifestation of feelings, moods, thoughts. Expressive vocabulary includes words that convey the position of the carrier to their meaning and enhance the brightness of the word. Many words with a bright emotional coloring are present in the Russian language. We can verify this if we compare words that are close in meaning: beautiful, artistic, picturesque, aesthetic, figurative, poetic; diligent, assiduous, diligent, diligent, industrious, industrious, etc. By comparing these words, we can choose the most vivid ones, able to convey our idea more clearly. For example, by the word love, you can find more powerful words: I adore, I adore, I have passion. In each of these cases, the semantic structure of the word is complicated by connotation. If emotionally and expressively colored words are used incorrectly, you can add a funny sound to speech. This phenomenon often occurs in school essays.

Words that are adjacent in terms of expression can be combined into the following lexical groups:

1) words expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts;
2) words expressing a negative assessment of the named concepts.

The first group includes sublime, affectionate, sometimes comic words; in the second - caustic, negative, blasphemous, etc. An effective way to better see the emotionally expressive coloring of words is to compare synonyms:

The development of emotional and expressive shades in the word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words get a vivid expression: burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (in adverse conditions), flaming (eye), blue (dream), flying (gait), etc. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mockingly ironic coloring; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuously. The appearance of additional expressive shades in a word, depending on the context, significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary.

The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary directs us to distinguish between different types of speech, depending on the nature of the speaker's influence on listeners, the situation of their communication, their relationship to each other, and a number of other factors. “It is enough to imagine,” wrote A.N. Gvozdev, - that the speaker wants to make laugh or touch, to arouse the disposition of the listeners or their negative attitude towards the subject of speech, so that it becomes clear how different language means will be selected, mainly creating a different expressive coloring. With this approach to the selection of language means, several types of speech can be identified: solemn (rhetorical), official (cold), intimately affectionate, playful. They are opposed to neutral speech, using linguistic means, devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of types of speech, dating back to the "poetics" of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists either.

Here, too, there is no single approach. In the book by V.D. The old man proposes such a division of colloquial vocabulary: depending on the degree of decline, colloquial vocabulary is divided into 2 groups - actually colloquial and colloquial.

To proper colloquial vocabulary includes words that give speech a touch of informality, ease, but do not go beyond the literary language. colloquial the vocabulary is on the verge of or beyond the strictly normalized literary speech and is more stylistically reduced compared to the vocabulary of the actual colloquial vocabulary, although the boundaries between these categories of colloquial vocabulary are unsteady and mobile and are not always clearly defined even in dictionaries. As part of the vernacular vocabulary, 3 groups are usually distinguished: vernacular proper, rude vernacular and vulgar swear words, although there are no clear boundaries between them.

TYPES OF SPEECH

Proper vernacular- these are words that are outside the literary language due to deviations from the norm: calls, kilometer, quarter, bearded, want, plenty, really, doing, there, here, koli-dor, laboratory etc.

Rough colloquial words, having a touch of rudeness and some vulgarity, are used to characterize people, phenomena, actions due to their special expressiveness and peculiar capacity when designating concepts: dunce, liar, junk, flirtatious, nerd, bore, miser.

Vulgar swear words the words (vulgarisms) characterized by a high degree of rudeness, vulgarity, which makes them unacceptable in the speech of cultured people: burkaly, zenki, mug.

Vocabulary has an emotionally expressive coloring:

sublime, solemn (appropriate in texts characterized by an upbeat, solemn tone): godina, from now on, comrades-in-arms, all-conquering, persecutor;

reduced, familiar, characterized by a high degree of ease: granny, pichuga, yell, thrashing;

emotionally expressive vocabulary can be evaluative with positive and negative characteristics: pleiad, champion, sun, dove, low worshiper, huckster, holy man. True, words with a neutral emotionally expressive coloring can also be evaluative. (good, bad, sensitive, evil, kind);

Depending on the way of expression in the words of an emotionally expressive shade, several groups can be distinguished:

words whose emotional and expressive coloring is expressed by affixes (more often suffixes): good-natured, old man, elbow, little business;

commonly used words, the emotionality and expressiveness of which arises on the basis of metaphorical rethinking: crow"distracted, inattentive person"";

words, the emotionally expressive coloring of which is expressed by the content itself, the meaning of the word. swell, fifa, abracadabra.

D.E. Rosenthal says that colloquial vocabulary is “lower” in style than colloquial, and is outside the strictly standardized literary speech. It distinguishes three groups:

1. Roughly expressive vocabulary is grammatically represented by nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs: tall, boring, dumbass; The expressiveness of these words, their capacity sometimes make it possible to briefly and expressively show the attitude (most often negative) to any object, person, phenomenon.

2. Rough vernacular vocabulary differs from rough-expressive in a greater degree of rudeness: burkaly, mug, mug etc. These words have stronger expression, the ability to convey the negative attitude of the speaker to some phenomena. But excessive rudeness makes this vocabulary unacceptable in the speech of cultured people. The boundary between coarse-expressive and coarse-colloquial vocabulary is fuzzy; intermediate, transitional cases are possible.

3. In addition to the words that are rudely expressive and rude colloquial, the vernacular vocabulary includes a certain (relatively small) number of words that are actually colloquial, the non-literary nature of which is explained not by their rudeness (they are not rude) and not by their swearing character (they are not swearing), but by the fact that they are not recommended for use in the speech of cultured people, in scientific and technical literature, etc.: just now, ahead of time, probably, born, tya and others. The vast majority of such words have neutral synonyms and no expression of rude words.

