Types of Image Files A file is a program or data stored in a computer's non-volatile memory. Each file has a name consisting of two parts separated by a dot. Before the dot, the actual file name is written, usually assigned by the user. After the dot

Abbreviation Correspondence Table In case you decide to train via the Internet with an American trainer, you may find it useful to use the following table of correspondence between English and Russian abbreviations for strength training phases and types.

List of the most common abbreviations BUR - high security barracksVTK - educational labor colony (for minors) DPNK - duty assistant to the head of the guardIVS - temporary detention centerITK - corrective labor colonyITU -

List of used abbreviations and abbreviations

List of designations, abbreviations and abbreviations used: Military ranks: b / c brigade commissar-n captainl-t lieutenant ml. l-t junior lieutenant major major / p lieutenant colonelp-k colonels-on foremen-t sergeant. l-t senior lieutenant. s-t senior sergeantAviation

We do not like to print long phrases, and even more so to write by hand. And if there is an opportunity to reduce - why not use it? Today "Mel" considers abbreviations, the spelling of which may raise questions.

Short names of authorities, institutions and organizations are written with a capital letter, if in their full form they are also written with a capital letter. In this case, the rest of the letters in the word are written in lowercase.

The abbreviation Gosduma (from the State Duma) is used in the press and everyday speech, but is not allowed in official texts.

Correctly: State Duma

With abbreviations that are not spelled, but like ordinary words, it can be difficult. Those formed on behalf of their own are written in capital letters (OMON, RONO). And if from a common noun, then lowercase: a higher educational institution is a university. However, “university” has long been considered not an abbreviation, but an independent word.

Correctly: university

If the abbreviation is borrowed from a foreign language and is read in foreign letters, in Russian we write it in lowercase letters (except for the first one) and through a hyphen. No BBC or BBC. And if you don’t like the hyphenated option, then you can write in Latin - BBC.

Correctly: BBC

Above, we said that abbreviations formed from a common noun are written in lowercase letters. The fact is that the reduction of the minimum wage - the minimum wage - has not yet become a household name. Such a norm is fixed in the dictionary. We write in capital letters.

Correctly: SMIC.

The abbreviated spelling of the combination "last name, first name, patronymic" is preferable to write "Full name" or "full name" It is these standards that are given by the Russian Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Academy of Sciences, ed. V. V. Lopatin and O. E. Ivanova. And no matter how much you want to avoid dots - do not forget to put them in the documents.

Correctly: FULL NAME.

The uncomplicated abbreviation "acting" stands for "acting". Separate with dots, write in lower case abbreviation and indicate the position (director, editor-in-chief).

Correctly: and. about.

But the abbreviation for "temporarily acting" is spelled completely differently. Just remember this spelling, because it's hard to argue with the spelling dictionary.

Correctly: interim

On this basis, there are:

1. Graphic abbreviations- in them, omitted letters or syllables are indicated graphically:

a) a dot - when cutting off the final part of the word ( Russian- Russian);

b) a hyphen - when cutting out the middle part of the word ( production- production);

c) dash - when cutting off the initial part of the shortened word (Nikolai -is he- N. Danielson);

d) slash - when cutting off the final part of the words of the phrase ( Rostov n/a- Rostov-on-Don; p/n- in order).

2. Initial abbreviations- abbreviations that are formed from the names of the first letters and (or) sounds of words included in the original phrase, and which are pronounced when reading in an abbreviated form, and not in full form (as opposed to single-letter graphic abbreviations pronounced when reading expanded).

Among the initial abbreviations there are:

a) alphabetic - they are formed by taking from each word of the original phrase the alphabetic names of the initial letter ( CIS- es-en-ge);

b) alpha-sound - they are formed by taking from some words of the original phrase the alphabetic names of the initial letter, and from others - the initial sound: CSKA- tse-es-ka (Central Army Sports Club);

c) sound - they are formed by taking the initial sound from each word of the original phrase: ITAR(Information Telegraph Agency of Russia).

3. Compound words- abbreviated words formed from the words of the original abbreviation, all or part of which are truncated ( collective farm- collective farm; aircraft factory- aviation plant).

4. carved words- words in which letters and (or) syllables are carved, except for initial and final letters, and the rest are pulled together into an abbreviated word ( billion- m [il] l [ia] rd; million- m [yl] l [io] n).

5. Mixed cuts- abbreviations that combine several ways of forming an abbreviation: an initial abbreviation - with a compound abbreviated word ( NIIpoligraphmash); initial abbreviation - with graphic abbreviation ( cf.- movie); carved word - with graphic abbreviation ( stb.- column), etc.

4.1.2. Types of abbreviations by degree of prevalence

On this basis, they differ:

1. Common abbreviations- are used in all publications, except for children's for early. reading, limited - in editions of art. lit.

2. Special abbreviations- are used in industry publications. for specialists, accepted in this industry and understandable to a trained reader without decoding.

3. Individual cuts- are used only in the text of one edition, introduced by its author or publisher and somehow deciphered in it (in the list of abbreviations, inside the text after the abbreviation itself or before it, and in the list and inside the text).

4.2. Basic requirements for abbreviations of words and phrases

4.2.1. Compliance with the nature and purpose of the text

Abbreviations should not contradict the nature (type of literature), as well as the purpose (reader and social-functional) of the work. For example, in the text of the work of the artist. lit., since it is not addressed to a specialist, but to a general reader, uncommon abbreviations are undesirable if they are not caused by stylistic or artistic. task, and in the text of the work tech. or scientific lit. with repeated use of the original word or phrase, they are appropriate, as in the text of the special work. reference literature designed for the specialist reader.

4.2.2. Understandability to the reader

Abbreviations that are understandable to the reader to whom the publication is addressed are acceptable, without decoding or with decoding in the list of abbreviations, but on the condition that the decoding is easy to remember and the reader does not have to refer to the list each time. For example, too many uncommon abbreviations force the reader to frequently refer to the list of abbreviations or to their own memory and can dramatically slow down the reading of the text and complicate its perception, thereby making it meaningless to use abbreviations, the purpose of which is to save not only space in the publication, but also the reader's time. .

