The textbook outlines the main provisions of one of the sections of developmental psychology - the psychology of primary school age: patterns, prerequisites and factors of mental development of younger students - features of various activities, cognitive processes, various areas of personality and mental neoplasms; the problems of psychological support of the development of younger schoolchildren are characterized; practical tasks and psychodiagnostic methods are given that can be used to study the characteristics of the mental development of a child of primary school age. The manual complies with the Federal State Educational Standard of Higher Professional Education of the third generation.
For undergraduate students in the areas of "Psychology" and "Psychological and Pedagogical Education", it can be useful for other specialists - teachers, psychologists, teachers of psychology, everyone interested in issues of developmental psychology.
Book:
By the beginning of primary school age, a child is characterized by a sufficient level of development of perception and sensory development: children have developed auditory perception, visual acuity, perception of color, shape, size, and spatial characteristics of objects. Children perceive a wide variety of colors, shapes, sounds. A child who comes to school is not only able to distinguish colors, shapes, size of objects and their spatial position, but can correctly name these properties with a word, correctly correlate objects according to their specific characteristics, depict the simplest geometric shapes and paint them in the required color. The elementary sensory standards have already been mastered by junior schoolchildren.
Educational activity makes new demands on the perceptual processes of the younger student. When perceiving educational material, the arbitrariness and awareness of the perceptual activity of a younger student, the accuracy of perception of certain standards - samples that need to be guided when performing educational actions are required. Arbitrariness and awareness of perception are intensively developed under the influence of educational activities in close relationship with each other.
At the beginning of primary school age, children are attracted by the objects themselves and their external, most striking features and properties. Children find it difficult to carefully examine all the features and elements of objects and single out the most important and essential properties among them, which often manifests itself in educational activities.
Practical example
In mathematics classes, first-graders often cannot analyze and correctly perceive the numbers 6 and 9, in Russian language classes they confuse letters in the Russian alphabet - E and Z, etc.
Therefore, educational activities are aimed at teaching younger students to analyze, compare the properties of objects, highlight the most significant among them and express them with the help of a word. Children learn to perceive, focus their attention on various elements of educational material, regardless of its external attractiveness. Under the influence of this, arbitrariness, meaningfulness and selectivity of perception develop (primarily in terms of content, and not in terms of external bright signs). By the end of the first year of study, younger students are able to perceive objects in accordance with their past experience, with educational motives, needs and interests associated with educational activities. In the process of learning, children master the technique of perception, perceptual methods of inspection and listening, the algorithm for identifying the properties of objects. All this contributes to the further intensive sensory-perceptual development of younger students.
During the primary school age, the indicators of accuracy and speed of perception of signs of multidimensional stimuli improve, the indicators of perception of incomplete contour images improve significantly, which indicates an improvement in the properties of apperception and anticipation of visual perception. The speed and accuracy of perception of younger students are associated with the localization of stimuli in the visual perceptual field (perception indicators deteriorate when stimuli move in the direction from the center to the periphery of the perceptual field, and vice versa).
There are some features of the development of visual perception in younger students with different types of laterality (in right-handers, left-handers and ambidexters). In the study of N.Sh. Korashvili revealed a relationship between the levels of development of the components of visual perception and "school" graphic errors found in notebooks, written texts and children's work on the blackboard in right-handed, left-handed and ambidexter children of primary school age. The author concluded that the appearance of specific types of graphic "school" errors is associated with a low level of development of certain components of visual perception (Table 2.1).
