There were many periods when foreigners controlled the main state affairs. Most often they were representatives of the German lands. It is with one of the Germans that the term "Bironism" is associated. This concept is negative. Although not everything is as simple as it might seem at first glance.
Characteristics of the concept
Bironovshchina is the reactionary regime of the first half of the eighteenth century in Russia. In the decade when Empress Anna Ioannovna reigned.
Character traits:
- the dominance of foreigners - basically, Russia was filled with Germans who occupied important positions in the civil service;
- exploitation of the people - such an attitude was characteristic of most of the rulers of the country;
- persecution of the dissatisfied - distinguished by cruelty, denunciations were encouraged;
- depletion of the state treasury - this was facilitated by the inability to govern the state, excessive luxury at court, embezzlement by favorites.
The word "Bironism" was coined by Field Marshal Munnich. He was the favorite of Peter the Great. Being a German, Munnich hated the favorite of Anna Ioannovna. As soon as he had such an opportunity, he dealt with him. But about this in order.
The coming to power of Anna Ioannovna
Bironovshchina is a term that is associated with the period of the reign of Anna Ioannovna. Her coming to power was a complete surprise both for her and for the courtiers. The former Duchess of Courland did not play a special role in the court struggle.
She ascended the throne through the February coup of 1730. Anna Ioannovna became empress without signing any documents that would limit her power. She received all the power of the Russian autocrat.
Anna Ioannovna was not prepared for the role that she got. She did not have the necessary skills and knowledge, and indeed had no desire to learn. At the time of her accession, she was thirty-seven years old. According to contemporaries, she did not have a pleasant appearance, had a large physique.
In her youth, she was given in marriage to the Duke of Courland, who soon died. For security reasons, Peter the Great did not look for a groom for Anna. So she remained in foreign lands for eighteen years. Despite her status as a widow, she was not alone. She had prominent favorites at various times. One of them was Biron.
Byron
Bironovshchina is a term associated with the period when Biron was the favorite of Anna Ioannovna. In fact, in the history of Russia there were four Birons, who at one time played a role in the history of the state. The favorite was Ernst Johann. He had two brothers who also served in Russia.
The older brother's name was Carl. He is known for his escape from Swedish captivity, he later became the governor-general of Moscow. The second brother's name was Gustav. He distinguished himself during the capture of Ishmael.
The favorite of the Empress had a son. His name was Peter. Biron sought to marry him to who was to become the heir to the throne. These attempts were unsuccessful.
He came from a small estate nobility. He began serving under Anna Ioannovna in 1718. He was married to the lady-in-waiting of the Duchess. In his marriage, he had three children. Some researchers suggest that some of Biron's children were born to the Empress. But there is no evidence for this.
Biron had a great influence on the empress. Before her death, she appointed him regent. He was supposed to rule the state while he was a minor. The appointment took place in the presence of many witnesses, while the empress was of sound mind. It was made in oral and written forms. But this did not save Ernst Johann from problems. He was accused of seizing the regency and eliminated.
Who was the main figure in the court?
Although Bironism in Russia is associated with the activities of Biron, many historians agree that Heinrich Osterman was involved in the main internal and external state affairs.
He was born in the family of a pastor in Westphalia, was educated at the University of Jena. The duel changed his life. He was forced to flee to Amsterdam and then to Russia. Once in a foreign country, he quickly learned Russian. Three years later, in 1707, Osterman became a translator and gained confidence from Peter the Great. He was his adviser. The ruler appreciated Osterman, granting him many lands.
He was one of the associates of Peter the Great, and after his death he became the de facto leader of Russia's foreign policy. Since 1730 he received the dignity of a count.
State activity favorites
The policy of the state during the Bironovshchina (the period of the reign of Anna Ioannovna):
- a cabinet of ministers was established - the whole initiative belonged to Osterman;
- conclusion of trade agreements with Holland, England;
- the conclusion of the Belgrade peace, which ended the war with the Turks;
- reform of the fleet - the creation of the Arkhangelsk shipyard.
Such actions can hardly be called those that undermine the state. The persecution of Osterman and Biron began after the death of Anna Ioannovna. They were accused of handing out government seats to foreigners and persecuting Russians.
Both favorites were sentenced to death, which was changed to exile on the day of its execution.