4.2.3. Exclusion of homonymy

Abbreviations that coincide in spelling with others that have a different meaning are undesirable. For example, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish AZU(analogue storage device) from AZU(associative storage device) or AMS(aeronautical meteorological service) from AMS(artillery meteorological service). Homonymous abbreviations are allowed only if the context can tell which word or phrase is abbreviated by the author.

4.2.4. Form neutrality

Abbreviations should not distract the reader with their form from the perception of the essence of the text. So, dissonant abbreviations that will make the reader laugh, or abbreviations that resemble a word of a different meaning in form (for example, AZU- an analog storage device or an associative storage device - resurrects a meat dish in memory), can distract the reader's thoughts, slow down the perception of the text.

4.2.5. Uniformity of principles and forms of reduction

1. Words and phrases of the same type should be abbreviated or not abbreviated. If some are abbreviated, while those close to them in character remain in full form, the principle of uniformity in abbreviation cannot be considered sustained. For example:

a) if the decision is made after the digits of the year of the word´ year, years abbreviate, then you need to abbreviate the words century, centuries after the numbers denoting centuries; if it is decided to abbreviate after the numbers G. and in., then for uniformity it is necessary to abbreviate after the numbers gg. and centuries;

b) if generally accepted abbreviations are used in the text of the publication, then this should apply to all such abbreviations without exception;

c) if in the text units of quantities in combination with numbers in digital form are given in the form of a designation, then this principle should be extended to all units of quantities in such a combination;

d) if it is advisable to use special in the publication. abbreviations (i.e., accepted only in special types of literature and types of publication), then it is necessary to use the entire range of specials accepted in this industry. abbreviations;

e) if ind. abbreviations (i.e. accepted only for this edition), they should cover groups of words and phrases, and not individual random words and phrases.

2. The form of abbreviation of a word or phrase must be the same throughout the entire edition, also in close editions. Deviations can only be justified, caused by changes in the conditions of use. So, if in the text with numbers in digital form it is decided to reduce the units of time (h, min, s etc.), it will not be a violation of the principle of uniformity to refuse to write abbreviated units of time when a number in digital form is separated from them by some word. For example: It's been 18 long hours but not: 18 long hours

3. Rejection of abbreviation is necessary if it leads to a distorted reading of the text. So, when combining a sentence-ending surname, abbreviated graphically (with a dot at the end) to one letter, with a full surname without an initial, starting the next sentence, the abbreviation may at first be mistaken by the reader for the initial of the name of the second person. Two sentences will merge into one for the reader, and he will have to spend time figuring out how to read the text correctly.

For example, in the comments to Apollon Grigoriev’s “Letters” (M.: Nauka, 1999), where the abbreviation G. is used instead of his last name, the author and editor did not notice such a merger in the text:

E. S. Protopopova ... was taught music by their daughter Leonida Yakovlevna, who was the subject of G. Protopopov’s long and hopeless love, a long-term witness to this dramatic story, became, as it were, G.’s confidant (p. 387).

Here you will not immediately understand that this is not about the love of G. Protopopov, but about the love of Apollon Grigoriev (G.). Protopopova is a woman whose surname is in the nominative case, and not a man G. Protopopov, whose surname in the genitive case is ruled by the word "love". It was necessary to either abandon the abbreviation, or move the abbreviation to the middle of the phrase:

The subject of G.'s love, long and hopeless. Protopopova, long-term witness...

4.2.6. Compliance with the rules of abbreviation and spelling of abbreviated words and phrases

These rules are set out below, in subsection. , , , , , .

Graphic abbreviations

4.3. Graphic abbreviation rules

4.3.1. Word truncation

The rest of the word should:

1) allow you to easily and accurately restore the full word; eg: philosophic, philological, not: Phil.;

2) end in a consonant (excluding one-letter abbreviations); eg: archit.; not: archite.;

3) when two identical consonants converge at the end, end on one of them; eg: ill.; not: ill.; but as an exception: ott.(according to GOST 7.12-93);

4) at the confluence at the end of several different consonants, end on the last of them; eg: geogr.; not: geog.

When reducing adjectives and participles in reference publications, it is advisable to be guided by the list of discarded parts of words GOST 7.12-93 (app. 12) and the list of special cases of abbreviation of words and phrases of the same standard (app. 10) and GOST 7.11-78 (app. 9).

4.3.2. Dot as an abbreviation

Is put a dot as a sign of contraction, when a word with a cut off final part, when read aloud, is pronounced in full, and not in an abbreviated form. For example: G.- pronounce while reading year, but not ge.

Exception- designations of physical units. values: they are abbreviated by cutting off the final part of the word and are pronounced in full when reading, but, according to GOST 8.417-81, they are written without a dot at the end. See also point 6 below.

Not set dot:

1) at the end of the abbreviation, if the abbreviated phrase, when read aloud, is pronounced in abbreviated form: this means that the text uses an initial abbreviation (see) or a compound abbreviated word (see), in which the abbreviation is not graphically indicated; eg: efficiency,but not efficiency, because it reads "kapede"; EMF, but not emf(read "edes"), but: a.u.(read "astronomical unit");

2) at the end of the abbreviation, if the middle part of the word is omitted, replaced by a hyphen, and the abbreviation ends on the last letter of the full word; eg: Mr., publishing house, in-t, in-tov;

3) with a graphic designation of the abbreviation with a slash (so as not to graphically show the abbreviation twice); eg: n/n, n/a;

4) in the middle of a doubled one-letter graphic abbreviation (the abbreviation is written together, and a dot is put only at the end); eg: centuries, years, nos.;

5) at the end of abbreviations formed by deleting vowels; eg: million, billion; and although in indirect cases, in connection with the truncation of case endings, a period should have been put, since the word does not end on the last letter, for uniformity it is more expedient to keep the form without a period in indirect cases; eg: 25 million copies;

6) after the abbreviated designations of physical units. values, since such a spelling is established by the standard; eg: 25 mm; 45 kg; 200 t(unless they end the sentence).

