Reformation and Counter-Reformation
Reformation - movement in Western and Central Europe XVI- start 17th century aimed at reforming the Catholic Christianity in accordance with bible.
Since the 15th century The Catholic Church was going through a crisis of popular confidence: there was a rethinking of the theory of the “one-saving” role of the Catholic Church, the meaning of various church sacraments, and Holy Tradition. The luxury of the papal court, the morals prevailing there, the “acquisitiveness” of the church, which owned vast land plots and enormous wealth, causes great irritation. In these conditions Reformation begins in Germany then spread throughout Europe. Why in Germany? Here, a movement is born for the revision of obsolete religious dogmas and the reorganization of the church, the ideologist of which was Professor Wittenberg. University, theologian Martin Luther (1483-1546). October 31, 1517. he proclaimed his 95 abstracts against indulgences which challenged the pope's right to absolution. (indulgence - liberation from the temporary punishment of sins). The unfolding controversy between Luther and the pope grew into a conflict after a German theologian in 1520 publicly burned papal bull about his excommunication from the church. At that time the formation of Lutheran doctrine, the main provisions of which can be formulated as follows: Holy Scripture is the only source of faith; only faith makes a person righteous; only two church sacraments should be preserved - baptism and communion; purgatory does not exist; it is necessary to abandon the veneration of the Mother of God and the saints, etc. Luther's teachings found the support of broad sections of German society. He was supported by many princes of Central and Northern Germany, who sought to get out of the power of Rome. When the head of the Holy Roman Empire, Charles V, recognized Lutheranism as a creed, but ordered an end to the “secularization” (alienation) of church lands, Luther’s supporter princes protested, and since then they have been called “Protestant”. The term then extended to all Reformationists in Europe. In the first half of the XVI century. there are many directions and currents in the Protestant ideology, the largest of which was Calvinism, named after a French jurist and theologian John Calvin (1509-1564 years .). At the core of Calvin's teachings was dogma about "predestination", the essence of which was that faith makes righteous only the person whom the Lord has chosen, salvation depends solely on this destiny. The Calvinist church was governed by democratic principles, it encouraged hoarding and trade, which contributed to the development of capitalist relations.
The success of Protestantism, its widespread spread in Europe, forced the papacy to undertake a number of measures to combat the "Protestant heresy". The combination of these measures is called counter-reformation". In 1542, a reorganization takes place inquisition, ruthlessly cracking down on "heretics". An "Index of Forbidden Books" is being compiled, church censorship is expanding. One of the most effective means in the religious struggle is Jesuit Order, founded in 1540 by Ignatius Layola (1491 - 1556). The main task Orders was defending and spreading Catholicism in Europe and around the world . As a result, the active measures taken by the Catholic Church allowed it to maintain its dominant position in Europe and slow down the advance of Protestantism. Religious changes in Europe, which were revolutionary in nature, affected all spheres of society - from agriculture to geopolitics. The clash of the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation leads to numerous religious wars, in which almost all European states are drawn to one degree or another.
Question 21. Ivan the Terrible, his domestic and foreign policy. (1533 - 1564).
After the second marriage of Vasily III with Princess Glinskaya Aug 25 1530. a son was born - Ivan. When Vasily III died, in 1533 Ivan was3 years . According to official annals, Elena Glinskaya was the guardian, according to unofficial - board of trustees (1533-1534), consisting of 7 people: Belsky, Shuisky ,specific princeYuri Glinsky , Then became the guardian Elena Glinskaya (1534-1538).
In 1538-1547.- the struggle for influence on Ivan IV between the boyars: Shuisky (until the beginning of the 40s), Belsky (until 1544), Glinsky (until 1547). In 1547, the Grand Duke takes the title of king, to strengthen the princely power. In the same year, a wedding takes place with Anastasia Zakharyina. July 1547 - a fire in Moscow, then they began to smash the Glinskys as the perpetrators. For the first time, the king saw the power of popular action. Among the rebels were nobles, this showed that they were not satisfied with their position. The uprising of 1547 showed the need for reforms. The nobles began to write petitions to the king, they indicated that in order to strengthen the state, it was necessary to bring the nobles closer to the throne. Target b - improving the position of the nobles, as the basis of royal power. Was createdElected Rada - reform government: Metropolitan Macarius, Kurbsky, Viskovaty, Adashev, Sylvester - author of "Domostroy".