Fomina M. I. in " Modern Russian language: Lexicology" classifies colloquial vocabulary as colloquial vocabulary. She argued that against the general background of interstyle vocabulary, neutral in expressive and stylistic terms, the so-called colloquial vocabulary stands out sharply. It is one of the main parts of the lexical-semantic subsystem of the functional conversational style. It includes the following lexical groups: 1) actually colloquial words, i.e. literary colloquial and everyday colloquial, or colloquial everyday; these layers form a vocabulary of relatively unlimited use; 2) colloquial words with some limitation of the scope of use - everyday life, colloquial terminological; colloquial professional, or colloquial jargon; 3) colloquial words with a clear limitation of the scope of use - narrow dialect, argotic and roughly colloquial Third group forms the so-called non-literary colloquial vocabulary, although, since such lexical affinities are used in oral communication, they can be considered when characterizing the general lexical system of colloquial speech styles.

The words of all these groups are marked by functional connotation, i.e. against the background of actually neutral ones (out of context, of course) they are perceived as colored words, in this case, by their stylistic affiliation. Therefore, only the first is considered normatively pronounced. In the second, deviations from the norms (including lexical ones) are already observed. And the third is subject to its own internal laws: social (argo), territorial (dialectisms) or expressive-stylistic (rough vernacular).

Literary colloquial words include such words that, in comparison with interstyle ones, on the one hand, and book ones, on the other hand (although such synonymous parallels are not always possible), have a certain shade of reducedness, are widely used in various genres of newspaper and journalistic speech Colloquial Household are words used in everyday everyday communication. They, like colloquial literary words, do not violate the norms of colloquial speech itself. But among them there are already much more words with a reduced meaning, which, moreover, often have an additional pronounced stylistic coloring, for example: disapproving, ironic familiar, playful, etc. Their use in other stylistic varieties of the literary Russian language (for example, officially business or scientific) is inappropriate. To colloquial and household(or colloquially-everyday) from, which have a vaguely expressed negative or positive expressive-emotional assessment. This group includes words that differ in the way of expressing stylistic coloring: and those whose semantics already contain evaluativeness (such as -- troublemaker, bedlam, sour, horse, dude, poser], and those whose evaluation is created affixes, addition of stems, etc.. d. (hooker, henchman, shoemaker, old man).

Often the colloquial meaning of a word develops as a result of a semantic rethinking of the main, primary meaning.

To everyday vernacular words can be classified that are even more reduced in their semantics and additional expressive-stylistic evaluative essence. The scope of their distribution is narrower than that of colloquial everyday vocabulary. The concept of "vernacular" combines an indication of belonging to a special style group and stylistic coloring. Such words include, for example, dad(father). These and many other words are sometimes difficult to distinguish from proper colloquial words, since vernacular(if it is not rude, vulgar or abusive) in general is not a pronounced violation of the norms of colloquial speech. These difficulties are also reflected in dictionaries. Therefore, a subgroup of everyday colloquial vocabulary can hardly be attributed to colloquial. It is curious that from the point of view of content, colloquial everyday words and everyday everyday vernacular, as a rule, are specific. To colloquial terminological include words that do not have the features of terms proper and, as a rule, are not reflected in the corresponding terminological dictionaries (or are given with marks - colloquial, hot etc.), but are used in the oral speech of people united by common professional and social interests. Such words are usually formed on the basis of existing terms, according to the word-formation norms of the colloquial style of speech. As a result of frequent use, many of them go beyond the colloquial variants of terminological systems, are determinologized and become less limited in use. The colloquial terminological vocabulary also includes truncated forms used in the relevant areas, for example: cyber(robot, cybernetic machine),

To colloquial slang(or colloquially professional) are words that are formed not from words fixed in terminological systems, but from the so-called professional names. They, as a rule, have a highly specialized meaning, although in the process of use they often go beyond the limits of certain professions. There are similar slang names in every profession. Their scope is limited. However, some of the colloquial professional become colloquial everyday.

Finally, in the third group, there are words that are used in the oral form of communication and are very limited in scope. They go beyond the literary language and are among those that violate the norms of the actual colloquial style of speech. These words are all roughly colloquial types: chump, cheat; smashed and others. They are swear-vulgar in their expressive-emotional coloring.

The semantic and stylistic essence of these words is especially obvious when compared with the actual colloquial and interstyle words: a sharply limited use also characterizes the slang elements used by certain groups of people in oral communication. They, like coarse vernacular, violate the generally accepted norms of colloquial speech and are non-literary lexical means.

The scope of distribution of the last subgroup of non-literary colloquial vocabulary, the narrow dialect, is also very limited. The words of this subgroup, as a rule, are used only in oral communication of the indigenous people in a certain territory and beyond it are incomprehensible.

Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the attitude of the speaker towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, white, lilac. These adjectives are emotionally colored: the positive evaluation contained in them distinguishes them from a stylistically neutral word. white. The emotional coloring of the word can also express a negative assessment of the called concept ( blond). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called appraisal (emotional-evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment constitutes their very lexical meaning (moreover, the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not belong to emotional vocabulary ( bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).