4.3.3. Hyphen as an abbreviation

Is put hyphen:

1) when the middle part of the word is thrown out (the hyphen replaces it) while maintaining the ending; eg: Ms., b-ka, in-t, but stb.- column (the end is cut off; the abbreviation form is established by GOST 7.12-93);

2) when a compound word is abbreviated, parts of which in full form are written with a hyphen; eg: eng.-mech. - mechanical engineer;

3) when a compound adjective is abbreviated in the same way as the phrase from which it is formed (agricultural, as Agriculture); the hyphen between the abbreviated parts of the adjective serves as an indication to the reader that he is dealing with a complex adjective, and not with a combination of an adjective and a noun; eg: s.-x.- agricultural, as opposed to s.kh.- Agriculture; railroad- railway, as opposed to railway- Railway.

4.3.4. Dash as an abbreviation

Is put dash, if you need to indicate the truncation of the initial part of the word before the end. For example: Nikolai -on.

4.3.5. Slash as an abbreviation

Is put slash:

1) if the preposition is truncated in the phrase on, by etc. For example: p/n- in order; n/a- on-Don;

2) if the components of a compound word written with a hyphen are reduced to one letter. For example: h/c- headset skittles.

4.3.6. Plural abbreviations

change plural form. hours:

1) a part of single-letter graphic abbreviations: they are doubled, so that the reader does not experience difficulty in reading. For example: in 1976-1980(the reader does not need to think, plural or singular of the word year used here - it is immediately clear that it is plural), XIX - XX centuries.; pp. 1, 5 and 6.

Note. It should be noted that there is a tendency to reduce the number of single-letter abbreviations that change their form into plurals. h. This is especially true for texts that are not designed for reading aloud or mental pronunciation, that is, readable only with the eyes, for example. for bibliogr. descriptions where once volumes and sheets were written in the form tt., ll., and now the form t. and l. regardless of the number;

2) graphic abbreviations with a hyphen replacing the middle part of a word; eg: zd, zd; m-in, m-va;

3) graphic abbreviations with the replacement of the initial and middle parts of the word with a dash; eg: these Nicholass.

Do not change plural form. hours:

1) graphic abbreviations volumes, sheets, pages, columns, accepted in the bibliography. description and transferred to other types of text; eg: v. 1-10, 10 sheets. ill., 250 s, 1040 stb.;

2) all non-single-letter graphic abbreviations with a dot at the end; eg: in table. 10 and 11; in fig. 85, 91 and 101; in Zaporozhye, Dnepropetrovsk and Poltava regions.

4.3.7. Indirect cases of abbreviations

Only the following graphic abbreviations change form in indirect cases:

1) with the middle part of the word thrown out; eg: publishing house, publishing house, prom-sti, prom-stew;

2) with the ending left and the entire preceding part replaced by a dash; eg: Nicholas-on.

4.3.8. Abbreviations for several numbers, titles, names

If the abbreviation refers to several consecutive numbers, names, names, etc., then it is indicated only once - before or after such a series; repeating the contraction for each member of the series would be redundant.

4.4. Use of common graphic abbreviations

Application area- all types of publications, except literary and artistic; for all readers, except for beginners.

4.4.1. Self-used abbreviations ( etc., etc., etc., etc., i.e.)

They are used in any context, with any neighboring words, with one exception - it is not recommended to use abbreviations in non-reference publications etc., etc., etc. in the middle of a phrase, if a word agreed with the abbreviation follows. For example:

4.4.2. Words that are abbreviated only for given names, surnames, titles ( Ms., Mr., im., t.)

1) at the beginning of the sentence, since it can be taken by the reader for the initial of the name; e.g. bad: T. Ivanov wrote after that...; it is better, by rearranging the phrase, to transfer the abbreviation t. in its middle: After that Comrade Ivanov wrote...; worse: Tov. Ivanov wrote... since the principle of uniformity of the abbreviation form is violated;

2) if it is necessary to emphasize special respect for a person.

Reduction them.(name) is used in combination not only with surnames, but also with the names of holidays, congresses, etc. For example: them. May 1st, them. Victory.

4.4.3. Words that are abbreviated only for geographical names ( city, village, region, s.)

Reduction G.(city), like the full word, it is recommended to use limitedly, ch. arr. before the names of cities formed from surnames ( Kirov). The remaining abbreviations are usually used without such restrictions.

4.4.4. Abbreviations for inline links and comparisons ( ch., p., subp., sec., fig., s, see, cf., tab., h.)

All abbreviations except cm. and cf., are used only in combination with numbers or letters; eg: in ch. 22, sub. 5a; according to clause 10; in section one; according to sect. BUT; in fig. 8, in table. 2, p. 8-9.

The formerly widely used abbreviation page(page) it is recommended to replace the abbreviation with., since it is enshrined in GOST 7.12-93, and two forms of abbreviation of one word violate the principle of uniformity.

4.4.5. Words abbreviated only on numeric dates ( century, century, year, years, BC e., n. e., ok.)

These abbreviations are undesirable only in a literary text or close to it in nature (journalism, memoirs, etc.), as well as in mass and popular science publications.

Reduction gg. applies not only to periods from one year to a year ( 1925-1932), but also for decades ( 30s).

4.4.6. Words that are abbreviated with numbers in numerical form ( k., million, billion, rubles, thousand, copies)

Use abbreviations rub. and cop. instead R. and to. permissible only in publications for an unprepared reader. In any case, only one form of abbreviation, either one-letter or three-letter, should be used within one edition.

Million, billion, thousand it is recommended to use instead of zeros in round numbers; eg: 45 million copies; 10 billion rubles; 10 thousand copies. Less desirable are these abbreviations before the names and designations of physical units. values ​​in publications for the general reader. Recommended, for example: 10 thousand meters or 10 thousand meters(in publications for the general reader) and 10 thousand m(in publications for specialists).