February 27, 1549 was convenedZemsky Sobor - a meeting of "every rank of people." It was attended by all members of the Boyar Duma, the highest ranks of the church, headed by Metropolitan Macarius, court officials, governors, Moscow nobles, and representatives from the township (ordinary townspeople). The council was an innovation and was convened to strengthen the power of the king and limit the rights and willfulness of the big boyars . In particular, he limited the rights of the boyar governors, removing some of the judicial and administrative functions from their jurisdiction and transferring these functions to tsarist officials, He has made a decision developnew Sudebnik . The convening of the 1st Zemsky Sobor meant the creation in Russia of a class-representative institution andtransformation of Russia into a class-representative monarchy.
In 1550 . wasaccepted tnew Sudebnik , consisting of 101 articles.
Sudebnik consolidated a new system of government, consolidated the rights of the nobility, reduced the rights of the boyars, the obligation to participate in the courts of representatives of the local population, the most important criminal offenses were removed from the sphere of power of the governors, the nobles were declared outside the governor's court; the right to go to St. George's Day remained, but the size of the elderly increased, it was forbidden to turn the nobles into slaves, canceled the trading privileges of the boyars; the collection of trade duties (“tamgas”) was transferred to the hands of the tsarist administration. Tax benefits to monasteries were abolished, which also strengthened the state treasury. For the first time, government officials were punished for bribery.
In 1552 . was drawn up Palace notebook - a list of the Sovereign's court, included about 4000 people. From this list, clerks, governors, diplomats, governors and heads (military ranks) and other employees were appointed.
Was held unification of the monetary system . Moscow ruble became main monetary unit.
Reforms of Ivan IV :
1) reforms of central and local government,
2) socio-economic,
3) military,
4) church.
Central and local government reforms . 1555-1556 - the abolition of the governorship, local power passes to the elected. Local self-government is developing in the black-soil lands, where prosperous peasants and townspeople were elected. Self-government bodies played an important role in the period of unrest. In the 50s. the strengthening of the order system continues - orders were created.
Socio-economic reform . Early 50s - land census, according to which taxation reform was carried out. New tax unit -big plow .
Military reform . It was made up" Service regulations”, according to which a boyar or nobleman could begin service from the age of 15 and pass it on by inheritance. From the first 100 quarters of the land (170 ha), the landowner himself (boyar or nobleman), equipped with horses and weapons, went to work; from the next 100 quarters, he had to bring on foot armed “serfs”. Thus, formed a special army - noble militia . It was made up " service people in the homeland ”.
But there were more service people according to the device”, i.e. according to voluntary recruitment . They were Streltsy army for the protection of residences. Sagittarius could engage in fishing and trade.
Church reform . At the initiative of Ivan IV in 1551 a church council was held, named Stoglavy ( It was meant 100 chapters of his decisions). The cathedral approved the reforms of Ivan IV, approved a single list (pantheon) of saints of the Russian Orthodox Church, streamlined the rites, and made decisions to strengthen the morals of the clergy. The Council forbade churchmen to engage in usury, but confirmed the right of the clergy and monasteries to own land. Although the purchase and receipt of land as a gift was placed under the control of the king. Rublev's icons, as well as the Byzantine style of painting, were chosen as models for icon painting. After church failure give up their lands , Ivan IV adopted a decree: the boyars could not buy and sell land without permission (this was done so that the boyars, having received a refusal, could sell the land to the treasury).
Oprichnina. Reasons and goals of introduction. Main stages. Results.