The reign of Anna Ioannovna is connected with the concept of "Bironism". As Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin once noted, Biron was not lucky in that he was a German. That is why they decided to hang all the sins of that time on him. But if you study the activities of the rulers of that era, it becomes clear that at that time no one thought about the people. Each new ruler sought to benefit for himself and stay on the throne as long as possible.
The modern meaning of the concept
The term "Bironism" today means the dominance of foreigners in the public and political life of the state. It is used with a negative connotation.
Associations with the term:
- theft;
- espionage;
- looting of the treasury;
- repression;
- crazy holidays.
In folklore, no mention of Bironism has been preserved. This is due to the fact that Biron's activities concerned the life of nobles, officials, guards soldiers. Palace coups had little to do with the lives of ordinary people.
The reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740) is called "Bironovshchina". This name is logical, since the favorite of the Empress Ernst Johann Biron ran all the affairs in the country. "Bironovshchina" is characterized by increased investigation, repression, reprisals, inept government of the country, and so on. Was it really that bad? Indeed, the regime of Anna's rule was much tougher compared to what was happening under Catherine 1 and Peter 2. But it is impossible to say that there was tyranny in Russia at that time and a bloody regime. In many ways, this topic was promoted by Catherine 2, and under her reign, Anna Ioannovna began to be viewed from an extremely negative point of view. In fact, the reality was not as terrible and not as unambiguous as it is customary to talk about it.
Any modern history textbook reduces the essence of Bironism to the following:
- Bloody regime with tougher police investigation.
- Waste, bribery and embezzlement, as a result of which Russia did not have a budget.
- Biron negatively influenced Anna.
- The terrible dominance of Russia by the Germans. The Germans are to blame for all the troubles of the regime.
Let's take a step-by-step look at how things really were, and what happened in the Russian Empire from 1730 to 1740.
Byron's bloody regime
Biron, for all his shortcomings, did not like blood and resorted to violence only in case of emergency. Indeed, executions, repressions and punishments of various levels have increased in Russia. But to say that this is the ideas of Bironovism, and that the Germans are to blame for this, is impossible. Suffice it to say that Ushakov, not Biron, was responsible for the police investigation, repressions and executions. Let me remind you that Ushakov is a man of Peter 1, whose regime was really bloody and merciless. And in terms of the volume of repressions, the reign of Anna Ioannovna did not even come close to what happened in the Petrine era. After all, even Peter 1 himself was a terrible connoisseur of executions of torture and violence. An illustrative example - he tortured his own son, Tsarevich Alexei, with his own hands, and tortured him to death.
Therefore, it is impossible to say that Biron's regime was bloody and merciless. Everything is relative. Just 10-15 years before him, the regime was much more dangerous and bloodthirsty, but in the textbooks Biron is a tyrant, and Peter 1 is an advanced person. But this is not even the point - Biron had a mediocre attitude to repressions and executions. Direct fault on Ushakov (not German - Russian).
The situation in the economy
By the end of 1731 the treasury was empty. The main reason is a luxurious life at court, theft, lack of management in the country, bribes. The question of finding money arose. Biron solved it together with Anna due to 3 sources:
- They began to squeeze out arrears from peasants and ordinary townspeople. In general, it is interesting that as soon as money ran out in the Russian Empire, the rulers immediately began to look for ways to get it from the peasants.
- Increase in the number of repressions. After the repression, all the property of a person was transferred to the treasury. For 10 years, 20 thousand people were repressed.
- Sale of rights to use (extract) natural resources.
Only 5 years passed between the reign of Peter 1 and the "Bironovshchina" (the reign of Anna Ioannovna). During this time, the cost of maintaining the yard has grown almost 6 times.! The French ambassador wrote about this: “For all the luxury of the Court, no one else is paid money.” To no one does this mean the army, navy, officials, scientists, and so on. The money was barely enough to keep the Court in luxury. The main point of their attraction is arrears. For example, in 1732 they planned to collect 2.5 million rubles in taxes, but in reality they collected 187 thousand. That is, the arrears were terrible. To seize them from the population, the Empress, at the suggestion of Biron, organized "finishing raids." This is a regular army, which knocked out arrears from people by any means. This was the essence of "Bironism" - a tough, bloody regime, merciless to its people. The response of the population is a bad attitude towards the Germans. It was believed that all the troubles were due to the fact that there were a lot of Germans at the court (the same Biron), who did not care about the Russian people. Regarding the "finishing raid" - the idea of setting the army on the population is not an invention of Anna and her entourage. This is a smooth continuation of the policy of Peter 1.