All these abbreviations are unacceptable before numbers (with inversion) and in cases where abbreviations are separated from numbers by words. For example:

4.5. Special and customized graphic abbreviations

4.5.1. The use of special abbreviations

It can be recommended to use more widely as a special. abbreviations graphic abbreviations of adjectives in set phrases such as east districts, official edition, special disciplines etc. They are easy to decipher and do not interfere with reading. At the same time, special reduction should be considered all the more appropriate:

1) the more prepared the reader is for the perception of the abbreviation by all previous industry or general reference literature, i.e. how widely this abbreviation is used in it;

2) the more stable and familiar the combination that includes the abbreviated word (the reader tries not to read the unabbreviated phrase to the end: it has become so familiar); eg: main text, publisher's original in this handbook are given in abbreviated form: main text, ed. original;

3) the more auxiliary, reference character the text is and the more selective its reading (notes, comments, introductory phrases in brackets, auxiliary indexes, etc.), because here the abbreviations are more familiar to the reader than in the main . text and many abbreviations not suitable for main. text, may well be used in additional or auxiliary texts (the word ministry in the main the text is not abbreviated, but in the text of the notes as part of the titles it can be used in an abbreviated form: min.);

4) the more widely the abbreviation (for example, an adjective) is used as part of a complex abbreviated word that is widely used in print (for example: medical instructor - dignity. commission);

5) the more often the abbreviated word is repeated in the text of the publication.

When there are different forms of abbreviation of the word or with different forms of abbreviation according to the list of discarded endings in clause 3.4 of GOST 7.12-93 (app. 12) and according to the list of special cases of abbreviation of the same state. standard, preference is always given to the one approved in the list of special cases of abbreviation GOST 7.12-93 (app. 10), for example, the word auxiliary shrinks in shape auxiliary, as approved by the state list. standard, not auxiliary, as could be shortened, based on the list of discarded endings.

4.9.2. The use of mixed abbreviations

Among them there are those that approach the generally accepted ( NIIalmaz), but most are special, relevant only in special. lit. Quite possible ind. abbreviations from newly formed names.

Hi friends!

Today I sat down at my PC, went to ICQ, and there a new message flashes in the LAN, my friend sent me a JPG. But I don’t need a photo, I write to him: DOCX are coming! He does not want to, he says that JPEG is better, well, or at least PNG. And I told him: only in Word, IMHO! Ask the site admin. He asked. The administrator answered him: “PPKS. MB RAR or ZIP "- well, what the hell?! I studied at TGNGU, I don’t need to sell here!

I hope I will not need to decipher the essence of this correspondence to you. Or is it still necessary? And how are you with the knowledge of abbreviations, eh? Do you think they need to know or not?

I think you have already guessed what the conversation will be about today: what are abbreviations and how to use them correctly. As well as a list of examples, both widely used and rarer. And my assistant, expert, linguist and specialist in different languages ​​will help us with this.

We owe the appearance of this beautiful word to the language of science - Latin. It was from there that the word ‘brevis’ – “short” – migrated to Italian. Where it has undergone a change, it has grown the prefix 'ab-', lost the small ending '-s' and acquired the long '-atura'. And in this form it received a very specific meaning: "reduction in writing and printing." And since writing and printing create a flow of information, it is clear that we are talking about words.

Abbreviation History

The main meaning of the abbreviation is the transfer of more information with less means and in a shorter time. In ancient times, when books were written by hand, and it was hard work, abbreviated spelling of frequently used words was a significant simplification of the work. In English, such a truncated spelling of the word denoting Christmas - Xmas, which has become an abbreviated version of the full word Christmas, is still very popular.

Also, word abbreviations were often used by craftsmen and artisans in those days when professional knowledge was inherited, to encrypt secrets in order to protect them from competitors.

The next period when abbreviations were relevant and useful was their use for the telegraph. It was the fastest way to transmit written messages from the beginning of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century, and in the USSR until the 1980s. Even in the personal telegraphic messages of ordinary people, abbreviations were used, meaning punctuation marks - TCHK (period), ZPT (comma) and others, since punctuation marks were used for special encoding, but only letters and numbers should have been present in messages.

In more professional areas, where messages had to be sent frequently and regularly, such as weather reports for pilots of departing passenger planes, abbreviations of constantly used terms were widely used.

English telegraphic abbreviations became the basis for the creation of the American Standard Encoding Table (ASCII Symbols), with the help of which computers recognize printed characters, both widely used and rare.

As you can see, this is a fairly widely used and convenient form of abbreviation. It is clear that its use is still present in our lives at all levels, from business language to everyday shortening of too long words.

Abbreviation of words in everyday life

For a long time in the Russian language, according to the rule, only nouns were abbreviated. However, the era of the Internet has arrived. Chopped words from written English slang quickly burst into our language, our programmers and advanced users began to urgently invent their own - and now more or less widely used set expressions and phrases are being abbreviated.

How are abbreviations made?

We meet with a letter abbreviation quite often in business documentation and when mentioning various organizations. Behind it, as a rule, is hidden the name of an institution, organization or position consisting of several words.

So many of them have already been invented that now those who want to create a new name must first check the list of existing abbreviations so as not to repeat themselves. Although not in all cases it is possible to come up with something original, as a result, coincidences are obtained: the GPU - the State Legal Department of the President of the Russian Federation and the GPU - a state environmental institution.

The shorter the abbreviation, the more likely the match. Therefore, along with the laconic and well-known Moscow State University (Moscow State University), you can also meet such a monster: GNUVNIVIPFiT - the State Scientific Institution of the All-Russian Research Veterinary Institute of Pathology, Pharmacology and Therapy.

Well, how did you get it right the first time?

I think almost everyone asks the question: why invent this. The answer is simple: the abbreviations of institutions are often artistically inscribed in the logos of these same institutions. Therefore, another role of the letter abbreviation is graphic.

How are words shortened?

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So, what are the ways to reduce words? Some people believe that only in initial letters. However, this is just one way to create a shortened and simplified name. It's called an abbreviation. This is the most widely used way of creating official abbreviations for organizations. FAS, FSIN, traffic police, GBOU - some abbreviations are constantly heard, some have to puzzle over.

We will talk about transcripts later, but for now let's move on to the second method: when words are reduced not to the first letter, but to its semantic part. This is how the system administrator turns into a system administrator, and the State Department into the State Department. The same type of abbreviation can be attributed to the method of abbreviating only the first word, which is attached to the full second word: commanders, head of department - this is easier to understand, isn't it?