Table 2.1
"School" graphic errors of children of primary school age with a low level of development of a certain component of visual perception
As can be seen from the table, children with different types of laterality have different "school" graphic errors and - in different numbers. With a low level of development of visual-motor coordination - there are errors No. 1 (uneven, twisted handwriting), No. 2 (letters are either too large or very small), No. 3 (non-compliance with the line). Lefties have more error #2; in right-handed people, mistakes No. 1 prevail; ambidexters have all types of errors. The low level of development of figure-background relations leads to the appearance of errors No. 7 (mistakes in vocabulary words), No. 9 (writes words together). These two types of errors are more common in left-handers than in right-handers. Explanation of errors in dictionary words only by spelling difficulties is not enough, since left-handers have much more of these errors (78.2%) than right-handers (36.4%). All ambidexter children of school age have errors in vocabulary words, and 90% of ambidexter children have error number 9 (writes words together). Errors No. 4 (missing letters), No. 5 (missing endings), No. 8 (incorrect hyphenation of words), No. 13 (violation of the order of letters) correspond to a low level of development of perceptual constancy. At the same time, in left-handers and especially in ambidexters, all three types of errors are more common than in their right-handed peers. The greatest difference is in the presence of an error associated with a violation of the order of the letters (No. 13). It almost never occurs in right-handers (7.3%), among left-handers this mistake is made by 40% of children, and among ambidexters by 90% of children of primary school age. That is, this error is inherent in these two types of laterality. Left-handers and ambidexters have errors No. 10 (does not complete letters) and No. 12 (mirror letters), which are manifestations of difficulties in the ability to determine position in space, also more, however, the picture here is more favorable - the number of errors here is less than in the same groups children, but in other components of visual perception. This is a manifestation of the fact that the development of the ability to determine the "position in space", in comparison with other components of visual perception, suffers less. A low level of development of the perception of spatial relations leads to errors No. 6 (confusing letters that are similar in spelling) and No. 11 (extra letters in words). Left-handers and ambidexters have more of these errors, as in the previous cases, than right-handers. However, in left-handers and ambidexters, error number 6 (confuses letters that are similar in spelling) is much more common than in right-handers.
At primary school age, the development of the ability to establish the identity, the identity of objects in accordance with one or another standard, that is, with a sample of the main varieties of qualities and properties of objects, created by mankind in the course of the history of human culture and used by people as standards, continues. Standards are designed to establish the correspondence of the properties of the perceived surrounding reality to one or another sample from the system of ordered standards. Children master sensory standards in a certain sequence: first they get acquainted with the main samples, and then with their varieties. At the same time, various standards are compared with each other and are called a word, first by an adult, and then by the child himself, which ensures their good memorization. At primary school age, the ability to correlate perceived qualities with the standard, their correct naming, establishing identity, partial similarity and dissimilarity of properties and qualities is improved. In the process of purposeful examination, palpation or listening, children perform correlative actions, reveal the connection of the perceived object with the standard. The perception of complex forms of objects is improved, in which the general outlines, the shape of the main part, the shape and location of secondary (smaller) parts and individual additional elements are distinguished. At primary school age, the ability to consistently examine various complex forms of objects is intensively developed.
The greatest difficulty for younger students is the task of analyzing the combination of colors, shapes and sizes in objects with a complex structure. Fulfilling the tasks of identifying and evaluating the elements of complex structures, analyzing the relationships between these elements requires a well-developed analytical perception. Younger students learn to examine complex and diverse combinations of object properties, determine a certain rhythm in the arrangement of individual color tones, distinguish combinations of warm colors from combinations of cold shades, etc. In the process of perceiving forms of a complex structure, the ability to visually divide them into separate elements corresponding to one or another geometric standards, to determine the connections and ratios of these elements among themselves.
At all stages of perceptual activity in examining the form, the technique of tracing the contour of an object and its details by children is often used, which contributes to the comparison of the outlined form with certain standards and the gradual improvement and development of the eye. The eye is intensively developed in various types of games and in productive activities, during which younger students choose the parts necessary for the construction, divide a piece of plasticine so that it is enough for all the elements of the subject, create applications and collages, draw, etc. Game actions , combined with educational activities, aimed at the sensory development of younger students, contribute to faster and more effective assimilation of sensory information. In games, children learn to feel, compare the shape and color of objects, assimilate sensory standards, establish and analyze complex relationships between the color and shape of an object, between simple and complex forms, between objects and their position in space, in the plane of a drawing or picture, without noticing it. , easily, consciously and effectively.