Foreigners (mostly Germans) did not spare the Russian treasury. In my opinion, an illustrative example of why there was not enough money in Russia is unreasonable spending. For 10 years, Biron bought jewelry (for himself and relatives) at the expense of the treasury in the amount of 2 million rubles. For comparison, during the same time, 470 thousand rubles were spent on the maintenance of the Academy of Sciences.
Another problem is bribes. Biron was very fond of bribes, but then everyone took bribes. The most famous bribe received by Biron is 1 million rubles from the British for the right to transport goods through Russia without duty. As a result, the treasury annually lost 5 million rubles.
Are the Germans to blame for everything?
The Germans occupied many key positions under Anna: the favorite - Biron, diplomacy - Osterman and Levendom, the army - Minich, industry - Schemberg, colleges - Mengden and so on. But there is also a downside, which is often forgotten - there were a large number of Russian people who held high positions, and they should fully share the responsibility for the Bironovshchina regime. Suffice it to say that the head of the secret office was Andrei Ushakov, who was one of the five most influential people of his time. Nevertheless, only the Germans are blamed for all the troubles of the era.
An important fact showing that no one pushed the Russian nobility is the number of generals in the army. In 1729 (before Anna's accession), there were 71 generals in the army, of which 41 were foreigners (58%). In 1738 there were 61 generals and 31 foreigners (51%). Moreover, it was during the period of "Bironism" that the rights of foreign and Russian officers were equalized in the army. This inequality was introduced by Peter 1, obliging to pay double salaries to foreign officers. Burchard Munnich, who commanded the army, canceled this decree and equalized salaries in the army. Moreover, it was Minich who in 1732 forbade the recruitment of foreign officers into the army.
Biron's influence on Anna or Anna on Biron?
One of the main myths of Russian history - Biron negatively influenced Anna, awakening base feelings in her, under which the "Bironism" regime was feasible. It is difficult to check who influenced whom and how (after all, if someone is able to influence the Russian empress to such an extent that she began to arrange mass executions, then such a person, in principle, should not be in power). Another thing is that the negative character traits were inherent in Anna herself much more than in Biron. A few examples will suffice to prove this:
- The Empress reveled in cruelty. This was partly reflected in her passion for hunting. But for Anna, hunting was not a sporting interest, but a manic desire to kill. Judge for yourself. Only for 1 summer season of 1739, Anna personally killed: 9 deer, 1 wolf, 374 hares, 16 wild goats, 16 gulls, 4 wild boars, 608 ducks. 1028 killed animals in just 1 season!
- Anna Ioannovna's favorite pastime, from which she laughed to tears, was the fights of jesters. They fought among themselves, attacked those who came to the Court, threw feces at them, and so on. The Empress was delighted.
Biron himself was a poorly educated, arrogant, rude person. But he did not share Anna's weakness. Biron had another hobby - horses. At that time they knew - if you want to please Biron - you must be well versed in horses. The favorite spent almost all his time in the stables and arenas.
With horses he is a man, and with people he is a horse.
Today it is customary to blame Biron for deciding almost all state issues in the stable. But this is nothing more than a habit. Why is this habit worse than the habit of Count Shuvalov (Mikhail Lomonosov's patron), who conducted the reception at the moments when he was cut, curled, dyed, and so on?
A much more telling example in the difference between the characters of Anna and Ernest is the reaction to the opinions of others. Anna literally demanded that Ushakov (the head of the secret police) daily report what others were saying about her. She was extremely concerned about this. Biron, on the other hand, stopped any reports of Ushakov, since he was absolutely indifferent to what was said about him behind his back. Psychologically, this is a sign of a strong personality, unlike Anna.
On the way to favoritism
Many historians say that Anna herself became a German, therefore Russia is a foreign country for her and therefore she did not even rule her. These are nothing more than words, but the fact is that Anna Ioannovna, despite living in Courland, never learned the German language!
In 1710, Peter 1 gave Anna in marriage to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Courland. The marriage turned out to be short-lived: on October 31, 1710 they played a wedding, and on January 10, 1711 Friedrich-Wilhelm died. So Anna became the Duchess of Courland. At her court in 1718, a provincial German nobleman, Ernst Biron, appeared. Further among historians there are 2 versions:
- An affair begins between Anna and Ernst.
