§ 1. Feudal fragmentation in Russia in the XIV-XV centuries. - a brake on the development of agriculture Feudal fragmentation was a great brake on the development of agriculture. In the chronicles there are (moreover, in the Novgorod and Pskov chronicles - quite

FEUDAL Fragmentation 1. The concept of feudal fragmentation. 2. - The beginning of fragmentation in Russia. 3. - The system of succession to the throne in Kievan Rus. 4. - Congresses of Russian princes. 5. - Causes of feudal fragmentation. 6. - Economic aspect. 7. - Feudalism and Russian

What did the military reform of Charles Martel change in Frankish society?

Why did the empire of Charlemagne collapse? What is feudalism? one.

"There is no war without fires and blood." In

times of feudal fragmentation (IX-XI centuries), the possession of any large feudal lord became, as it were, a state within a state.

The feudal lord collected taxes from the subject population, judged him, could declare war on other feudal lords and make peace with them.

A feast at a noble lord. Medieval miniature

Peasants harvest.

Medieval miniature

2 - E. V. Agibalova

The battle of the Franks, led by Roland, with the locals in the Pyrenees. Miniature of the 14th century.

The gentlemen almost constantly fought among themselves: such wars were called internecine. During civil strife burned

Roland's death. Cathedral stained glass. 13th century On the right, a mortally wounded Roland blows his horn, calling for help. Left - he unsuccessfully tries to break the sword on the rock

villages, cattle were stolen, crops were trampled. The most affected by this

peasants. 2.

Seniors and vassals.

Each large feudal lord distributed part of the land with peasants to small feudal lords as a reward for their service, they also gave him an oath of allegiance. He was considered in relation to these feudal lords

(senior), and the feudal lords, who, as it were, "kept" lands from him, became his vassals (subordinates).

Vassals were required to

the order of the seigneur to go on a campaign and bring a detachment of soldiers with him, to participate in the buzz of the seigneur, to help him with advice, to redeem the seigneur from captivity. The lord defended “my vassals from attacks by other feudal lords and rebellious peasants, rewarded them for their service, and was obliged to take care of their orphaned children.

It happened that the vassals opposed their lords, did not follow their orders, or went over to another lord. And then only force could force them to obey. 3.

Feudal staircase. The king was considered the head of all the feudal lords and the first lord of the country: he was the supreme judge in disputes between them and led the army during the war. The king was a senior for the highest nobility (aristocracy) - dukes and gra-

An excerpt from "The Song of Roland"

In the 11th century, the French epic "Song of Roland" was recorded. In it, pI tells about the heroic death of the detachment of Count Roland during the retreat of Charlemagne from Spain and about the revenge of the King of the Franks for the death of his nephew:

The count felt that death overtook him,

Cold sweat trickles down the forehead.

The count says: “Our Lady, help me,

It's time for us, Durandal6, to say goodbye to you,

I don't need you anymore.

With you, we beat many enemies,

With you, we conquered large lands.

There, Charles the gray-beard rules now ... "

He turned his face to Spain,

So that Charles the King could see,

When he is here again with the army,

That the count died, but won the battle.

What qualities of a vassal were valued in the early Middle Ages?

fov. In their possessions there were usually hundreds of villages, they disposed of large detachments of warriors. Below were barons and viscounts - vassals of dukes and earls. Usually they owned two or three dozen villages and could put up a detachment of warriors. The barons were the lords of the knights, who sometimes no longer had their own vassals, but only dependent peasants. Thus, the same feudal lord was the lord of a smaller feudal lord and a vassal of a larger one. In Germany and France, the rule was: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal."

feudal stairs

king! Dukes and Counts Barons Historians call this organization of feudal lords the feudal ladder. Despite the frequent conflicts between the feudal lords, which even the kings themselves could not always cope with, vassal relations united the lords into a single class in terms of value, place in society (although it consisted of different layers and groups). This was a class of noble (from a good family) people who dominated the common people.