Practical example
The didactic game "Guess the figure" is aimed at developing the perception of form in younger students. Children are offered a set of geometric shapes. On the board or in front of the students - images of a notebook, pencil case, eraser, paints, sharpeners. Schoolchildren are invited to name all the drawn objects and choose a generalizing word for them, then, with their eyes closed, by touch, determine which geometric figure the teacher gave, name objects that look like a triangle (square, circle, rectangle, etc.).
Primary schoolchildren continue to develop the analytical perception of magnitude, which is associated not with the selection and unification of elements of a complex whole, but with the allocation of various dimensions of an object - its length, height and width. Since it is impossible to separate length and width from the object itself, children learn to match objects according to given measurements. Children gradually become aware of the relativity of the very dimensions of an object, the dependence of their definition on the spatial arrangement.
The development of the perception of space and time, which are interconnected, continues. The higher the level of development of spatial representations, the more accurate the younger student's ideas about time. There are some gender features in the development of the perception of space and time: boys more often have more complete and adequate spatial representations and ideas about the space of their own body compared to girls, and girls are more often characterized by more differentiated and adequate ideas about time than boys. During the primary school age, the concepts of space and time become more accurate, adequate, generalized and mediated by intellectual processes.
S.D. Lutskovskaya notes that younger students form temporal ideas about the sequence of events earlier than other temporal characteristics, but they are contradictory: children simultaneously operate with a temporal sequence, both linear and cyclic (like moving in a circle). Children 7 years old have ideas about a sequence containing from three to seven elements. The ideas of duration in children are characterized by the following features: in their speech, children use the names of all the main time intervals: second, minute, hour, day, morning, evening, night, day, 24 hours, week, month, year. At the same time, many children have no idea about the real duration and the ratio of the duration of the listed intervals. Children's ideas still contain situational estimates of the time interval. With the intellectual development of younger students, the expansion of practical experience in mastering the methods of building models of temporal relations and orientation in time, children more fully and accurately master the category of time.
The ever more accurate selection of the properties of objects, their spatial features and relationships, the improvement of observation contribute to the improvement of the perception of the plot (including art) picture by younger students. By the beginning of primary school age, children realize that a picture or drawing is a reflection of reality and try to correlate them with the elements of the world around them, see what is depicted in them, perceive a multi-color palette of colors, and can correctly evaluate a perspective image, because they know that one and the same object, located at a far distance, looks small in the figure, and close - much larger. Therefore, children carefully peer into the images, correlate some depicted objects with others. The perception of drawings and painting contributes to the development of the sign function of consciousness and artistic taste.
At primary school age, the sensory organization is differentiated and the dominant information channel is distinguished, characterized by the predominance of various sensory dominants in the development of perception. Children with different types of dominant channel of perception differ in some features of learning activities that should be taken into account in the learning process (Fig. 2.1).
By the end of primary school age, a synthesizing perception is formed, which allows (based on intellectual activity) to establish connections between the elements of perceived objects and phenomena. Children become able not only to give an accurate, holistic description of the object and its image, but also to supplement it with their own explanation of the depicted event or phenomenon. The main factor determining the construction of adequate perceptual actions and the development of perception are a variety of practical actions to transform environmental objects. At primary school age, an integral system of operational units of perception and sensory standards is formed that mediate perception.
Characteristics of children with different dominant information channel:
visuals
perceive new material better when it is written in a book, on a board, presented schematically, cope better with written tasks than with oral ones, master spelling rules better and make less spelling mistakes, like pictures and colors, and also like to see and make tables and schemes
Audials
better perceive information by ear, more willing to speak and listen, memorizing the pronunciation of words and intonation, read aloud, learn poetry and prepare retellings, prefer to listen to information than read it to themselves, write presentations better
kinesthetics
they learn the material better when they can explore it through active movements, they prefer actions: to underline something, circle, rearrange, etc., it is easier to assimilate new information by writing it down after the teacher or copying it from the source, they play skits based on the studied material with pleasure
Rice. 2.1. Features of educational activity of children with different types of perception"Tracks"
Game progress. In front of the child, a picture is placed on the table with tracks of different lengths pasted on it and from materials of different textures: oilcloth, fine-grained sandpaper, cotton fabric, leather fabric, etc.