The method of shortening words according to separate, far from always the main parts of words, was widely practiced in the newly created country of workers and peasants - the new government strove for innovation in everything. This often gave rise to quite funny abbreviations. You can read more about the ebullient activity of the unsinkable bureaucrats of that time in the imperishable works of I. Ilf and E. Petrov, and for example, I will give you such a masterpiece that came out from the pen of the officials of the young people's republic: Vserabis (All-Union Trade Union of Art Workers).

Time to train your brain! Decipher the following abbreviation from the same era: Zamkompomorde.

But the ideas for creating abbreviations did not end there. Restless abbreviators tried to confuse normal people and created ... mixed abbreviations, when some words are reduced to the first letter, and one word is not, for example: GlavAPU, Gulag, KamAZ.

Do you think it's over now? Ha, how! At the beginning of the twentieth century, abbreviations were widespread, which took the beginning from one word, and the end from the second. Most of these abbreviations are practically obsolete, but some you have no doubt met and used without even realizing that this is an abbreviation. Take, for example, the well-known "moped". It turns out that in this word the forming words "MOTO" and "velosiPED" were cunningly hidden. That is a bicycle equipped with a motor.

Another abbreviation method is purely graphic, because it is used only in writing: when the word is abbreviated to the initial and last letters: island (island), ave (avenue). This kind of abbreviation is often used by students when taking lecture notes. However, students do this in a way that is understandable only to them, and sometimes even incomprehensible. But the generally accepted abbreviations are clear to anyone who bothers to remember them or look into the dictionary.

In the same way, but only to the first letters of the keywords, they abbreviate when writing units of measures, weights, information, banknotes. Everyone knows that kg means “kilogram”, km means kilometer, and Mb means “megabyte”. Some abbreviations are so familiar that they have already begun to be pronounced in the same abbreviated form - for example, "give me a couple of keg potatoes" instead of "a couple of kilograms." Unlike abbreviations, most of these accepted international designations are written with a small letter.

As everyone who deals with a computer knows, in addition to written abbreviations, there are also colloquial ones in which gigabytes become "gigabytes".

As for modern ways of creating new abbreviations, strict rules apply only to the official formation of abbreviations from initial letters, because in this way names are officially encrypted at the state level. Then they are entered into a single register, fixed and issued circulars for different organizations - and other officials should know what is hidden behind this or that reduction.

So, summing up: there are several ways to form abbreviations:

• by first letters (more often for phrases of three or more words);
• on the basis of words (two, very rarely - three);
• mixed, combining both roots or separate parts of words, and letters;
• connected from the initial and final parts of words.

Pronunciation, stress and spelling

Okay, now you think you know everything, and you can shorten any tricky name. And nothing like that. So there would be a lot of confusion, because many abbreviations of letters seem to be the same, although they are radically different in meaning.

Would you like to get into the main Moscow store (also GUM) instead of the building of the humanities faculties of Moscow University (GUM)? And it is still quite real. The only difference is that the store got its name back in 1921 and has long since officially lost it, since now it is no longer an abbreviation, but a brand preserved in memory of the pre-existing abbreviation (State Department Store). But the university building received the official and current abbreviation of its name in 2005.

Although bureaucratic minds sometimes give rise to such monstrous abbreviations as, for example, GUZMOMOTSPBSPIDIZ (State Health Institution of the Moscow Region, Moscow Regional Center for the Prevention and Control of AIDS and Infectious Diseases), they are not very memorable. And they are certainly not used in conversation, in contrast to the same MKAD (Moscow Ring Road), which Muscovites actively use in everyday communication. In addition, they still have to write! And when it comes to practice, a number of questions arise:

• How to pronounce?
• Where to put emphasis?
• Can it be declined according to the rules of the Russian language?
• How are abbreviations spelled correctly?
• Why are some abbreviations written separately?

Let's look into this.

How to pronounce letter abbreviation

Of course, there are rules that describe how to pronounce these human-made abbreviations correctly or incorrectly. However, to be honest, all the rules come from the euphony and naturalness of the sound of a letter combination or word for the native language, in this case Russian. Therefore, in each rule there will be forms that are pronounced according to the rules, but there will also be exceptions. But you need to know the rules - at least in order not to get confused in a new and unfamiliar letter abbreviation.

1. If the abbreviation consists of several consonants, then it is simple, it is pronounced according to how these letters are called in the alphabet: GDP - ve-we-pe, VTsSPS - ve-tse-es-pe-es.
2. The presence of a vowel at the beginning or end of the abbreviation does not change the situation: most often such abbreviations are pronounced according to the alphabetic name of the letters: EU (e-es), GMO - (ge-em-o). Exceptions to this rule: the media and SKA. Also, the well-known abbreviation of the name of the country, the USA, is not pronounced according to the rules: it is pronounced either as a syllable -usa or as se-she-a, which, as you understand, does not convey the alphabetic name of these letters of the Russian language.
3. The presence of one or more vowels in a three-letter or more abbreviation allows you to pronounce it like a regular word: SES, MFA, FIFA, UN.

Emphasis on abbreviations

Well, if this is a simple abbreviation with one vowel, the stress will automatically fall on it. But in pronunciation, vowels creep in even in abbreviations consisting only of consonants. Otherwise, they would not have spoken. And if vowels appear, then the stress should be placed somewhere. And where to put it, pronouncing such a complex abbreviation as VLKSM?

According to the rules, the stress in the abbreviation formed from the reduction of Russian words is placed on the last syllable. With foreign abbreviations that are not translated into Russian, but simply the literal meaning is preserved, it is more difficult: how to pronounce NATO, NASA and the like correctly, you need to look in the dictionary.

Gender and declension

A feature of the Russian language is the addition of suffixes to convey belonging to the masculine, feminine or neuter gender, as well as to create a case form - declension. Does this rule apply to abbreviations? In the event that letter abbreviations end in a vowel, they remain unchanged, because even if the abbreviation sounds like a word, you cannot change the last letter without losing the meaning.