When a war broke out with another state, the king called for the campaign of dukes and counts, and they turned to the barons, who brought detachments of knights with them. This is how the feudal army was created, which is usually called knightly (from the German "ritter" - a rider, an equestrian warrior).

L. The weakness of royal power in France. The power of the last kings of the Carolingian dynasty in France was significantly weakened. Contemporaries gave the kings humiliating nicknames: Charles the Fat, Charles the Simple, Ludovic the Zaika, Ludoik the Lazy.

At the end of the 10th century, the great feudal lords of France elected the rich and influential Count of Paris, Hugo Capet, as king (the nickname is given by the name of his favorite headdress - the hood). From then until the end of the 18th century, the royal throne remained in the hands of the Capetian dynasty or its side branches - the Valois, the Bourbons.

The French kingdom then consisted of 14 large feudal estates. Many feudal lords had more extensive lands than the king himself. Dukes and counts considered the king only the first among equals and did not always obey his orders.

The king owned a domain (domain) in the northeast of the country with the cities of Paris on the Seine River and Orleans on the Loire River. In the rest of the lands towered the castles of recalcitrant vassals. According to a contemporary, the inhabitants of these "hornet nests"

"devoured the country with their robbery".

Having no power over the whole country, the king did not issue general laws, could not collect taxes from its population.

Therefore, the king had neither a permanent strong army, nor paid officials. His military forces consisted of detachments of vassals who received fiefs in his possession, and he ruled with the help of his courtiers.

Otto I. Image from the chronicle of the XII century. 5.

Formation of the Holy Roman Empire. In Germany, the power of the king was at first stronger than in France. A single state was necessary to protect against external enemies.

Attacks by the Hungarians (Magyars) were very frequent. These tribes of nomadic pastoralists moved at the end of the 9th century from the foothills of the Southern Urals to Europe and occupied the plain between the Danube and Tisza rivers. From there, the light cavalry of the Hungarians raided the countries of Western Europe. She broke through the Rhine, reached Paris. But Germany suffered especially: the Hungarians ravaged and captured many of its inhabitants.

In 955, German and Czech troops led by the German king Otto I utterly defeated the Hungarians in a battle in southern Germany. Soon the Hungarian invasions ceased. At the beginning of the 11th century, the kingdom of Hungary was formed, where King Stephen introduced Christianity.

In 962, taking advantage of the fragmentation of Italy, Otto I marched on Rome, and the pope proclaimed him emperor. In addition to Germany, part of Italy fell under the rule of Otto I. So the Roman Empire was restored once again. Later, this political entity began to be called the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.

This became possible because Germany and Italy at that time also did not

2* Dust united states. Like France, they consisted of many separate independent duchies, counties, baronies, principalities, etc., each of which had its main city, its sovereign, its own flag and coat of arms. Feudal fragmentation in these countries existed throughout the Middle Ages.

Crown and hold; emperors of the late Roman Empire

The emperor wanted to be considered the head of all the rulers of Europe. But real power was limited. Even the German dukes gradually gained independence from him. The population of Italy did not stop fighting the invaders. Each new German king, in order to be crowned with the imperial crown, had to make a campaign for the Alps and conquer Italy again.

1. Prove that every major feudal lord had such power in his possessions as the ruler of the state. Why was it possible? 2. What was the weakness of royal power in France in the 9th-11th centuries? 3. How was the Holy Roman Empire formed? 4. Explain why the German emperors sought to be crowned in Rome. 5. Calculate how many years there was not a single empire in Europe (how much time elapsed between the collapse of the empire of Charlemagne and the proclamation of Emperor Otto I).

S1. If the king, under feudal fragmentation, was considered only "first among equals", then why was royal power preserved at all? 2. Can one knight be a vassal of several lords? Justify your answer 3.