Rules. The child runs his finger along the path and tells the teacher about his feelings: a cold path or a warm one, long or short, soft or hard to the touch, pleasant or not pleasant, which path he would choose for a walk with his mother (what material is most pleasant for him to follow with his finger ).
"Pig in a bag"
The purpose of the game. Development of tactile sensations.
Game progress: The child is given a bag in which something lies, but it is not clear what exactly. The child puts his hand into the bag and feels the object.
Rules: The task of the child is to describe the properties of the hidden object (soft or hard, warm or cold, fluffy or smooth, etc.), without taking it out of the bag, and, if possible, name it. You can come up with several options for the game. Younger children can guess hidden toy animals or simply name the properties of objects. Older children can be asked to guess geometric shapes, numbers or letters if they already know them.
"Rattles"
The purpose of the game. The development of auditory sensations.
Game progress. Various materials (sugar, buckwheat, peas, sand, beads, etc.) are poured into prepared boxes (or opaque jars) and children are allowed to rattle each box separately.
Rules. Younger children can simply be asked what sound (loud or soft, pleasant or unpleasant). Older children can try to guess how big the objects in the box are (small or large), and also try to associate this or that sound with some phenomenon (the sound of rain, falling stones, the roar of cars, etc.).
"Choose a picture"
The purpose of the game. Development of tactile and visual sensations.
Game progress. A sheet of cardboard is placed on the table in front of the child with materials of different textures pasted on it (sandpaper, fur, foil, cotton fabric, silk or satin fabric, velvet, etc.) and different colors. For each type of material, in turn, another sheet of cardboard is applied on top with an image of the object embossed on it. The child looks with his eyes and touches the resulting object with his fingers.
Rules. The child talks about his feelings: what material feels to the touch (soft or hard, rough or smooth, warm or cold, pleasant or not, etc.). Also, the task of the child is to choose a suitable picture for each type of material (for fur - a fur coat, for velvet - a toy, for satin - a dress, etc.).
The development of sensations depends on the requirements that life, practice, and human activity place on sensations. In the absence of defects in the structure of the sense organs, it is possible to achieve the development of extreme subtlety of sensations.
The comprehensive development of sensations is associated with a diverse, interesting and active creative activity of the child: labor, visual activity, music lessons.
However, a particularly noticeable development and improvement of the child's sensations is possible only if he is interested in such development, he himself will achieve success in this development, when the exercises of his sensations will follow from the need for the development of the whole personality, dreams and life demands. For example, a schoolboy wants to become a musician: he strives to develop his ear for music not out of compulsion, but out of a passionate desire to become a good performer, out of the need to have a large supply of subtle musical impressions for his creative musical works.
Another example: a boy draws well and a lot, he is interested in a very complex and mysterious world of colors of the surrounding reality, so he enthusiastically studies colors, their infinitely diverse shades, color transitions, etc. Under normal conditions of development, visual acuity in younger students improves under the influence of systematic exercises in the learning process. But if a student sits incorrectly at a desk when reading and writing, bends low over a book or notebook, then visual acuity can deteriorate significantly. The habit of reading lying down is very harmful to vision - this usually affects the quality of visual sensations and the state of the organ of vision.
By the age of seven or eight, children are already well able to distinguish the basic chromatic colors. Children's discrimination of color tones and their shades improves significantly with age, especially if children are specially trained in color discrimination. It has been established that girls are relatively better than boys in distinguishing and naming colors and their shades. Perhaps the best color discrimination of girls is facilitated by the fact that from early childhood they play with dolls, with various colored flaps, etc.