Attention! Under no circumstances should one say: “the leadership of FIFA” or “UNESCO has made a decision”.

Another thing is when there is one or more consonants at the end: then the form for inflection is attached to the abbreviation without losing the semantic parts. Therefore, such constructions as “the bride and groom left the registry office” are completely allowed.

Difficulty reading abbreviations

A person can, unwittingly, remember how this or that abbreviation is pronounced, just periodically hearing its mention in the news, advertising, films. But with speech synthesizers that convert texts into a sound range and vice versa, the situation is more complicated: the developers of such programs for the Russian language have yet to successfully teach them to recognize and correctly read abbreviations of varying degrees of complexity.

Perhaps the problem will be solved by adding a dictionary of abbreviations to the database - then the program, having found a set of capital letters in the text, will simply substitute how the abbreviation stands for. As for new and unfamiliar abbreviations, then if you don’t want to get into a mess, it’s better to familiarize yourself with the rules of pronunciation.

How to spell the abbreviation correctly

Even if you have learned how to correctly use some difficult-to-pronounce abbreviations in speech, questions can still arise when you have to write them. And since most often you have to write them in business documents, making mistakes is not a very good decision.

So, here are some basic rules for writing.

• Abbreviations formed from the first letters are capitalized if it is an abbreviation of its own name, for example: MGU (Moscow State University).
• Letter abbreviations are written with a small letter if the abbreviation hides not its own name, but a generalized one. But there are few of them - and as a rule, these are the abbreviations that gradually became generalized from their own names, which means they began to be written in small letters: university (higher educational institution), homeless (without a fixed place of residence).
• If the abbreviation is based on parts of the word that are the name, it is capitalized only at the beginning, as a normal proper name, for example, Ministry of Health (Ministry of Health). If the abbreviation is not a personal name, then it is written with a small letter, for example, department head (head of department).
• The abbreviation of the mixed type is difficult to write and rather quickly the spelling features are forgotten, over time, such an abbreviation is most often written in full capital letters, as, for example, KamAZ is no longer considered a mistake to write KAMAZ.

Important! Do not put a full stop after abbreviations!

These are general rules, however, in order not to make mistakes and write the abbreviation correctly, it is best to use a dictionary or the Internet. Widely used abbreviations will easily tell you, but it is best to look for rare forms on the official websites of the relevant institutions.

Why are some written together and some separately?

Such a question arises at the sight of abbreviations like: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Russian Federation. The answer is simple: like individual words, different abbreviations are written separately, since in full form they form a phrase from two different encrypted formations: Ministry of Foreign Affairs (institution) of the Russian Federation (state). Each of the parts of such an abbreviation phrase can be used separately: for example, the Foreign Ministry is often mentioned in the news, without specifying each time that it is a domestic ministry. And the abbreviation of the state's official name can be used with any other ministry.

The use of abbreviations in highly specialized areas

In medicine

In addition to business language, abbreviations are widely used in areas where various terms are constantly used. Speaking of this, one cannot ignore the use of abbreviations in medicine, because in terms of the number of terms, the science of the human body and its treatment easily competes with jurisprudence.

Some abbreviations are widely known to both doctors and patients, such as the gastrointestinal tract (gastrointestinal tract), SARS (acute respiratory viral infection) or AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome), others are known only to specialists, and even after deciphering individual abbreviations doctors climb into thick reference books.

These abbreviations are used in the management of medical records - cards, sick leaves, prescriptions, extracts - along with Latin terms. Even if we do not take into account the terrible medical handwriting, then even without this, not everyone can decipher the often mysterious letters. And since these documents are not about something extraneous, but about health - either ours or our loved ones - sometimes we try to figure out how serious the diagnosis is recorded there.

It used to be more difficult - interested parties had to seek clarification from a doctor they knew, if there was one.

Now we have available at any time and truly inexhaustible sources on the Internet.

If you don’t find what you need, and it doesn’t matter, in addition to ready-made articles, there are also thematic forums where everyone can share the necessary information. True, it is far from a fact that a more or less versed specialist will give you advice, but at least an idea in which direction to look, you can always get there.

For air transportation

According to the principle of abbreviations, special ICAO and IATA airport coding forms have been created, which are used by all interested parties, from air carriers to mechanics and ticket cashiers.

The unique code assigned to each airport instantly communicates the necessary information without further ado: in which country and in which city the desired place is located.

Sometimes they are called abbreviations for airports, but strictly speaking, they are not, since they often have a very remote resemblance to the name of both the airport itself and the city in which it is located. Why is this happening? Because the code must be unique and not match any other. In addition, cities can change names, but codes change much more slowly. For example, according to the international IATA system, the code of St. Petersburg is still consonant with the name of this city in Soviet times, Leningrad - LED.

The ICAO structure is much more universal: according to these codes, the first letter indicates the continent or part of it, the second corresponds to the country, the third and fourth are intended to designate the airport. For large countries, the second part of the code consists of three digits.

In military affairs

The military sphere is also replete with various abbreviations of long and confusing terms, since accuracy and brevity in this area are not a whim, but a necessity - often the score goes not even for minutes, but for fractions of seconds.

Some military abbreviations are known not only by former and current military or conscripts, but also by absolutely civilian, peaceful people who are far from this sphere. For example, most people will not be surprised, but will immediately understand what is at stake when they hear: “Look, an armored personnel carrier is driving.” And much less often, instead of this abbreviated name, you will hear its decoding - an armored personnel carrier.

It is clear that each type of troops has its own, specific reductions in weapons and service equipment. In addition, since the army does not exist in its own, separate world, topographic designations or abbreviations are widely used in the army lexicon, meaning defense enterprises. The fate of the entire military campaign may depend on the ability to use them, along with the skills of orienting on the map and on the ground. Until now, his own name, which has already become a household name, is still in use - Ivan Susanin: a patriot who led the enemy army into the deaf swamps.

In the technical documentation

Well, how to do without abbreviations in technology - from specialized to household? Of course, we sometimes come across technical abbreviations more often than we would like. Any technical data sheet, even for such an inexpensive product as radio headphones, will necessarily include a couple of ingenious abbreviations that are understandable to a specialist, but by no means to an ordinary user. And the abbreviations in the passports of prefabricated and complex products can completely drive an inexperienced beginner to despair.