The laws of Germany in the 11th century say that a lord cannot take away a fief from you without guilt, but only if the vassal violated his duties: leave the lord in battle, attacked the lord or killed his brother. What role did this law play in the organization of medieval society? 4. Were peasants included in the feudal ladder? Why? 5. Pair up with one-kp. See the dialogue between the lord and his vassal, who are discussing the controversial situation about the breaking of the vassal oath. What arguments will both sides bring in p (asserting their innocence? How will the dispute end?

About the Verdun division of 843, when the empire of Charlemagne was divided among his grandsons, however, the title of emperor was preserved.

Compare the first and second information: what question do you have? Compare with the authors' version (p. 273).

Question: Why is the time from the 9th century called the period of fragmentation, if the empire was restored in the 10th century?

Answer: Formally, the empire was restored, but the feudal lords gained more and more power and ceased to obey their lords. At first, this happened with large feudal lords, and then even with many middlemen. Kings and emperors actually controlled only small territories, the rest of the lands were divided among smaller lords who constantly fought with each other.

Prove that a period of state fragmentation has begun in Western Europe. Have there been changes in other areas of society?

In 843, at Verdun, the empire was divided between the grandsons of Charlemagne into three parts. But the new rulers tried to leave the management system and other aspects of life unchanged. All these features of the state underwent changes slowly, being separated by state borders over the centuries of history.

Starting with the grandchildren of Charlemagne, his empire begins to disintegrate. But it was still a division into rather large parts, because it is not quite fragmentation. In addition, the owners of the beneficiaries had not yet turned into feudal lords - the kings or the emperor could still take away their lands for improper service.

What parts did the empire of Charlemagne break up into?

The empire broke up into the possessions of Lothair I, Louis (Ludwig) II of Germany and Charles II the Bald.

Compare with the map on p. 37, what states were formed on the site of the empire?

Considering that Lothair's possessions were soon divided between two other kingdoms, the West Frankish kingdom (the future France) and the East Frankish kingdom (the future Holy Roman Empire) arose on the site of the empire of Charlemagne.

Prove that a period of feudal fragmentation has begun in Western Europe.

The feudal lords received full power in their possessions: to judge subject people, to transfer land by inheritance, to transfer it to their own vassals. The right of kings and emperors to take land was usually only a sham. Most importantly, the feudal lords did not openly obey the monarchs and even went to war against them and against each other. In these wars, feudal fragmentation is most manifest.

Name her reasons.

Wars between pretenders to the throne. For example, in the West Frankish kingdom, there was a long struggle between two dynasties that claimed the royal title - the Carolingians and the Capetians. At the same time, the applicants bought the help of the feudal lords with more and more privileges.

Viking and Hungarian raids. The royal army often did not have time to come to repel the raid (and sometimes it was simply not up to the pretenders to the throne). Troops were needed on the ground, which could gather quickly and repel the attack. Gradually more and more rights flowed into the hands of those who could organize such a defense.

Make a conclusion about the problem of the lesson.

The combination of wars for the throne and barbarian raids strengthened the feudal lords so much that they were able to go against the power of the monarchs.

Try to find a European country where you could live safely from the raids of barbarian tribes.

Only the Caliphate of Cordoba was safe. The Vikings sometimes attacked its coasts, but received a worthy rebuff, therefore they rarely attacked and did not go deep into the mainland. The lands from which the raids came were not attacked - Scandinavia and Hungary. The map shows that no one attacked Poland, Croatia and Serbia, but information about these countries in the 10th century is so scarce that, perhaps, information about such raids simply has not been preserved. Otherwise, there is no reason why the Vikings and Hungarians could avoid them. All other countries were subjected to raids, and even conquests, either by the Vikings, or their descendants (I remember, first of all, the campaign of Svyatoslav Igorevich against Bulgaria), or by the Hungarians.

Which parts of Charlemagne's empire became an empire again in 962?

The empire united the lands of many Germanic tribes, as well as the kingdoms of Burgundy and Lombard.

Can the formation of the Holy Roman Empire be considered the re-creation of a single imperial state of the West?