Studies by L. A. Schwartz and E. I. Ignatiev testify to the great possibilities for the development of color perception in children of primary school age. If the teacher systematically exercises children in color discrimination, then they achieve good results. This work can be especially successfully carried out in drawing lessons.
At primary school age, there is a slight increase in hearing acuity compared with preschool age, and tonal hearing continues to develop in younger schoolchildren (research by N.V. Timofeev). The greatest hearing acuity is observed in children aged 13-14 years.
The studies of the Soviet psychologist A. N. Leontiev and his collaborators show that pitch hearing is formed in the process of special training. It is known that 20% of children of primary school age have insufficiently developed pitch hearing, do not know how to vocalize a given sound, but with special pedagogical work with such children, this hearing can be significantly developed in them.
In younger students, under the influence of learning to read and improve oral speech, phonemic hearing is significantly improved. With the help of this hearing, students distinguish between phonemes, that is, those sounds that in our speech serve to distinguish between the meaning of words and their grammatical forms.
Weak development of phonemic hearing in schoolchildren of the 1st grade is often the reason for their poor performance in reading and writing. With the help of special exercises to distinguish phonemes that are difficult for a child, hearing can be significantly improved.
The sensations of younger schoolchildren are best improved when special exercises are included in one or another activity: playing or educational, for example, playing loto with quickly finding the same shades of color or shape develops color discrimination and discrimination of forms. Music lessons develop the subtlety of hearing, drawing lessons - the activity of the visual analyzer.
Possibilities for training sensations. The development of sensations depends on the requirements that life, practice, and human activity impose. In the absence of defects in the structure of the analyzers, by exercise, training, one can achieve the development of extreme subtlety of sensations. Some workers in the textile industry can distinguish up to 40 or even 60 shades of black, while schoolchildren are able to distinguish only 2-3 shades. An experienced pilot or driver accurately determines its defects by the sound of the engine, but for us the engine always sounds the same.
The defect in the work of one analyzer is usually compensated by the increased work and improvement of other analyzers. The "mutual assistance" of analyzers in the event of the loss of one of them is vividly expressed. The analyzers that remained undamaged, by their more precise work, seem to compensate (compensate) for the activity of the “retired” analyzer. We have already cited examples of the development of auditory, olfactory, and tactile sensations in the blind.
Very intense compensatory activity is observed in the deaf-blind. In the absence of sight and hearing, the activity of the remaining analyzers develops and intensifies to such an extent that these people learn to navigate the surrounding environment quite well. The deaf-blind OI Skorokhodova, due to her well-developed sense of touch, smell and vibrational sensitivity, managed to achieve great success in understanding the world around her, in her mental and aesthetic development. Skorokhodova became a researcher, candidate of sciences, published several valuable works devoted to the analysis of the perception of the surrounding world by deaf-blind people. She knows literature well, she writes poetry herself, the level of her general culture is very high.
In the city of Zagorsk, near Moscow, there is the world's only boarding school for deaf-blind-mute children. They study, go in for sports - athletics, skiing. Many graduates of this school work in specialized manufacturing enterprises. Four of them graduated from the psychological faculty of Moscow State University in 1977, excellently defended their theses, and are now working as researchers at the Institute of General and Pedagogical Psychology of the USSR Academy of Pedagogical Sciences.
The development of sensations in children. As you know, the psyche develops in activity. The comprehensive development of the child's sensations is associated with his diverse, interesting and active creative activity: labor, art and visual activity, music lessons.
The true development and improvement of the child's sensations is possible only if he himself is interested in such development, he himself will achieve success, when the exercises, the training of his sensations will follow from the needs of his personality, his life demands. If a schoolboy loves music, wants to become a musician, then he strives to develop his musical ear not under compulsion, but because of the desire to become a good performer, composer, out of the need to have a large supply of subtle musical impressions. Or another example: a boy draws well and a lot, he is interested in the complex and charming world of colors, so he enthusiastically studies colors, their infinitely diverse shades, color relationships, etc.