- In 1718, Bestuzhev-Ryumin was Anna's favorite, and only in 1727 did Biron become the favorite.
It is impossible to say which version is true. The official story converges on the second option. Here I would like to make one more point. The word “favorite” sounds very beautiful, and many people can hardly imagine what is hidden behind it. The really favorite is the lover. Nevertheless, in the era of palace coups, the favorites played an even greater role at court than the emperors themselves.
For a long time Anna was dependent on Biron, especially when she lived in Courland. Biron, although he was not of the most noble origin, was still his own. Anna was a stranger. The local nobles listened to Biron, but not to Anna. Let me remind you, by the way, that Anna never learned German. In those years, they became very close, and in the future Anna could no longer live without Biron.
Anna Ioannovna's father was Ivan (John) Alekseevich, the youngest of the five sons of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich and his first wife Maria Ilyinichna Miloslavskaya. The quiet and sickly prince, who had four older brothers, was not perceived by anyone as the heir to the throne. He was not allowed to take part in state affairs, and he did not study military affairs either. Ivan loved unhurried conversations with holy elders - monks and services in the Kremlin cathedrals ... Perhaps this helped him endure bitter losses: the death of his mother, then his father, the imminent death of his short-lived brother Fyodor Alekseevich (other elder brothers of the prince died earlier).
Ivan turned out to be on the sidelines when the Naryshkins, relatives of Alexei Mikhailovich's second wife, declared not him, a 16-year-old young man, but the 10-year-old son of his stepmother, Peter, to be king. This was one of the reasons for the Streltsy rebellion that began on May 15, 1682. The archers demanded that both half-brothers reign together and the "first" king would be the eldest of them - Ivan, and the "second" - Peter. The boyars who gathered for a council decided that such a demand was reasonable - "when one goes to war, he will rule the other country." It was announced in all churches and cities that there were now two kings in Russia, but due to the illness of one and the infancy of the other, their sister, Princess Sofya Alekseevna, took on the “burden of government”.
A year and a half later, 18-year-old Ivan was married to 20-year-old Praskovya Fedorovna Saltykova, after which the “first” tsar devoted himself entirely to family life, fasting and prayers. Revolts of archers and schismatics raged around, Princess Sophia was at enmity with her half-brother, Tsar Peter, and Ivan rejoiced at the birth of another daughter from Queen Praskovya. He lived so quietly that his sudden death on February 8, 1696 went unnoticed by many.
Queen Praskovya was left a widow. She was a beautiful, tall woman. Unlike her late husband, she had a stern and domineering character.
Three of her daughters (two of her children died) - Ekaterina, Anna and Praskovya - the queen raised in the same way that she herself was raised and raised. The main attention was paid to good nutrition: mothers and nannies fed the princesses full, stately. Growing up in an atmosphere of prejudice and superstition, the girls believed in sorcerers and prophets, in omens and miracles. They were taught history and geography, reading and calligraphy, but the knowledge they received left much to be desired. So, one of the sisters, sending another gift for the holiday, could attach a note to him with the following words: “I am sorry, your faithful friend, from Maskva.”
However, times were different. Peter severely cracked down on those who did not want to obey his innovations. And the queen tried for the sake of herself and her daughters to keep up with the times. Leaving Moscow and his beloved Izmailovo near Moscow, Praskovya Fedorovna went to the "paradets" (i.e. paradise) being built by Peter - Petersburg. Here she did not miss a single court celebration, she was courteous with Peter, Catherine and their entourage. Seeing what the royal daughters were taught, she considered it necessary to teach her own the same.
Moscow
St. Petersburg
Anna Ioannovna(Anna Ivanovna; January 28 (February 7) ( 16930207 ) - October 17 (28) - Russian Empress from the Romanov dynasty.
Early biography
In April 1708, the royal relatives, including Anna Ioannovna, moved to St. Petersburg.
Domestic politics
Having come to power, Anna dissolved the Supreme Privy Council, replacing it the following year with the Cabinet of Ministers, which included A. I. Osterman, G. I. Golovkin, A. M. Cherkassky. For the first year of her reign, Anna tried to attend the meetings of the Cabinet accurately, but then she completely lost interest in business and already in 1732 she was here only twice. Gradually, the Cabinet acquired new functions, including the right to issue laws and decrees, which made it very similar to the Supreme Privy Council.