You can't count like that. Firstly, it did not unite all the territories that were part of the empire of Charlemagne. Secondly, it pretty quickly actually broke up into the possessions of large feudal lords, the power of the emperor was weak and weakened even more by rivalry with the popes.

Make a conclusion about the problem of the lesson.

The proclamation of the restoration of the empire did not stop feudal fragmentation even in the empire itself.

Try to describe a dispute between an approximate king and a count - a large landowner, in which one will prove the need for a single state, and the other will object to him.

Such a dispute could be started by a supporter of the king with accusations against the count, who violated the feudal oath. To this, the supporter of the count would begin to say that the king was the first to violate the duties of a sovereign and therefore lost the right to the allegiance of his vassal.

After this, an argument from a supporter of the king about the raids of the Vikings and Hungarians could follow. In his opinion, as long as the kingdom was united, there were no such raids. To this, a supporter of the count could cite many examples when the royal troops went too slowly and it was the local counts who had to repel the raids.

A weak argument for a supporter of the king could be the benefits for trade, which was difficult to conduct when new borders had to be crossed every few kilometers. But he himself had to understand that a truly noble person, as participants in this dispute, did not care about trade, he cared about feats of arms and glory.

At that time, only the first pair of arguments were truly worthwhile. Because feudal law was relevant then. It painted when a vassal has the right to consider himself free from the oath, and when for its violation he is worthy of losing his fief.

Try to explain the difference in the concepts of state and feudal fragmentation. Check yourself in a dictionary.

With state fragmentation, a single state is divided into several, the ruler of each of them becomes a monarch. With feudal fragmentation, the state formally remains united, the feudal lords recognize the power of the monarch over themselves, again, formally, but in reality they do not obey him and even fight against him.

The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands.

The period of feudal fragmentation is a natural stage in the progressive development of feudalism. The dismemberment of the early feudal grandiose empires (Kievan Rus or the Carolingian empire in Central Europe) into a number of de facto sovereign states was an inevitable stage in the development of feudal society.

Even in the IV century. (395 ᴦ.) The Roman Empire broke up into two independent parts - Western and Eastern. The capital of the Eastern part was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine on the site of the former Greek colony of Byzantium. Byzantium was able to withstand the storms of the so-called ʼʼgreat migration of peoplesʼʼ and survived after the fall of Rome (in 1410 ᴦ, the Visigoths took Rome after a long siege) as the ʼʼempire of the Romansʼʼ. In the VI century. Byzantium occupied vast territories of the European continent (even Italy was unnecessarily conquered). Throughout the Middle Ages, Byzantium maintained a strong centralized state.

The overthrow of Romulus Augustine (1476 ᴦ.) is considered to be the end of the Western Roman Empire. Numerous ʼʼbarbarianʼʼ states arose on its ruins: the Ostrogothic (and then Lombard) in the Apennines, the kingdom of the Visigoths in the Iberian Peninsula, the Anglo-Saxon kingdom in Britain, the state of the Franks on the Rhine, etc.

The Frankish leader Clovis and his successors expanded the borders of the state, pushed back the Visigoths and soon became hegemons in Western Europe. The position of the empire was strengthened even more under the Carolingians (VIII-IX centuries). At the same time, behind the external centralization of the empire of Charlemagne, its internal weakness and fragility were hidden. Created by conquest, it was very diverse in its ethnic composition: it included the Saxons, Frisians, Alamans, Thuringians, Lombards, Bavarians, Celts and many other peoples. Each of the lands of the empire had little connection with the others and, without constant military and administrative coercion, did not want to submit to the power of the conquerors.

This form of empire - outwardly centralized, but internally amorphous and fragile political association, gravitating towards universalism - was characteristic of many of the largest early feudal states in Europe.

The collapse of the empire of Charlemagne (after the death of his son Louis the Pious) in the 40s of the IX century. and the formation of France, Germany and Italy on its basis meant the beginning of a new era in the development of Western Europe.