Oprichnina dates; 1565-1572
Ivan IV, fighting boyar conspiracies and treason, saw in them main reason for failure its policy, the main danger of centralized, autocratic power, integrity of the united Russian states.
Many boyars in Russia dreamed aboutelective imperial power on the model of the Polish royal , in which the boyars themselves could decide the policy for the sake of their class interests.
Strong autocratic power was objectively necessary for Russia . It acted as a kind of guarantor of the country's independence and its successful development. The vast majority of the people, almost all of its classes, were interested in it.
In January 1565 the tsar left Moscow and left for his hunting village Alexandrovskaya Sloboda . He sent to Moscow two letters. One metropolitan and Boyar Duma , other- townspeople of Moscow .
In the first letter Ivan IV reported that he was abdicating power because of the betrayal of the boyars and asked to be given special land. In the second letter he reported on the decision and added that he had no claims against the townspeople.
Knowing about the faith of the people in the king , Ivan IV expected to be asked to return to the throne . And so it happened .
But the king set two conditions .
First of all, he will execute "traitors".
Secondly, he should establish oprichnina .
After that the country was divided into two parts : oprichnina(from the word "oprich" - except) and zemstvo.
To the oprichnina entered the most important areas seaside cities, cities with large settlements , areas with developed agriculture . On the lands of the oprichnina settled noble oprichniki, who were part of the oprichnina army . Maintain an oprichnina army should havepopulation zemstvos. At first, the army was a thousand people, then it grew to 6 thousand.
Oprichniki wore black clothes (a sign of readiness for self-sacrifice in the name of the king), dog heads and brooms were attached to their saddles, symbolizing devotion to the king, readiness to find and sweep all traitors out of the country. In an effort to destroy the separatism of the boyar nobility, Ivan did not stop at any cruelty. . The oprichnina terror began , executions and exile . Entire cities were often destroyed. The oprichnina undermined the political role of the boyar aristocracy, but caused considerable economic damage to the country. And this is in the conditions of the Livonian War, already devastating.
Acting with impunity, the guardsmen very soon turned into murderers and robbers who terrified the whole country. The oprichnina regiments lost their military combat effectiveness and in 1571 failed to protect Moscow from the Crimean Tatars. Posadskaya Moscow was burned .
A year later, the Crimean Khan repeated the campaign. But 50 km from Moscow, it was defeated by Russian troops under the command of Prince Mikhail Ivanovich Vorotynsky.
In 1572 . oprichnina was canceled . But the repression did not stop there.
Goals of the oprichnina . political - to break the forces opposing the strengthening of the power of the king.
Four periods of oprichnina :
1) 1565: mass eviction of boyar families from central Russia to the East, which led to the weakening of the Moscow Boyar Duma. In 1566 the tsar returned part of the boyars and princes.
2) 1566: the first speech of the opposition against oprichnina. Were against the oprichnina : boyars , church, land . The Zemsky Sobor reacted by writing a petition in which it was required to return the land to the Zemstvo nobles. After that, the king imprisoned 300 opposition people, but they were treated mildly: 5 were killed. All this showed social conflict originated in Russia. At the end of 1566 there is a strengthening and growth of oprichnina cities. The tsar's castle is being built in Moscow. Alternative oprichnina for Ivan IV : monastic vows, political emigration. Candidates for the throne instead of Ivan IV: eldest son, cousin Vladimir Staritsky (Ivan IV had to remove them).
3) 1567-1569.- transition to the Moscow terror. Staritsky begged for a list from the boyar Cherednin, according to which inappropriate boyars were executed. In March 1568, Metropolitan Kolychev announced the abolition of the oprichnina orders. Pogroms of monastic households begin. 1567 arrest and trial of Cherednin. 1569 - the murder of Staritsky.