As part of the emotional vocabulary, the following three varieties can be distinguished. 1. Words with a bright evaluative meaning, as a rule, are unambiguous; “the evaluation contained in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings.” These include the words "characteristics" ( forerunner, forerunner, grouch, idler, toady, slob etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action ( predestination, destiny, deceit, fraud, marvelous, miraculous, irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, mischief). 2. Polysemantic words, usually neutral in the main meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, about a person they say: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow; verbs are used in a figurative sense: sing, hiss, saw, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink and under. 3. Words with subjective assessment suffixes that convey various shades of feeling: containing positive emotions - son, sun, granny, neatly, close, and negative - beards, kid, breech etc. Since the emotional coloring of these words is created by affixes, the estimated meanings in such cases are determined not by the nominative properties of the word, but by word formation.

The image of feeling in speech requires special expressive colors. expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing a special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good We are speaking wonderful, marvelous, marvelous, marvelous; you can say I do not like, but stronger words can be found: hate, despise, loathe. In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress (cf.: misfortune - grief - disaster - catastrophe, violent - unrestrained - indomitable - violent - furious). Vivid expression highlights the words solemn ( unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical ( sacred, aspirations, herald), poetic ( azure, invisible, chant, unceasing).Special expression distinguishes playful words ( faithful, newly minted), ironic ( deign, don Juan, vaunted), familiar ( ugly, cute, poking around, whispering). Expressive shades delimit disapproving words ( pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), disparaging ( to paint, pettiness), contemptuous ( slander, servility, sycophancy), derogatory ( skirt, squishy), vulgar ( grabber, lucky), swear words ( ham, fool).

The emotional and expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. We received a sharply negative assessment of such words as fascism, separatism, corruption, assassin, mafia. Behind the words progressive, law and order, sovereignty, glasnost etc. positive color is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of a word can be solemn ( Stop, prince. Finally, I hear the speech not of a boy, but of a husband.- P.), in another - the same word gets an ironic coloring ( G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the reputation of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor.- P.).

The development of emotional and expressive shades in the word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as tropes get a vivid expression: burn(at work), fall(from fatigue) suffocate(in adverse conditions), blazing(eye) blue(dream), flying(gait), etc. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mockingly ironic coloring; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuously. The appearance of additional expressive shades in a word, depending on the context, significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary.

The study of emotional-evaluative and expressive vocabulary directs us to distinguish different types of speech depending on the nature of the speaker's influence on listeners, the situation of their communication, their relationship to each other and a number of other factors. Gvozdev, - that the speaker wants to make laugh or touch, to arouse the disposition of the listeners or their negative attitude towards the subject of speech, so that it is clear how different language means will be selected, mainly creating a different expressive coloring. With this approach to the selection of language means, several types of speech can be identified: solemn(rhetorical), official(cold) intimate affectionate, playful. They are opposed to speech neutral, using linguistic means, devoid of any stylistic coloring. This classification of types of speech, dating back to the "poetics" of ancient antiquity, is not rejected by modern stylists either.

To bookstore vocabulary includes lofty words that give solemnity to speech, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both positive and negative assessments of the named concepts. Book styles use ironic vocabulary ( beautiful soul, words, quixoticism), disapproving ( pedantic, mannerisms), contemptuous ( disguise, venal).

To colloquial vocabulary includes affectionate words ( daughter, dove), playful ( butuz, mix), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the called concepts ( small fry, zealous, giggle, brag).

AT vernacular words are used that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them there may be words containing a positive assessment of the concept being called (hard worker, brainy, awesome), and words expressing the speaker's negative attitude towards the concepts they denote ( go crazy, flimsy, shrewd).

Functional, emotionally expressive and other stylistic shades can intersect in a word. For example, words satellite, epigone, apotheosis perceived primarily as a book. But at the same time the words satellite, used in a figurative sense, we associate with the journalistic style, in the word epigonous mark a negative assessment, and in the word apotheosis- positive. In addition, the use of these words in speech is influenced by their foreign origin. Such affectionately ironic words as sweetheart, motanya, zaletka, jerking, combine colloquial and dialect coloring, folk-poetic sound. The richness of stylistic shades of Russian vocabulary requires a particularly careful attitude to the word.

The tasks of practical stylistics include the study of the use of the vocabulary of various functional styles in speech - both as one of the style-forming elements and as a different style tool that stands out by its expression against the background of other language tools.

The use of terminological vocabulary, which has the most definite functional and stylistic significance, deserves special attention. Terms- words or phrases naming special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent a capacious and at the same time concise description of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of science operates with certain terms that make up the terminological system of this branch of knowledge.

As part of the terminological vocabulary, several “layers” can be distinguished, differing in the scope of use, the content of the concept, and the features of the designated object. In the most general terms, this division is reflected in the distinction general scientific terms (they constitute the general conceptual fund of science as a whole, it is no coincidence that the words denoting them turn out to be the most frequent in scientific speech) and special assigned to certain areas of knowledge. The use of this vocabulary is the most important advantage of the scientific style; terms, according to S. Bally, "are those ideal types of linguistic expression, to which the scientific language inevitably strives."

Terminological vocabulary contains more information than any other, so the use of terms in a scientific style is a necessary condition for brevity, conciseness, and accuracy of presentation.

The use of terms in works of scientific style is seriously investigated by modern linguistic science. It has been established that the degree of terminology of scientific texts is far from the same. The genres of scientific works are characterized by a different ratio of terminological and interstyle vocabulary. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation.

Modern society demands from science such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest achievements of the human mind the property of everyone. However, it is often said that science has fenced itself off from the world with a language barrier, that its language is “elitist”, “sectarian”. In order for the vocabulary of a scientific work to be accessible to the reader, the terms used in it must first of all be sufficiently mastered in this field of knowledge, understandable and known to specialists; new terms need to be clarified.