X-XII centuries are a period of feudal fragmentation in Western Europe. There is an avalanche-like process of fragmentation of states: The feudal state in Western Europe in the X-XII centuries. exists in the form of small political entities - principalities, duchies, counties, etc., which had significant political power over their subjects, sometimes completely independent, sometimes only nominally united under the rule of a weak king.

Many cities of Northern and Central Italy - Venice, Genoa, Siena, Bologna, Ravenna, Lucca, etc.
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- in the IX-XII centuries. became city-states. Many cities in northern France (Amiens, Sussan, Laon, etc.) and Flanders also became self-governing commune states. Οʜᴎ chose the council, its head - the mayor, had their own court and militia, their own finances and taxes. Often, commune cities themselves acted as a collective lord in relation to the peasants who lived in the territory surrounding the city.

In Germany, a similar position was occupied in the XII-XIII centuries. the largest of the so-called imperial cities. Formally, they were subordinate to the emperor, but in reality they were independent city republics (Lübeck, Nuremberg, Frankfurt am Main, etc.). Οʜᴎ were governed by city councils, had the right to independently declare war, conclude peace and alliances, mint coins, etc.

A distinctive feature of the development of Germany during the period of feudal fragmentation was the predominance of the territorial principle over the tribal principle in its political organization. In place of the old tribal duchies, about 100 principalities appeared, of which over 80 were spiritual. The territorial princes took the place of the tribal dukes in the feudal hierarchy as well, forming an estate of imperial princes, the direct feudal lords of the crown. Many German imperial princes in the XII century. found themselves in vassalage from foreign sovereigns (sometimes even from several states).

In general, the period of feudal fragmentation was a period of economic growth in Europe. In the X-XII centuries. the feudal system in Western Europe took on a pan-European character and was experiencing a take-off: the growth of cities, commodity production, an in-depth division of labor turned commodity-money relations into the most important factor in social life. Clearing for arable land was accompanied by deforestation and reclamation work (Lombardy, Holland). The secondary landscape has risen; swamp area has been reduced. A qualitative leap was experienced by mining and metallurgical production: in Germany, Spain, Sweden, and England, mining and metallurgical industries grew into independent, separate industries. Construction is also on the rise. In the XII century. the first water pipeline with sewage elements is being built in Troyes. Mirror production begins (Venice). New mechanisms are being created in weaving, mining, construction, metallurgy and other crafts. So, in Flanders in 1131 ᴦ. the first loom of a modern type appeared, etc. There was an increase in foreign and domestic trade.

On the other hand, the increase in the needs of the feudal lords in connection with the development of the market not only led to an increase in the exploitation of the peasantry, but also increased the desire of the feudal lords to seize other people's lands and wealth. This gave rise to many wars, conflicts, clashes. Many feudal lords and states were drawn into them (due to the intricacy and interweaving of vassal ties). State borders are constantly changing. More powerful sovereigns sought to subjugate others, making claims to world domination, trying to create a universalist (comprehensive) state under their hegemony. The main bearers of universalist tendencies were the Roman popes, Byzantine and German emperors.

Only in the XIII-XV centuries. in the countries of Western Europe, the process of centralization of the state begins, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ gradually takes the form of an estate monarchy. Here, already relatively strong royal power is combined with the presence of class-representative assemblies. The most rapid process of centralization took place in the following Western European states: England, France, Castile, Aragon.

In Russia, the period of feudal fragmentation begins in the 30s of the XII century. (in 1132 ᴦ. the Grand Duke of Kyiv Mstislav, the son of Vladimir Monomakh, dies; under 1132 ᴦ. the chronicler wrote: ʼʼAnd the whole Russian land was torn...ʼʼ). In place of a single state, sovereign principalities began to live an independent life, equal in scale to Western European kingdoms. Novgorod and Polotsk separated themselves earlier than others; after them - Galich, Volyn and Chernihiv, etc. The period of feudal fragmentation in Russia continued until the end of the 15th century.