As for vision, under normal conditions of development, visual acuity in younger schoolchildren and adolescents improves under the influence of systematic exercises in the learning process. But if a student does not sit properly while reading and writing, bends low over a book or notebook, if the illumination is poor, then visual acuity can deteriorate significantly. The habit of reading lying down is very harmful to vision - this usually negatively affects the condition of the organ of vision.
Research by psychologists testifies to the great opportunities for the development of color perception in children of primary and secondary school age. If the teacher systematically exercises children in color discrimination, then they achieve good results.
In primary and secondary school age, there is a slight increase in hearing acuity compared to preschool age. The greatest hearing acuity is observed in children 13-14 years old. Under the influence of teaching reading, improving oral speech, learning a foreign language, phonemic hearing is significantly improved in schoolchildren. With its help, students quite well distinguish phonemes, that is, sounds that in our speech serve to distinguish between the meaning of words and their grammatical forms. Weak development of phonemic hearing in schoolchildren of the 1st grade is a common reason for their poor progress in reading and writing. With the help of special exercises to distinguish between phonemes that are difficult for a child, phonemic hearing can be significantly improved.
Review questions
1. What is the meaning of sensations in human life?
2. What kinds of sensations do you know?
3. Tell us about the structure and operation of analyzers.
4. What is sensitivity and sensation thresholds?
5. What is adaptation?
6. Tell us about the ways in which schoolchildren develop feelings.
Practical tasks
1. Together with the school doctor, determine the visual sensitivity (visual acuity) of the students of the class using special distinguishing tables. Display the data obtained in the form of a diagram or graph.
2. Check the normality of color perception among students of the same class using special tables prof. Rabkin, which can be obtained in the medical office.
3. Determine the development of motor sensations in the same schoolchildren. To do this, ask students, in the absence of visual control (with closed or blindfolded eyes), to perform several commands like: “Clench your right hand into a fist and stretch it forward, take your left hand by your right ear,” etc.
4. Determine the absolute threshold of auditory sensations for schoolchildren. Conduct the experiment individually with each student in a room where interference is excluded and where extraneous sound stimuli are minimized. The experimenter should have at his disposal a clock with a fairly loud sound (best of all, an ordinary alarm clock). The subject sits on a chair, without moving his head and closing his eyes (to exclude visual control), and gives evidence: “I hear”, “I don’t hear”. By moving the alarm clock (by placing it closer to the subject or farther from him), the experimenter finds out at what distance (the distance is marked in advance) the subject first has an auditory sensation (when he begins to hear the sound of the clock). For greater accuracy, two indicators are taken - first, the alarm clock is moved to such a distance that it cannot be heard, and gradually moved closer to the subject until the "I hear" signal follows. Then the alarm clock is moved very close (when a clear, distinct sound is heard) and gradually moved away from the subject until the signal "I do not hear" follows. The average distance is determined, which will be a conditional indicator of such a magnitude of the sound stimulus at which a barely noticeable sensation occurs.
Experience
Take three vessels: one with hot, another with warm, and the third with cold water, dip your left hand in hot water for a while, and your right hand in cold water. Then take out both hands and the vessels and lower them simultaneously into the vessel with warm water. Describe your feelings and give them an explanation.
In the learning process, the development of students' cognitive processes is carried out, which is characterized by quantitative and qualitative changes. They appear in particular in the development of perception. Quantitative changes consist in an increase in the speed of the flow of the process of perception, in an increase in the number of perceived objects, in an expansion of the volume of their memorization, and the like. Qualitative changes represent certain transformations in the structure of perception, the emergence of its new features, which mark the rise of its cognitive efficiency.
For younger students, perception becomes a more arbitrary, purposeful and categorical process. Perceiving new objects and phenomena for them, students tend to attribute them to a certain category of objects. Features of the perception of younger students are in the performance of tasks for the choice of objects from a certain set of them. Choosing objects, they are guided mainly by their color and shape. In some cases, they take the form of a characteristic feature of the object, and in others - the color (E.I. Ignatiev). The older the primary school students, the more role in their perception belongs to the form. The accuracy of distinguishing the shapes of objects is also growing. Younger students widely use the form for identification and comparison of objects, even in cases where they do not know the name of the form. The growth of students' awareness of the names of shapes (triangle, quadrilateral, circle, etc.) plays an important role in the development of accuracy and completeness of perception.