Scientific and technological progress has led to the intensive development of the scientific style and its active influence on other functional styles of the modern Russian literary language. The use of terms outside the scientific style has become a kind of sign of the times.

Studying the process of terminology of speech that is not bound by the norms of scientific style, the researchers point out the distinctive features of the use of terms in this case. Many words that have precise terminological meanings are widely used and are used without any stylistic restrictions ( radio, television, oxygen, heart attack, psychic, privatization). Another group combines words that have a dual nature: they can be used both in the function of terms and as stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the first case, they differ in special shades of meanings, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. Yes, the word mountain, meaning in its broad, inter-style use "a significant hill rising above the surrounding area", and having a number of figurative meanings, does not imply an accurate quantitative measurement of height. In geographical terminology, where the distinction between concepts is essential mountain - hill, clarification is given: the hill is more than 200 m in height. Thus, the use of such words outside the scientific style is associated with their partial determinology.

Special features distinguish terminological vocabulary used in a figurative sense ( indifference virus, sincerity factor, another round of negotiations). Such a rethinking of terms is common in journalism, fiction, and colloquial speech. A similar phenomenon lies in line with the development of the language of modern journalism, which is characterized by various kinds of stylistic shifts. The peculiarity of such word usage is that "there is not only a metaphorical transfer of the meaning of the term, but also a stylistic transfer."

The introduction of terms in non-scientific texts must be motivated, the abuse of terminological vocabulary deprives speech of the necessary simplicity and accessibility. Let's compare the two versions of the sentences:

The advantage of "non-terminological", clearer and more concise options in newspaper materials is obvious.

The stylistic coloring of the word indicates the possibility of using it in one or another functional style (in combination with commonly used neutral vocabulary). However, this does not mean that the functional attachment of words to a certain style excludes their use in other styles. The mutual influence and interpenetration of styles, characteristic of the modern development of the Russian language, contributes to the movement of lexical means (along with other linguistic elements) from one of them to another. For example, in scientific works one can find journalistic vocabulary next to terms. As M.N. Kozhin, "the style of scientific speech is characterized by expressiveness not only of the logical, but also of the emotional plan." At the lexical level, this is achieved by using foreign-style vocabulary, including high and low.

The journalistic style is even more open to the penetration of foreign-style vocabulary. You can often find terms in it. For example: “The Canon 10 replaces five traditional office machines: it works as a computer fax machine, plain paper fax machine, 360dpi inkjet printer, scanner and photocopier). You can use the software included with the Canon 10 to send and receive PC fax messages directly from your computer screen.(from gas).

Scientific, terminological vocabulary here can be close to expressively colored colloquial, which, however, does not violate the stylistic norms of journalistic speech, but enhances its effectiveness. For example, here is a description in a newspaper article of a scientific experiment: There are thirty-two laboratories at the Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry. One of them studies the evolution of sleep. At the entrance to the laboratory there is a sign: "Do not enter: experience!" But from behind the door comes the clucking of a chicken. She's not here to lay eggs. Here is a researcher picking up a Corydalis. Flips upside down... Such an appeal to foreign-style vocabulary is quite justified, colloquial vocabulary enlivens newspaper speech, makes it more accessible to the reader.

Of the book styles, only the formal business style is impervious to foreign-style vocabulary. At the same time, one cannot ignore “the undoubted existence of mixed speech genres, as well as situations where the mixing of stylistically heterogeneous elements is almost inevitable. For example, the speech of various participants in the trial is hardly capable of presenting any stylistic unity, but it would also hardly be legitimate to attribute the corresponding phrases entirely to colloquial or entirely to official business speech.

The appeal to emotional-evaluative vocabulary in all cases is due to the peculiarities of the individual author's manner of presentation. Reduced evaluative vocabulary may be used in book styles. Publicists, scientists, and even criminologists writing for the newspaper find in it a source of strengthening the effectiveness of speech. Here is an example of mixing styles in an informational note about a traffic accident:

Having moved into the ravine, "Ikarus" ran into an old mine

The bus with Dnepropetrovsk shuttles was returning from Poland. Exhausted from the long journey, the people slept. At the entrance to the Dnepropetrovsk region, the driver also dozed off. Lost control "Ikarus" went off the road and landed in a ravine. The car rolled over through the roof and froze. The blow was strong, but everyone survived. (...) It turned out that in the ravine "Ikarus" ran into a heavy mortar mine ... The "rusty death" turned out of the ground rested right on the bottom of the bus. The sappers were waiting for a long time.

(From newspapers)

Colloquial and even vernacular words, as we see, coexist with official business and professional vocabulary.

The author of a scientific work has the right to use emotional vocabulary with vivid expression if he seeks to influence the feelings of the reader ( But freedom, space, nature, the beautiful surroundings of the city, and these fragrant ravines and swaying fields, and pink spring and golden autumn, were not our educators? Call me a barbarian in pedagogy, but I have learned from the experience of my life a deep conviction that a beautiful landscape has such a huge educational influence on the development of a young soul that it is difficult to compete with the influence of a teacher.- K.D. Ushinsky). Even in a formal business style, high and low words can penetrate if the topic causes strong emotions.

Thus, in a letter sent from the administrative apparatus of the Security Council to the President of Russia B.N. Yeltsin says:

According to information received by the Russian Security Council apparatus, the situation in the gold mining industry, which forms the country's gold reserves, is approaching critical […].