Within this more than three centuries of time there was a clear and difficult boundary - the Tatar invasion of 1237-1241, after which the foreign yoke sharply disrupted the natural course of the Russian historical process, greatly slowed it down.

Feudal fragmentation became a new form of statehood in the conditions of the rapid growth of productive forces and was largely due to this development. Tools of labor were improved (scientists count more than 40 types of them only from metal); plowed agriculture was established. Cities became a major economic force (in Russia there were then about 300 of them). Ties with the market of individual feudal estates and peasant communities were very weak. Οʜᴎ sought to satisfy their needs as much as possible at the expense of internal resources. Under the dominance of natural economy, it was possible for each region to separate from the center and exist as independent lands.

In the last years of the existence of Kievan Rus, the many thousands of local boyars received the Long Russian Pravda, which determined the norms of feudal law. But the book on parchment, kept in the Grand Duke's archive in Kyiv, did not contribute to the real implementation of the boyars' rights. Even the strength of the grand-princely virniki, swordsmen, and governor could not really help the distant provincial boyars on the outskirts of Kievan Rus. Zemsky boyars of the XII century. they needed their own, close, local authorities, which would be able to quickly implement the legal norms of Pravda, help in clashes with the peasants, and quickly overcome their resistance.

Feudal fragmentation was (however paradoxical at first glance!) the result not so much of differentiation as of historical integration. There was a growth of feudalism in breadth and its strengthening on the ground (under the dominance of subsistence farming), feudal relations took shape (vassal relations, immunity, the right to inherit, etc.).

The optimal scales for the feudal integration of that time, the geographical limits were worked out by life itself, even on the eve of the formation of Kievan Rus - ʼʼunions of tribesʼʼ: glades, drevlyans, krivichi, vyatichi, etc. - Kievan Rus collapsed in the 30s. 12th century into one and a half dozen independent principalities, more or less similar to one and a half dozen ancient tribal unions. The capitals of many principalities were at one time the centers of tribal unions (Kyiv near the glades, Smolensk near the Krivichi, etc.). The unions of tribes were a stable community that took shape over the centuries; their geographical limits were determined by natural boundaries. During the existence of Kievan Rus, cities developed here that competed with Kyiv; tribal and tribal nobility turned into boyars.

The order of taking the throne that existed in Kievan Rus, based on seniority in the princely family, created an atmosphere of instability and uncertainty. The transition of the prince in seniority from one city to another was accompanied by the movement of the entire domain apparatus. Foreigners (Poles, Polovtsy, etc.) were invited by the princes to resolve personal strife. Temporary stay in any land of the prince and his boyars gave rise to increased, "hurried" exploitation of peasants and artisans. New forms of political organization of the state were needed, taking into account the prevailing correlation of economic and political forces. Feudal fragmentation became such a new form of state-political organization. In the centers of each of the principalities, their own, local dynasties developed: Olgovichi - in Chernigov, Izyaslavichi - in Volyn, Yuryevichi - in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, etc. Each of the new principalities fully satisfied the needs of the feudal lords: from any capital of the XII century. it was possible to ride to the border of this principality in three days. Under these conditions, the norms of Russian Truth could be confirmed by the ruler's sword in a timely manner. The calculation was also made on the interest of the prince - to transfer his reign to children in good economic condition, to help the boyars, ĸᴏᴛᴏᴩᴏᴇ helped to settle here.

Each of the principalities kept its own chronicle; princes issued their statutory charters. In general, the initial phase of feudal fragmentation (before the factor of conquest intervened in normal development) is characterized by the rapid growth of cities and the bright flowering of the culture of the 12th - early 13th centuries. in all its manifestations. The new political form contributed to progressive development, created conditions for the expression of local creative forces (each principality has its own architectural style, its own artistic and literary trends).