But it is never too late to learn, and if you approach the issue seriously and thoughtfully, soon you can begin to understand areas that you could not even think about before.

Abbreviations in English, from English and other languages

Separately, I would like to consider the abbreviations that came to us from English as the language of international communication. A modern specialist cannot be considered as such if he does not speak a foreign language, most often English, since English terminology penetrates us in all areas. If you want to learn English, and even on your own at home, then read here.

It is clear that all the above areas of application of abbreviations are filled with English abbreviations in the same way, each of them is a separate topic for a new large article.

Abbreviations in computer and internet technology

However, I want to pay a little more attention to the field of computer technology - although Russia is now rapidly developing this area, in the United States development began and moved much further. In fact, it was there that the main standards of modern IT technologies were set. It is clear that they are inextricably linked with the English language.

Since we are also related to this area, let's take a closer look at what and when we are dealing with.

And it all starts with the well-known beginning of the electronic address of almost all sites: www is an abbreviation for the expression World Wide Web ().

And if you pay attention to the final letters in the email address of any site, there is also a certain encoding hidden there, often an abbreviation denoting the country.

Cleverly, this is called a "national domain", which is dedicated to a specific country. You have probably come across sites with the ending us or ru. The first domain name refers to sites located in the United States, and the second, I think, does not need to be explained. And if you don’t know what a domain is, but really want to, read.

Just like the code for airports, it must be unique and not the same as existing ones. Therefore, the winners are the countries that received it earlier - such an abbreviation will be closer to the name of their country. For example, little Laos fussed before the former republics of the USSR, which is why it has the domain name la, while for Latvia there is only a very remotely reminiscent name of their country lv, because lt was received by neighboring Lithuania.

In addition to national domain names, there are also universal ones, such as com and net. But I won't revisit here which sites use them.

And now you can test yourself for understanding the story that I told you at the very beginning.

Abbreviations are also extensions that are at the end of the name of a computer file after a dot and denote different types of files. We will consider the most common types of extensions that an Internet user usually deals with:

• for text documents and tables, the most used extensions are doc (after the release of Windows 7, the docx extension came into play), txt, xls;
• drawings, photos and moving pictures from several consecutive images are denoted by the extensions jpg (jpeg), bmp, tif, gif;
• sound files are hidden behind mp3, mpeg, wav extensions;
• videos can most often be found with the extension avi, mp4, flv, mov, mpg;
• zip, rar, 7z extensions are used for archiving;
• programs or applications that need to be installed in order to gain access to its capabilities (as well as viruses that inexperienced users inadvertently put on their computers) are most often hidden behind the .exe extension;
• the html extension is intended for the Internet and can only be opened using Internet browsers;
• the ppt (pptx) extension is intended for presentations created using Microsoft PowerPoint and opened for editing, but the pps (ppsx) file is intended only for viewing the finished presentation;
• a file with the pdf extension is universal, as it is suitable for different operating systems, texts with pictures, scans of various instructions and books are often “sewn up” in it.

Of course, these are not all file formats, but only the most unified in the computer field. Often, for various needs, software developers use their own, unique extensions that are used only in a specific program and nowhere else.

Important! The extension is only an indicator of what kind of file is hidden behind it. Replacing the extension letters manually will not turn text into video and video into audio, such interference will only make the file unreadable, which means you will ruin it.

The origin of the abbreviation names for these extensions is unknown to most users, just as the vast majority of people do not know why a light bulb works. Yes, this is not necessary, it is enough just to know what they mean and what they are used for. Moreover, progress continues. For example, with the spread of tablets and androids, new file formats have appeared that are compatible with these technical devices.

English abbreviations used on the Internet for communication

But there is probably no such area where English would be so tightly integrated into our daily life as in social networks. And abbreviations are no exception, because Americans are fans of saving time.

There was no Internet yet, and they had already reduced the word Okey to two letters - ok, and the name of one of their favorite holidays, Christmas, to a shortened version - Xmas. So you can imagine how famously they abbreviate any more or less regularly used phrases in written communication. Among them you can find OMG, LOL and WTF - I think for most of my readers these abbreviations do not need to be deciphered.

However, this is not all. If, when you meet such a masterpiece of bureaucratic thought as GNUVNIVIPFiT (State Scientific Institution All-Russian Research Veterinary Institute of Pathology, Pharmacology and Therapy), you think that only the mind of a bureaucrat can generate such a thing, then you are mistaken. Communicating with a foreigner on the network, you may well come across such a casual question: AWGTHTGTTA? Don't rack your brains, you were just asked "Are We Going To Have To Go Through This Again?"

Interesting: do you know that in addition to the abbreviation IMHO (IMHO - in my humble opinion), which has firmly entered the Russian-language network slang, there are two more options in English: IMO (in my opinion) and IMSHO (in my not so humble opinion), which express varying degrees of confidence in their own opinions.

Correct and incorrect foreign abbreviations

Often foreign, but widely used abbreviations are also used in the Russian-speaking environment. Sometimes such names are translated, for example, the OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe) in the original is called Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe - (OSCE). The same applies to the USA (United States of America), which in English is called USA (United States of America).

However, this principle is not always preserved when mastering abbreviations. So the NATO alliance remained unchanged - this abbreviation was transferred to the Cyrillic alphabet without changes from the Latin: NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). Perhaps because of the already existing euphony of the English abbreviation, or because of Russia's non-participation in this organization. Be that as it may, the state policy will change or not, and the name has already been perfectly fixed in the Russian language in this version.

It would be unfair not to mention at least a couple of words other languages, which also contribute, albeit less, but to the development of the Russian language. Did you know that the well-known name of the pharmacy ointment "Vaseline" is also an abbreviation invented by the pharmacist who invented it? It consists of the first syllable of the German word for "water" (Wasser), the Greek word for "oil" (elion) and a suffix in Latin meaning belonging.