...The main reason for the crisis is the state's inability to pay for the gold it has already received. […] The paradox and absurdity of the situation is that the money in the budget for the purchase of precious metals and precious stones is laid down - 9.45 trillion rubles for 1996. However, these funds are regularly spent on mending holes in the budget. Gold miners have not been paid for the metal since May - since the beginning of the flushing season.

... Only the Ministry of Finance, which manages budgetary funds, can explain these tricks. The debt for gold does not allow the miners to continue the production of the metal, as they are unable to pay for the "fuel", materials, energy. […] All this not only exacerbates the crisis of non-payments and provokes strikes, but also disrupts the flow of taxes to the local and federal budgets, destroying the financial fabric of the economy and the normal life of entire regions. The budget and incomes of residents of about a quarter of the territory of Russia - the Magadan region, Chukotka, Yakutia - directly depend on gold mining.

In all cases, no matter what stylistically contrasting means are combined in the context, the appeal to them must be conscious, not accidental.

A stylistic assessment of the use of words with different stylistic coloring in speech can only be given bearing in mind a specific text, a certain functional style, since the words necessary in one speech situation are out of place in another.

A serious stylistic shortcoming of speech can be the introduction of publicistic vocabulary in texts of a non-publicistic nature. For example: The Council of Residents of House No. 35 decided: to build a playground, which is of great importance in the upbringing of the younger generation. The use of journalistic vocabulary and phraseology in such texts can cause comical, illogical statements, since words of high emotional sounding act here as an alien style element (one could write: The Council of Residents of House No. 35 decided to build a playground for children's games and sports.).

AT scientific style errors arise due to the inability of the author to professionally and competently use the terms. In scientific works, it is inappropriate to replace terms with words of similar meaning, descriptive expressions: The hydrant clutch, air actuated by operator's weight-hold handle, was designed...(necessary: hydrant clutch with pneumatic control system...).

Inaccurate reproduction of terms is unacceptable, for example: The driver's movements must be limited by the seat belt.. Term seat belt used in aviation, in this case the term should have been used safety belt. The confusion in terminology not only damages the style, but also reveals the author's poor knowledge of the subject. For example: Peristalsis of the heart is noted, followed by a stop in the systole phase- term peristalsis can only characterize the activity of the digestive organs (it should have been written: Cardiac fibrillation...).

The inclusion of terminological vocabulary in texts that are not related to the scientific style requires the author to have a deep knowledge of the subject. An amateurish attitude to special vocabulary is unacceptable, leading not only to stylistic, but also to semantic errors. For example: At the Central German Canal, they were overtaken by furiously racing cars with armor-piercing glasses from a bluish tint.- can be armor-piercing guns, shells, and glass should be called impenetrable, bulletproof. Strictness in the choice of terms and their use in strict accordance with the meaning is a mandatory requirement for texts of any functional style.

The use of terms becomes a stylistic flaw in the presentation if they are incomprehensible to the reader for whom the text is intended. In this case, the terminological vocabulary not only does not perform an informative function, but also interferes with the perception of the text. For example, in a popular article, the accumulation of special vocabulary is not justified: In 1763, the Russian heat engineer I.I. Polzunov designed the first multi-power two-cylinder steam-atmospheric machine. Only in 1784 was D. Watt's steam engine implemented. The author wanted to emphasize the priority of Russian science in the invention of the steam engine, and in this case the description of Polzunov's machine is redundant. The following variant of stylistic editing is possible: The first steam engine was created by the Russian heat engineer I.I. Polzunov in 1763. D. Watt designed his steam engine only in 1784.

Passion for terms and book vocabulary in texts that are not related to the scientific style can cause pseudo-scientific presentation. For example, in a pedagogical article we read: Our women, along with work in production, also perform a family and household function, which includes three components: childbearing, educational and economic. Could it have been easier to write: Our women work in production and pay a lot of attention to the family, raising children, housekeeping.

The pseudo-scientific style of presentation often causes inappropriate comic speech, so you should not complicate the text where you can express the idea simply. So, in magazines intended for the general reader, such a selection of vocabulary cannot be welcomed: The staircase - a specific room for interfloor communications of a preschool institution - has no analogues in any of its interiors. Wouldn't it have been better to refrain from the unjustified use of bookish words by writing: The staircase in preschool institutions connecting the floors is distinguished by a special interior.

The cause of stylistic errors in book styles can be the inappropriate use of colloquial and colloquial words. Their use is unacceptable in a formal business style, for example, in the minutes of meetings: Effective control over the prudent use of feed on the farm has been established; In the district center and villages, the administration has done some work, and yet there is no end to the improvement of work. These phrases can be corrected like this: ... Strictly control the consumption of feed on the farm; The administration began to improve the district center and villages. This work should be continued.

In the scientific style, the use of foreign-style vocabulary is also not motivated. With the stylistic editing of scientific texts, colloquial and colloquial vocabulary is consistently replaced by interstyle or bookish.

The use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary sometimes leads to a violation of the stylistic norms of journalistic speech. The modern journalistic style is experiencing a strong expansion of vernacular. In many magazines and newspapers, a reduced style dominates, saturated with evaluative non-literary vocabulary. Here are examples from articles on various topics.

As soon as the wind of change breathed, this praise of the intelligentsia was absorbed into commerce, parties and governments. Pulling up her pants, she abandoned her disinterestedness and her big-nosed Panurges.