Let us also pay attention to the negative aspects of the era of feudal fragmentation:

A clear weakening of the overall military potential, facilitating foreign conquest. At the same time, a caveat is needed here. Authors of the book ʼʼHistory of the Russian State. Historical and bibliographic essays ʼʼ raise the question: ʼʼ Could the Russian early feudal state resist the Tatars? Who dares to answer in the affirmative?ʼʼ. The forces of only one of the Russian lands - Novgorod - a little later turned out to be enough to defeat the German, Swedish and Danish invaders by Alexander Nevsky. In the face of the Mongol-Tatars, there was a collision with a qualitatively different enemy.

Internecine wars. But even in a single state (when it came to the struggle for power, for the grand throne, etc.), princely strife was sometimes more bloody than during the period of feudal fragmentation. The goal of strife in the era of fragmentation was already different than in a single state: not to seize power in the whole country, but to strengthen its principality, expanding its borders at the expense of neighbors.

Increasing fragmentation of princely possessions: in the middle of the XII century. there were 15 principalities; at the beginning of the thirteenth century. (on the eve of the invasion of Batu) - about 50, and in the XIV century. (when the unification process of the Russian lands had already begun) the number of great and specific principalities reached approximately 250. The reason for this fragmentation was the division of the possessions by the princes between their sons: as a result, the principalities became smaller, weakened, and the results of this spontaneous process gave rise to ironic sayings among contemporaries (ʼʼIn the Rostov land - a prince in every village; ʼʼIn the Rostov land, seven princes have one warriorʼʼ, etc.). Tatar-Mongol invasion 1237-1241. found Russia a flourishing, rich and cultured country, but already affected by the "rust" of feudal specific fragmentation.

In each of the separated principalities-lands, at the initial stage of feudal fragmentation, similar processes took place:

the growth of the nobility (ʼʼyouthsʼʼ, ʼʼchildrenʼʼ, etc.), palace servants;

strengthening the positions of the old boyars;

the growth of cities - a complex social organism of the Middle Ages. The association of artisans, merchants in cities in the ʼʼbrotherhoodʼʼ, ʼʼcommunityʼʼ, corporations close to craft workshops and merchant guilds of cities in Western Europe;

the development of the church as an organization (dioceses in the 12th century geographically coincided with the borders of principalities);

strengthening of the contradictions between the princes (the title of ʼʼgrand dukeʼʼ was worn by the princes of all Russian lands) and the local boyars, the struggle between them for influence and power.

In each principality, due to the peculiarities of its historical development, its own balance of forces developed; its own, special, combination of the above elements came to the surface.

Thus, the history of Vladimir-Suzdal Russia is characterized by the victory of the grand ducal power over the landed aristocracy by the end of the 12th century. The princes here were able to suppress the separatism of the boyars, the power was established in the form of a monarchy.

In Novgorod (and later in Pskov), the boyars were able to subjugate the princes and established boyar feudal republics.

In the Galicia-Volyn land, there was an extremely heightened rivalry between the princes and local boyars, there was a kind of ʼʼbalance of powerʼʼ. The boyar opposition (besides, constantly relying on either Hungary or Poland) failed to turn the land into a boyar republic, but significantly weakened the grand ducal power.

A special situation has developed in Kyiv. On the one hand, he became the first among equals. Soon, some Russian lands caught up and even outstripped him in their development. On the other hand, Kyiv remained an "apple of discord" (they joked that there was not a single prince in Russia who did not seek to "sit" in Kyiv). Kyiv ʼʼrecapturedʼʼ, for example, Yuri Dolgoruky - Vladimir-Suzdal prince; in 1154 ᴦ. he achieved the throne of Kyiv and sat on it until 1157 ᴦ. His son Andrei Bogolyubsky sent regiments to Kyiv, and so on. Under such conditions, the Kiev boyars introduced a curious system of ʼʼduumvirateʼʼ (co-government), which lasted the entire second half of the 12th century. The meaning of this original measure was as follows: at the same time, representatives of two warring branches were invited to Kyiv land (an agreement was concluded with them - ʼʼryadʼʼ); thus, a relative balance was established and strife was partly eliminated. One of the princes lived in Kyiv, the other - in Belgorod (or Vyshgorod). They acted jointly on military campaigns and carried out diplomatic correspondence in concert. So, co-rulers duumvirs were Izyaslav Mstislavich and his uncle - Vyacheslav Vladimirovich; Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich and Rurik Mstislavich.