During the reign of Anna, the decree on single inheritance was canceled (1731), the Shlyakhetsky Cadet Corps was established (1731), and the service of the nobles was limited to 25 years. Anna's inner circle were foreigners (E. I. Biron, K. G. Levenwolde, B. X. Minich, P. P. Lassi).
By the end of the reign of Anna Ioannovna, the number of inhabitants of the Russian Empire, according to the revision of 1742, was more than 20 million people.
Russian wars
Russia, since you are happy
Under Anna's strong cover!
What beauty do you see?
With this new triumph!
Do not be afraid of the military:
Abusive harm flees from there,
The people where Anna glorifies.
Let evil envy pour its poison,
Let your tongue, furious, gnaws;
That our joy despises.
During the reign of Empress Anna, new guards regiments were formed - the Izmailovsky Life Guards (infantry) and the Horse Guards Life Guards (cavalry).
Foreign policy in general continued the traditions of Peter I.
On the initiative of the Sultan's court in 1737, a congress was held in Nemirov on the global settlement of the conflict with the participation of Russians, Austrians and Ottomans. Negotiations did not lead to peace and hostilities resumed.
In 1739, Russian troops defeated the Ottomans near Stavuchany and captured the Khotyn fortress. But in the same year, the Austrians suffer one defeat after another and go to the conclusion of a separate peace with the Porte. In September 1739, a peace treaty was signed between Russia and the Porte. Under the Belgrade Treaty, Russia received Azov without the right to keep the fleet, a small territory on the Right-Bank Ukraine went to Russia; Big and Small Kabarda in the North. The Caucasus and a large area south of Azov were recognized as a "barrier between the two empires."
In 1731-1732, a protectorate was declared over the Kazakh Little Zhuz.
Bironovshchina
She is almost my height, but somewhat thicker, with a slender figure, a swarthy, cheerful and pleasant face, black hair and blue eyes. She shows a kind of solemnity in her body movements that will amaze you at first sight, but when she speaks, a smile plays on her lips, which is extremely pleasant. She talks a lot with everyone and with such tenderness that it seems as if you are talking to someone equal. However, she does not lose the dignity of a monarch for one minute; she seems to be very gracious and I think that she would be called a pleasant and subtle woman if she were a private person. The Empress's sister, the Duchess of Mecklenburg, has a gentle expression, a good physique, black hair and eyes, but is short, fat, and cannot be called a beauty; cheerful disposition, and gifted with a satirical look. Both sisters speak only Russian and can understand German.
The Spanish diplomat Duke de Liria is very delicate in his description of the Empress:
Empress Anna is fat, swarthy, and her face is more masculine than feminine. In getting around, she is pleasant, affectionate and extremely attentive. She is generous to the point of extravagance, loves splendor excessively, which is why her court surpasses all other European ones in splendor. She strictly demands obedience to herself and wants to know everything that is done in her state, does not forget the services rendered to her, but at the same time remembers well the insults inflicted on her. They say that she has a tender heart, and I believe this, although she carefully hides her actions. In general, I can say that she is a perfect sovereign ...
The duke was a good diplomat - he knew that in Russia the letters of foreign envoys are opened and read.
There is also a legend that, in addition to Biron, she had a lover - Karl Veghele.
End of reign
Anna Ioannovna. Engraving by Ivan Sokolov, 1740
On October 5 () 1740, Anna Ioannovna sat down to dine with Biron. Suddenly she became ill, she fell unconscious. The disease was recognized as dangerous. Meetings began among the higher dignitaries. The issue of succession to the throne was resolved long ago, the empress named her two-month-old child, John Antonovich, her successor. It remained to decide who would be regent until he came of age, and Biron was able to collect votes in his favor.
On October 16 () the sick empress had a seizure, foreshadowing a quick death. Anna Ioannovna ordered Osterman and Biron to be called. In their presence, she signed both papers - about the inheritance after her of Ivan Antonovich and about the regency of Biron.