... And here is 1992 ... Philosophers flooded out of the ground, like russula. Quell, stunted, not yet accustomed to daylight... They seem to be not bad guys, but they are infected with eternal domestic self-criticism with a masochistic bias... (Igor Martynov // Interlocutor. - 1992. - No. 41. - P. 3).

Seven years ago, everyone who was considered the first beauty in the class or in the yard was brought to the Miss Russia contest as applicants ... When it turned out that the jury had not chosen her daughter, the mother took her unfortunate child in the middle of the hall and arranged a showdown ... Such is the fate of many girls who are now working hard on the catwalks in Paris and the Americas (Lyudmila Volkova // MK).

The Moscow government will have to fork out. One of his latest acquisitions, a controlling stake in AMO - ZiL - needs to unfasten 51 billion rubles in September to complete the program for the mass production of the ZiL-5301 light-duty vehicle (Let's ride or ride // MK).

The passion of journalists for vernacular, expressive reduced vocabulary in such cases is often stylistically not justified. Permissiveness in speech reflects the low culture of the authors. The editor should not be led by reporters who do not recognize stylistic norms.

The stylistic editing of such texts requires the elimination of lowered words, the revision of sentences. For example:

1. Out of competition on the world market, only two cool Russian goods so far stand out powerfully - vodka and the Kalashnikov assault rifle.	1. Only two Russian goods, vodka and the Kalashnikov assault rifle, are invariably in great demand on the world market. They are out of competition.
2. The head of the laboratory agreed to give an interview, but asked for a tidy sum in dollars for information, which was a tragic surprise for the correspondent.	2. The head of the laboratory agreed to give an interview, but demanded a fantastic sum in dollars for the information, which the correspondent did not expect at all.
3. The City Duma's housing policy coordinator assured that the privatization of rooms in communal apartments would most likely be allowed in Moscow.	3. The City Duma's housing policy coordinator said that the privatization of rooms in communal apartments would probably be allowed in Moscow.

A characteristic feature of modern journalistic texts is the stylistically unjustified combination of book and colloquial vocabulary. A mixture of styles is often found even in articles by serious authors on political and economic topics. For example: It's no secret that our government is heavily in debt and, apparently, will take the desperate step of launching a printing press. However, Central Bank experts believe that a collapse is not expected. Unsecured money is still being issued, so if bills are drawn, this is unlikely to lead to a collapse of the financial market in the near future.("MK").

Out of respect for the author, the editor does not correct the text, trying to convey to the reader the originality of his individual style. However, mixing different styles of vocabulary can give speech an ironic tone that is unjustified in the context, and sometimes even inappropriate comedy. For example: 1. The management of a commercial enterprise immediately seized on a valuable offer and agreed to the experiment, chasing profits; 2. Representatives of the investigating authorities took a photojournalist with them in order to arm themselves with irrefutable facts. The editor should eliminate such stylistic errors by resorting to synonymous substitutions for reduced words. In the first example, you can write: The leaders of the commercial enterprise became interested in the value proposition and agreed to the experiment, hoping for a good profit.; in the second, it is enough to replace the verb: not grabbed, a took with them.

Mistakes in the use of stylistically colored vocabulary should not be confused, however, with a deliberate mixing of styles, in which writers and publicists find a life-giving source of humor and irony. The parodic collision of colloquial and official business vocabulary is a tried and tested method of creating a comic sound of speech in feuilletons. For example: " Dear Lyuban! Spring is coming soon, and in the little garden where we met, the leaves will turn green. And I love you still, even more. When, finally, is our wedding, when will we be together? Write, I'm looking forward to it. Your Vasya». « Dear Vasily! Indeed, the territory of the square where we met will soon turn green. After that, you can begin to resolve the issue of marriage, since the season of spring is the time of love. L. Buravkina».

2. Comparative characteristics of subordinate clauses and isolated participial constructions. Typical mistakes when using participial phrases.