In younger students, the visual and tactile choice of a given figure among other figures changes significantly, as evidenced by the decrease in the time required for their visual and tactile search. The results of their performance of tasks on the choice of shapes are polymorphic under the influence of perceptual training in the visual differentiation of the shapes of figures. This not only reduces the time to search for figures, but also narrows the range of individual differences in the performance of such tasks. In the process of training, the level of perceptual difference in the forms of objects noticeably increases (A. Skripchenko). First-graders have difficulties in perceiving the form and its reflection. Some of them make mistakes in drawing figures, writing letters or numbers. In the first weeks of training, 12.3% of first graders write the number 6 upside down; 10.6% - a letter; 19.2% - the letter B. Most of these children also experience difficulties in perceiving the placement of objects in space (A. Skripchenko). It is observed that in some children such features in the perception and reproduction of objects quickly pass, and in some they affect difficulties in writing and reading. Some of these children belong either to the group of students with dysgraphia (with excessive difficulties in mastering writing) or in the group of children with dyslexia (with excessive difficulties in mastering reading). But not only the mentioned features of the perception and reproduction of objects determine dysgraphic and dyslexic children. Observations show that such children can by no means be classified as mentally retarded. G. Kraig and others give many facts when outstanding personalities grew up from such children. For example, T. Edison, H.K. Andersen and many others in the junior and partly in the middle classes were enrolled as dyslexics. A large number of such children, in the process of overcoming difficulties, read, albeit slowly, but thoughtfully, gained faith in their own strength and became outstanding personalities.
The qualitative changes in schoolchildren's perceptions, primarily visual, can be judged from data on how they perceive objects in difficult conditions (for example, with a gradual increase in their illumination). Under such conditions, the process of perception increases, which makes it possible to trace the formation of perceptual images. Hypotheses play an important role in their categorization (S. Kostyuk, O.V. Skripchenko). Adequate hypotheses accelerate the process of formation of images, inadequate - delay. According to our data, with age, students in grades 1-111 noticeably increase the number of adequate hypotheses in the perception of objects in difficult conditions.
The work of the analyzer is improved in students of the third grade, their sensitivity to various properties of objects increases. The accuracy of distinguishing colors and color shades, for example, is increased by 45% compared to first grade students. The improvement in color differences among younger schoolchildren is evidenced by the data on their performance of tasks for their differentiation and choice. Girls are better at differentiating objects by color than boys. Under the influence of training, the differentiation of colors is improved in both boys and girls. In children, the number of words with which they mean colors and their shades (pale pink, light green, etc.) increases. The ability to differentiate shades of illumination of objects develops. For third-grade students, it grows 1.8 times compared with first-graders. Primary schoolchildren have significant individual differences in the ability to differentiate color tones and their shades, and to determine them verbally.
Scattered by younger schoolchildren, colors, their shades depend not only on the age characteristics of children, but also on the work that adults carry out. So, according to B. Nemevsky, Japanese teachers pay special attention to the development of color sensitivity of students. In this country there is a kind of colorful charter. It, according to Japanese psychologists and educators, allows a wider and deeper development of not only the senses, but also the thinking and creative abilities of children. Thanks to the attention of Japanese teachers and parents to the color literacy of children, younger students are able to distinguish about 36 colors, and in the 7th grade - up to 240 colors. In Japanese schools, from the first grade, the program provides for such classes, which are called "admiring," writes B. Nemevsky. In good weather, lessons are canceled, and students go to observe, admire the beauty of nature. The ability to distinguish the pitch of sounds also increases in younger students, which is especially facilitated by classes in music and singing. For primary music education, primary school age is the most favorable. According to social studies (A.D. Kogan, N. Timofesv, and others), in primary school age, hearing acuity increases, as well as the ability to distinguish between pitches. Thus, pupils of the third grade distinguish the pitch of tones 2.7 times more accurately than first graders.