The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "The era of feudal fragmentation in Europe, the distinctive features of feudalism in the Russian lands." 2017, 2018.

In the history of the early feudal states of Europe X-XII centuries. are a period of political fragmentation. By this time, the feudal nobility had already turned into a privileged group, belonging to which was determined by birth. The existing monopoly property of the feudal lords on land was reflected in the rules of law. The peasants found themselves for the most part in personal and land dependence on the feudal lords.

Having received a monopoly on land, the feudal lords also acquired significant political power: the transfer of part of their land to vassals, the right to litigate and mint money, the maintenance of their own military force, etc. In accordance with the new realities, a different hierarchy of feudal society is now taking shape, which has legal consolidation: "The vassal of my vassal is not my vassal." Thus, the internal cohesion of the feudal nobility was achieved, its privileges were protected from encroachments by the central government, which was weakening by this time. For example, in France before the beginning of the XII century. the real power of the king did not extend beyond the domain, which was inferior in size to the possessions of many large feudal lords. The king, in relation to his immediate vassals, had only formal suzerainty, and large lords behaved independently. Thus began to take shape the foundations of feudal fragmentation.

On the territory that collapsed in the middle of the IX century. Three new states arose in the empire of Charlemagne: French, German and Italian (Northern Italy), each of which became the base of the emerging territorial-ethnic community - nationality. Then the process of political disintegration embraced each of these new formations. So, in the territory of the French kingdom at the end of the 9th century. there were 29 possessions, and at the end of the X century. - about 50. But now they were for the most part not ethnic, but patrimonial-seniorial formations.

The collapse of the early feudal territorial organization of state power and the triumph of feudal fragmentation represented the completion of the formation of feudal relations and the flourishing of feudalism in Western Europe. In its content, it was a natural and progressive process, due to the rise of internal colonization, the expansion of the area of ​​cultivated land. Thanks to the improvement of labor tools, the use of animal draft power and the transition to three-field cultivation, land cultivation improved, industrial crops began to be cultivated - flax, hemp; new branches of agriculture appeared - viticulture, etc. As a result, the peasants began to have surplus products that they could exchange for handicrafts, and not make them themselves.

The labor productivity of artisans increased, and the technique and technology of handicraft production improved. The craftsman turned into a small commodity producer working for trade. These circumstances led to the separation of craft from agriculture, the development of commodity-money relations, trade and the emergence of a medieval city. They became centers of crafts and trade.

As a rule, cities in Western Europe arose on the land of the feudal lord and therefore inevitably submitted to him. The townspeople, most of whom were mainly former peasants, remained in the land or personal dependence of the feudal lord. The desire of the townspeople to free themselves from dependence led to a struggle between cities and lords for their rights and independence. This movement, widely developed in Western Europe in the 10th-13th centuries, went down in history under the name of the "communal movement". All rights and privileges won or acquired for a ransom were recorded in the charter. By the end of the XIII century. many cities achieved self-government. So, about 50% of English cities had their own self-government, city council, mayor and court. The inhabitants of such cities in England, Italy, France, etc. became free from feudal dependence. A fugitive peasant who lived in the cities of these countries for a year and one day became free. Thus, in the XIII century. a new estate appeared - the townspeople - as an independent political force with its own status, privileges and liberties: personal freedom, jurisdiction of the city court, participation in the city militia. The emergence of estates that achieved significant political and legal rights was an important step towards the formation of estate-representative monarchies in the countries of Western Europe. This became possible thanks to the strengthening of the central government, first in England, then in France.