Parallel syntactic constructions -schey from verbs of the perfect form (with the meaning of the future tense), for example: “he who decides to compose”, “trying to assure”, “able to explain”. Participles are also not used in combination with a particle would, since participles are not formed from verbs in the form of the subjunctive mood, for example: “a project that would cause objections”, “employees who would like to work overtime”. Occasionally, however, such forms were found among writers, for example: The mind is sleeping, perhaps having found a sudden spring of great means(Gogol); It is worth going into any of the countless churches of Venice, asking the attendant to turn on the light, and magnificent colors of canvases will emerge from the darkness, which would be the pride of any art gallery.(N. Prozhogin). A separate participle turnover has a greater semantic load compared to the same turnover in the case of its non-isolation. Wed: Written in small handwriting, the manuscript was difficult to read.(a common definition, expressed by a separate participial turnover, contains an additional causal meaning). - Written in small handwriting, the manuscript was read with great difficulty.(non-isolated participial turnover has only a definitive meaning). The non-isolated participial turnover is more closely adjacent to the noun being defined. Wed: heavily wrinkled face(stable sign) - face covered with large drops of sweat(a temporary sign; the lexical composition of both constructions also plays a role). Communion, as a verb form, attach the meanings of time, type, voice. 1) The value of time in the participle is relative: in some cases, there is a correlation of times expressed by the participle and the verb-predicate, for example: saw children playing on the boulevard(seen while they were playing); in other cases, the time expressed by the participle correlates with the moment of speech, precedes it, for example: saw children playing on the boulevard. Wed: In one of the rooms I found a young guy sorting papers at the table(Soloukhin); That night, as if on purpose, the empty sheds that belonged to tax-farmers caught fire.(Herzen). In the past tense of the verb-predicate, the present participle indicates a constant sign, the past participle indicates a temporary sign. For example: We were interested in a house standing on the edge of the forest(cf. ...which is worth...). – Artyom grabbed a heavy hammer that stood at the anvil...(N. Ostrovsky) (cf .: ... who stood ...). Wed also: All delegates arrived at the meeting, with the exception of two who were absent due to illness(the meeting is still in progress). - All delegates attended the meeting, with the exception of two who were absent due to illness.(the meeting has already ended). An inaccurate form of communion tense is used in the sentence: "The work was done in five days instead of supposed six ”(the assumption refers to the past, therefore the form of the present participle is not suitable supposed; also the shape does not fit supposed having the meaning of the perfect form, while according to the meaning of the phrase, the participle of the imperfect form is needed - from the verb assume, not from suppose; the correct form for this case is supposed). On the contrary, we need the form of the present, and not the past participle in the sentence: “ Existing Until now, the situation in the field of the use of electric locomotives does not satisfy the already increased requirements of transport ”(if it does not satisfy, then it means that it still exists, therefore it should have been said: The current situation...). 2) The value of the pledge is taken into account in the forms of participles on -sya; in them a mixture of recurrent and passive meanings is possible (see § 173, paragraph 4). In such cases, where possible, the forms should be replaced by -sya other (usually forms on my). For example, instead of "a girl raised by a grandmother," you should say: girl raised by her grandmother; instead of "work done by students" - work done by students. Depending on the meaning, different participle agreement is possible. Wed: Part of the books intended for the exhibition has already been received(received in the e book intended for the exhibition). - Part of the books intended for the exhibition has already been received(not all books intended for the exhibition were received). Such variants of agreement are found in cases where the participial turnover defines not a single word, but a phrase. Wed also: The amount of electricity consumed...(the quantitative side is emphasized) - The amount of electricity consumed…(characterizes the object, the part of which is being discussed); Two thousand rubles borrowed. – Ten thousand rubles taken from my sister(L. Tolstoy). In some cases, participial constructions, like subordinate attributive clauses (see § 210, paragraph 4), allow for a double correlation, on the basis of which the sentence becomes ambiguous, for example: “Statement of the chairman of the committee dealing with these issues” (does the chairman or the committee deal with?) . Possible editing options: Statement made by the chairman of the committee dealing with these matters - ...dealing with these matters. The participial phrase can be either after the word being defined ( letter received from the author), or before it ( letter received from the author), but must not include the word being defined ("received letter from the author"). More often, the participial phrase is found after the word being defined. Participles are usually accompanied by explanatory words necessary for the completeness of the statement. So, the combinations are stylistically unsuccessful: “the citizens who enter are asked to pay the fare” (cf .: citizens boarding the bus...); “the submitted manuscripts have been sent for review” (cf.: submitted to the editors of the manuscript ...). Explanatory words can be omitted if their absence is justified by the conditions of the context, the meaning of the sentence itself, the situation of the utterance, etc., for example: The work under consideration has a number of positive aspects; All proposals made deserve attention; Scheduled plans completed ahead of schedule(These plans were discussed earlier). Participial phrases are used to replace synonymous relative attributive clauses: 1) if the statement is bookish, for example: Numerous facts accumulated by science confirmed the correctness of the hypothesis put forward by the young scientist; Our boats, drawn by the current, sailed in the middle of the river(Arseniev); 2) if an allied word is repeated in a complex sentence which, in particular with the sequential subordination of subordinate clauses (see § 210, paragraph 3, subparagraph “e”), for example: “At a scientific and methodological conference, which was devoted to the teaching of foreign languages, a number of reports were made, which contained interesting data on the application of the programmed learning system ”(each of the subordinate clauses or both of them can be replaced by participial phrases); 3) if you need to eliminate the ambiguity associated with the possible different correlation of the allied word which(see § 210 para. 4), for example: “Words in bold type are used in sentences that are used for grammatical analysis” (or used, or used, depending on what is used for parsing); 4) if the statement is given brevity justified by stylistic considerations. For example: “The convoy stood on a large bridge, stretching across the wide river. Smoke darkened over the river below, a steamer was visible through it, hauling barge in tow. Ahead of the river was a huge mountain, dotted with houses and churches…” (Chekhov). Using the advantages of participial turnover, one should at the same time take into account such a significant drawback of participles as their dissonance in the case of accumulation of forms on -schey and -former(see § 142). Section 212 Summing up the results of the debate, the chairman of the meeting noted the commonality of views of the speaker and the participants of the meeting. If the producer of the action expressed by the verb-predicate