At 9 pm on October 17 () 1740, Anna Ioannovna died at the age of 48. Doctors declared cause of death
Anna Ioannovna (February 7 (January 28), 1693 - October 28 (17), 1740) - Russian Empress. She was from the Romanov dynasty: her mother was Praskovya Fedorovna Saltykova, and her father was Ivan Alekseevich Romanov.
Anna Ivanovna Romanova: childhood and youth
Anna was born in the Cross Chamber in the Moscow Kremlin. In 1696, when she was 3 years old, her father died. After this event, Praskovya Fedorovna, together with all the children (Ekaterina, Anna and Praskovya), moved to a residence near Moscow, located in the village of Izmailovo.
The queen was actively involved in the upbringing: she studied the alphabet, arithmetic, geography, dances and several foreign languages. German children were taught by Johann Christian Dietrich Osterman, and French and dance by Stefan Ramburg.
In her policy, Empress Anna Ioannovna was guided by the reign of Peter the Great. On March 15 (4), the Supreme Privy Council was dissolved, and its place was taken by the Senate, organized in the same form as under Peter.
In the same year, the Office of Secret Investigation Affairs was established, headed by A. I. Ushakov. Anna was afraid of conspiracies, so espionage actively developed under her, many were suspected of treason: more than 20 thousand people were exiled to Siberia, about a thousand were executed, including the princes Dolgoruky.
In 1730, Anna Ivanovna issued a manifesto to the Synod, in accordance with this document, it was required to observe the purity of Orthodoxy, the next year an order was received to burn sorcerers. In 1738, the death penalty for blasphemy was introduced.
In 1731, the decree on single inheritance was canceled.
Under Anna Ioannovna, military reform was also actively carried out under the leadership of Minikhin. The Izmailovsky and Horse Guards regiments were organized. The gentry cadet corps was opened for noble children. In 1736, the service life of the nobles was limited to 25 years.
Under Anna, the Russian Empire came out on top in the production of iron. In 1736, all industrial workers became the property of the owners of the factories.
In 1731, the Cabinet of Ministers was created, it included A. I. Osterman, A. M. Cherkassky and G. I. Golovkin. In the first year, the Empress actively attended meetings, but later lost interest in them. The scope of the Cabinet of Ministers was expanded: in 1732 he received the right to issue laws and decrees.
The period of the reign of Anna Ivanovna is often called "Bironism", since the favorite E. I. Biron influenced the empress and her politics. This definition is associated with disrespect for Russian traditions, the great influence of the Germans, embezzlement, cruelty and persecution.
Since Anna Ioannovna lived in Courland in economical conditions, being the Russian Empress, she spent huge amounts of money on various entertainments. The Empress at court had dwarfs, giants, storytellers, fortune-tellers and jesters. She loved hunting.
The luxury of the palace and the splendor of the balls were admired by the wife of the English resident, Lady Rondo, de la Shetardie, the marquis of the court of Louis XV, as well as French officers.
The most famous event was the wedding of the jesters Prince M. A. Golitsyn and A. I. Buzheninova in a specially built Ice House. The organizer of this event was Volynsky, who in this way tried to win the favor of the empress.
In Moscow, Anna Ioannovna lived in a wooden palace - "Annenhof", erected in the Kremlin on her orders. In 1731, the "summer Annenhof" was erected, but it burned down in 1746.
Anna Ioannovna: foreign policy
AI Osterman played a big role in the foreign policy of the Russian Empire during the reign of Anna Ivanovna.
In 1726 he made an alliance with Austria.
In 1733-1735, the Russian Empire and Austria participated in the War of Polish Succession after the death of August II, as a result of which the throne of Poland went to August III.
In 1735 - 1739 there was a Russian-Turkish war, which ended with the signing. As a result, the Russian Empire lost the lands conquered in this war, and also lost the right to have a fleet on the Black Sea.
Death of Anna Ioannovna. Question of succession
In 1732, Anna announced her successor - John Antonovich (), who was the great-grandson of Ivan V.
On October 16 (5), 1740, the Empress had dinner with Biron. At this event, she became ill, and Anna fainted. After this incident, the question of succession to the throne arose. John Antonovich was still a child, so it was necessary to decide on the regent.
On October 27 (16), Empress Anna Ioannovna appointed Biron as regent. She passed away the next day. The cause of death was gout and urolithiasis.
Anna Ioannovna was buried in the Peter and Paul Cathedral in St. Petersburg.