As you can see, a person who knows the origin and method of abbreviations can consider himself encyclopedically educated and can both solve and compose crossword puzzles. They also often contain abbreviations as encrypted words.

Dictionary and list of abbreviations

I am not so presumptuous as to call my article a complete and comprehensive study of abbreviations. Having paid attention only to common and common abbreviations and how to create them in general, I left out of our attention less used in everyday life or narrowly professional words and terms. However, to make your search easier, here are some helpful resources.

The most complete source on the Internet is the dictionary of abbreviations sokr.ru.

Explanations of English abbreviations can be found on the website acronymfinder.com.

And here is a page with a list of medical abbreviations on Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_medical_abbreviations

A complete list of all domain zones in the world - http://www.general-domain.ru/katalog/domain-zone-mira.php

Airport codes, according to ICAO - http://airspot.ru/catalogue/airports/icao.

Examples of well-known abbreviations

And in the end, I want to introduce you to a small selection of abbreviations that are common now, as well as in the recent past, which includes their correct spelling, meaning and translation.

CNG filling stations - automobile gas filling compressor stations

ANO is an autonomous non-profit organization

BDSM - transliteration from English bondage / discipline (BD) and domination / submission (DS)

BMW - (from German Bayerische Motoren Werke AG, - "Bavarian Motor Works") brand of cars

BRICS is a group of five partner countries: Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa

GDP - gross domestic product

Komsomol - All-Union Leninist Communist Youth Union or Komsomol - according to the last three words

VDGO - in-house gas equipment

VPO - 1. Higher professional education; 2. All-Union Pioneer Organization; 3. Vladimir production association; 4. Office of the presidential guard; 5. Paramilitary fire brigade; 6. wet industrial waste; 7. straightening-tamping-finishing machine; 8. out-of-furnace processing (steel); 9. Vnukovo Civil Aviation Production Association; 10. internal contracting organization; 11. subsoil irrigation; 12. Military consumer society; 13. malicious software; 14. All-Russian production association.

VTB - Foreign Trade Bank

university - higher education institution

VTsSPS - All-Union Central Council of Trade Unions

GMO - genetically modified organism

GAI - State traffic inspectorate

GBOU - State Budgetary Educational Institution

GIBDD - State Road Safety Inspectorate

Glavkoverkh (Supreme Commander-in-Chief in Russia during World War I)

GLONASS - Global Navigation Satellite System

GO - civil defense

GOST - state standard

GRBS is the main manager of budgetary funds

GTO - "Ready for work and defense" - a program of sports training for the population in the USSR

HPP - state power plant

GRES - state district power plant

ddt - 1. Traffic accident; 2. Insecticide (dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane)

DNA is a macromolecule containing the genetic code, its name is deoxyribonucleic acid

DOSAAF - a public-state association in the USSR (a voluntary society for the assistance of the army, aviation and navy)

DOW - children's (or preschool) educational institution

DTI - an additional technological index, used to indicate the transfer of official mail

EU - European Union

UES - Unified Energy System

ZAGS - state bodies of registration of acts of civil status

ZIP - spare parts, tools, accessories

TIN - taxpayer identification number

IFTS - Inspectorate of the Federal Tax Service

CASCO - comprehensive car insurance, except for liability

KIPA - instrumentation and automation

checkpoint - checkpoint

KGB - State Security Committee

Laser - (from the English LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation) - amplification of light by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

LGBT - lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender - a designation for people of non-traditional sexual orientation

MIA - Ministry of Internal Affairs

NATO - (from the English North Atlantic Treaty Organization) North Atlantic Alliance

MGUPI - Moscow State University of Instrument Engineering and Informatics

MDF - (from the English. Medium Density Fibreboard) d Medium density fiberboard

MIREA is outdated. Name of the Moscow Technological Institute, Moscow Institute of Radio Engineering, Electronics and Automation

mortuary - place of final registration of citizens (20s)

MOU - municipal educational institution

MRI - Magnetic Resonance Therapy

MREO - Interdistrict Registration and Examination Department

MTS - from English. Mobile Telephone System

MFC - multifunctional center

Ministry of Emergency Situations - Ministry of Emergency Situations

NTV - our television, the name of the Russian TV channel

NTD - normative and technical documentation

OKTMO - All-Russian classifier of territories of municipalities

UN - United Nations

RZD - Russian Railways

RSFSR - Russian Federative Socialist Republic

USSR - Union of Soviet Socialist Republics

CIS - Commonwealth of Independent States

OJSC - open joint stock company

OSCE - Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe

OGE - Main State Exam

OMON - special purpose mobile detachment

OSAGO is a policy of compulsory insurance of civil liability of vehicle owners

OFP - general physical training

PJSC - public joint stock company

pvc - polyvinyl chloride - colorless transparent plastic

PFR - Pension Fund of Russia

RANEPA - Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration

RSChS - Russian (unified) system (prevention) of emergency situations

SZV - information about earnings (remuneration)

SKA is a sports club of the army, a hockey club that arose in the USSR

SMS - (from (English short message service - “short message service”)

SNILS - insurance number of an individual personal account

SNT - garden non-profit partnership

St. Petersburg - St. Petersburg

AIDS - Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome

SPPK - relief spring safety valve

SRO - self-regulatory organization

Service station - service station

STS - 1. network of television stations; 2. cellular telephone connection; 3. ambulance ship

TASS - television agency of the Soviet Union

TNT - Your New Television, federal channel of Russia

CHP - combined heat and power plant

UKSUS - Department of Coordination of Supply and Sales Settlement

FMS - Office of the Federal Migration Service

UFSIN - Department of the Federal Penitentiary Service

FAPSI - federal agency of government communications and information

FAS - Federal Antimonopoly Service

GEF - Federal State Educational Standard

FSB - Federal Security Service

FSIN - Federal Penitentiary Service

FSKN - Federal Drug Control Service

FIFA - (from French Fédération Internationale de Football Association)

Federal executive authorities - federal executive authorities

CSKA - Central Army Sports Club, hockey team

UNESCO - (from the English UNESCO - United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) a specialized agency of the United Nations for education, science and culture

What other interesting abbreviations do you know?