and the producer of the action expressed by the gerund do not match, the use of the participial turnover is stylistically erroneous, for example: “While crossing the rails, the switchman was deafened by an unexpected whistle of a locomotive” ( passing refers to the shooter, and stunned- to the whistle). In some cases, it is possible to use a participial turnover that does not express the action of the subject: 1) if the producer of the action indicated by the gerund coincides with the producer of the action indicated by another verb form, for example: The author was asked to make additions to the manuscript, taking into account the latest achievements of science in this field; Nothing could resist the pressure of the waves that surged onto the shore, sweeping away everything in its path.; 2) in an impersonal sentence with an infinitive, for example: I had to work in difficult conditions, not having a single free day for rest for many weeks. If in an impersonal sentence there is no infinitive to which the adverbial turnover could refer, then the use of the latter is stylistically unjustified, for example: “Leaving my hometown, I felt sad”; “After reading the manuscript for the second time, it seemed to the editor that it needed serious revision”; 3) in circulation with words based, which forms a special construction without the value of an additional action, for example: The calculation is based on average production rates. The use of a participial turnover in a passive construction does not meet the norm, since the producer of the action expressed by the verb-predicate and the producer of the action expressed by the gerund do not match, for example: "Having received recognition from the general readership, the book was republished." The adverbial turnover usually precedes the predicate if it means: a) the previous action, for example: Pushing me away, my grandmother rushed to the door ...(Bitter); b) the reason for another action, for example: Frightened by an unknown noise, the flock rose heavily above the water(Perventsev); c) a condition of another action, for example: With a strain of strength, a person of the most average abilities can achieve anything.(V. Panova). The adverbial turnover usually follows the predicate if it means: a) the subsequent action, for example: Once in the forest, I fell into a deep hole, ripped my side with a knot and tore the skin on the back of my head.(Bitter); b) course of action, for example: Here, near the carts, wet horses stood with bowed heads, and people walked around, covered with rain bags.(Chekhov). Participle phrases are synonymous with subordinate clauses. When choosing the right option, its grammatical and stylistic features are taken into account. The adverbial turnover gives the statement a bookish character. The advantage of this construction compared to the subordinate adverbial clause is its conciseness. Wed: As you read this manuscript, pay attention to the underlined passages.. – As you read this manuscript, pay attention to the underlined passages.. On the other hand, the advantage of subordinate clauses is the presence of conjunctions in them that give the statement various shades of meaning, which are lost when the subordinate clause is replaced by a participial turnover. Wed: when he entered... after he entered... as soon as he entered... as soon as he entered... etc. and a synonymic variant entering, indicating only the previous action, but devoid of subtle shades of temporal meaning. When using a participial turnover in such cases, the loss of the union should be made up, where necessary, by lexical means, for example: entering ... he immediately (immediately, immediately etc.). Participle turns can be synonymous with other constructions. Wed: walked wrapped in a warm coat - walked wrapped in a warm coat;  looked with his head held high - looked with his head held high; in a hurry, anticipating something unkind - in a hurry in anticipation of something unkind; read the manuscript, making extracts – read the manuscript and making extracts. § 213. Constructions with verbal nouns Orverbal nouns are widely used in various styles of language: a) in science and technology as terms formed: with the help of a suffix -ne-e (-ani-e, -eni-e), For example: concreting, loosening; representation, sensation; subtraction, addition; coordination, management; with a suffix -to-a, For example: masonry, putty(process and result of the process); in the presence of options of both types ( marking - marking, pressing - pressing, milling - milling, grinding - grinding) the first option has a more bookish character; in a non-suffix way, for example: departure, bench press, firing, measurement, reset; with options ( heating - heating, firing - firing, draining - draining) behind the forms on -tion a greater degree of bookishness is retained; b) in official business speech, for example: The nomination of candidates began; The negotiations ended with the establishment of diplomatic relations; An extension of the agreement for the next five years was reached; Leave request approved. c) in headings, for example: Space rocket launch; Screening of new films; Presentation of orders and awards; Homecoming. The undoubted advantage of constructions with verbal nouns is their brevity. Wed: When spring came, field work began. – With the onset of spring, field work began; If the first symptoms of the disease appear, consult a doctor. – When the first symptoms of the disease appear, consult a doctor. However, constructions with verbal nouns have a number of disadvantages: a) the ambiguity of the statement, due to the fact that verbal nouns are deprived, as a rule, of the meaning of time, form, pledge. For example: “The speaker spoke about the implementation of the plan” (it is not clear whether it is about the fact that the plan has been implemented, or about the progress of its implementation, or about the need to implement it, etc.); b) artificial formations created according to a certain model, but not accepted in the literary language, for example: “due to lack of necessary details”, “stealing state property”, “undressing and undressing children”. The use of such words can only be justified by a stylistic task, for example: The killing was due to drowning(Chekhov); c) lowering cases (see § 204, paragraph 1). Often caused by the use of verbal nouns, for example: "In order to improve the cause of staging the training of young programmers ..."; d) splitting the predicate (see § 177, item 2). Usually associated with the use of verbal nouns, for example: “Seal the warehouse”, “Requirements are underestimated”; e) the clerical nature of the statement. Often due to the presence of verbal nouns in it, for example: “In the new novel, the author gives a broad display of the formation of unusual relationships”; "Critics noted the director's failure to use all the possibilities of color cinema." If, in connection with the development of terminology in scientific, technical, professional, journalistic speech, many expressions with verbal nouns have already acquired the rights of citizenship (cf.: the plane is descending, the boat is turning around, the garden has begun to bear fruit, letters are collected five times a day etc.), then using them in other styles of speech produces a negative impression. Stylistic editing of the constructions under consideration is achieved by various kinds of substitutions. For this purpose, the following is used: a) a subordinate clause, for example: “We could not leave on time due to failure to receive the necessary documents” - ...because they did not receive the necessary documents; b) turnover with the union to, for example: “Corrections have been made to the manuscript to eliminate repetitions and improve its style” - …to eliminate repetition and improve her style; c) participle turnover, for example: “It is necessary to deepen the knowledge and consolidate the skills of students by attracting additional material” - …by bringing in additional material.

3. Stylistic analysis of the text.

Portal for the student. Self-training

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