The accuracy of perception and reproduction of short sound signals is increased by 1.6 times in third-graders compared to first-graders. With age, the number of errors in the reproduction of signals by younger students decreases. There are significant individual differences in the accuracy of perception and reproduction of sound signals. With age, their range increases. Girls perceive and reproduce sound signals somewhat more accurately (A. Skripchenko).
Phonetic hearing in younger students is rapidly developing under the influence of systematic work in the lessons of reading, writing and speaking. Due attention of teachers to the development of students' hearing contributes to their successful mastery of reading and writing, the prevention of errors in the sound analysis of words and their written reproduction.
In the process of learning, students develop perception of the forms of objects. At the same time, in the perception of first-graders, the shape of objects is often not clearly defined. stands out. So, for example, A.I. Galkina suggested that 1st grade students draw the shapes of some objects. In 40% of cases, first-graders drew objects with their inherent features, but the shape of the objects was ignored by the children. They painted a scarf with a border and patterns, but not a square shape.
Pupils of primary school age find it difficult to perceive perspective. Drawing such objects as a table, a house, an airplane, etc., first-graders highlight three-dimensional features, but do not yet convey perspective (N.F. Chetverukhin).
First-graders correctly determine the place of objects (to the right, front-back, etc.), meaningfully perceive objects that are on the right-left, front-back of another person, correctly name the right and left hand of the person standing opposite him. A schoolchild of this age can imagine himself in the place of this person, determine where the right side will be from her, and where the left side will be. Pupils of grades I-11 are able to determine the spatial relationships of various objects if the task assigned to them is of a specific, objective nature. If, however, tasks are given to determine spatial relationships outside the visual situation, then many students in grades 1-11 cannot perform it correctly (M.N. Shardakov).
Younger students understand the concept of "hour" better, probably because they use it most often in their educational work. The constant use of the lesson schedule leads to the fact that students III. classes better understand the real meaning of such a period of time as a week and a day than a minute and a month, chronological dates are perceived with difficulty even by third grade students, but most third grade students have ideas about "century", "age" and others.
Observation develops more successfully if the teacher not only accompanies the demonstration of visual objects with explanations, although this is very important, but also organizes an independent examination of these objects, the search for their characteristic features, and the creation of their integral images. Thus, schoolchildren learn to accurately, clearly perceive them - to see, listen, feel, time and smell, try the language, observe and generalize, determine the results of their observations in words.
The possibilities for students to perform such tasks are widely opened when they get acquainted with the initial geometric material, work with a picture in language lessons, natural science, keep diaries of observations of changes in nature, temperature, cloudiness, precipitation; wind direction, changes in the life of plants and animals, etc.
The German researcher Stern dealt with the perception of pictures by children. He established four stages. The first stage is characterized by the fact that the child, when perceiving, focuses only on individual objects or persons depicted in the pictures, and lists only them in his descriptions, the child does not explain them and does not make any qualitative differences. The second stage of actions - when perceiving a picture, the child pays attention mainly to what the person or animal depicted on it is doing, what state the objects are in. The third stage is the relationship stage. At this stage, attention is drawn to the spatial, temporal, causal relationships between people, animals, objects, images in the picture. The fourth stage is the quality stage. At this stage, the child pays attention to the qualitative signs of things and phenomena. If you give a six-year-old child a picture that is understandable to her, it turns out that approximately 75% of children will be in the first stage, 15% in the second, 9% in the third and 1% in the fourth stage. However, these indicators are affected not only by the age of the children, but also by the content of the paintings. There are other classifications of children's and adolescents' perception of pictures.
The formation of observation contributes to the aesthetic education of students. Cutting, molding, designing, modeling.
Work on the school site will also require perception and act as stimulants for its development.