4) 1570-1571 - apogee of the oprichnina . 1569 - Malyuta killed Kolychev. A letter about the betrayal of Novgorod was intercepted. 1570 - the campaign of the oprichnina troops against Novgorod, which lasted 4 weeks, killed 3,000 people. Pogrom of the Novgorod Posad. Then the guardsmen go to Pskov, but Ivan IV left Pskov. 1570 - Novgorod-Moscow business. 12 boyars were arrested, including Ivan Viskovaty, for collusion with Novgorod. At the end of 1570, the Vyazemskys, the father and son of the Basmanovs, were killed - people who started the oprichnina.
Objectively, the goals of the oprichnina were achieved: the top of the boyars and the church were beheaded, Novgorod was defeated, Staritsky was killed.
The consequences of oprichnina for society :
1. economic: robberies and eviction of the boyars influenced the emergence in 1570. the economic crisis, because of which a decree was adopted “on reserved years”: peasants were forbidden to leave the land for some time;
2. strengthening the personal power of the king in a despotic form;
3. change in public consciousness.
1584 - death of Ivan IV.
Foreign policy of Ivan the Terrible.
1. eastern (Kazan and Astrakhan khanates),
2. southern (Crimean Khanate),
3. western (Principality of Lithuania),
4. northwestern (development of trade).
In the West It was a fight to get out. Baltic Sea , in the east - the fight against the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, in the north - the conquest of the Volga trade route, the conquest and development of Siberia. On South the task was to protect the country from the raids of the Crimean Tatars.
The east direction was the main The chosen one is glad .
October 2, 1552 d. after careful preparation was taken by stormKazan .
In 1556 . taken by Mr.Astrakhan .
In 1557 Murza Ismail, the ruler of the Great Nogai Horde, swore allegiance to the Russian Tsar . Volga throughout became a Russian river .
After that, the closest advisers to the tsar, including the head of the Chosen Council A. Adashev, insisted on the conquest of the Crimean Khanate, from the raids of which Russia suffered. But behind the Crimea stood the Ottoman Empire - an ally of the Crimean Khan. In addition, from the north, Crimea was covered by lifeless steppe expanses, which it was not yet possible to overcome. Therefore, Ivan IV switched my attention northwest in order to conquer access to the Baltic Sea .
Concerningin the relationship of the king and the Chosen One appearedfirst crack.
On the 20th of January 1558 Russian troops crossed the Livonian border in the region of Pskov. The tsar himself announced the beginning of the Livonian War, its national character. It was necessary to return the lands that once belonged to Novgorod and Pskov. The Livonian knights suffered one defeat after another.
Summer 1558 . Russian troops were already standing on the shores of the Baltic Sea.
The fortresses of Narva, Derpt (Tartu) fell. Revel and Riga were on the verge of falling. The Livonian Order fell apart under the blows of Russian weapons, and in 1561 ceased to exist.
Russia's success alarmed neighboring states - Poland, Lithuania, Sweden and Denmark . A serious political mistake by Ivan the Terrible was revealed. Instead of seeking an honorable peace, he decided to continue the war. But it was necessary to fight with a whole group of states.
In January 1564 . the Russian army suffered first defeat under the city Polotsk. And in April, one of the closest advisers and commanders of the tsar, a member of the Chosen Rada, the hero of the assault on Kazan, Prince Andrei Kurbsky, ran over to the Lithuanians. Then followed defeat under Orsha . The war took on a protracted, exhausting character.
However, 2nd Zemsky Sobor, convened in 1566, spoke in favor of continuing the war.
The offensive of the Russian troops resumed in the second half of the 70s, but in 1578 . they suffered several defeats from the Polish troops . In 1579 The Swedes invaded the Novgorod lands. From complete defeat Russia was saved by the heroic defense of Pskov which was led Prince Ivan Petrovich Shuisky .
After the 31st assault attack on Pskov, the Polish king Stefan Batory was forced to negotiate with Ivan IV.
January 5, 1582 signed with Poland 10 year truce . Poland received all Livonia and the city of Polotsk .
Signed a year later truce with Sweden , according to which Russialost almost the entire coast of the Gulf of Finland with the cities of Narva, Ivangorod, Yam, Koporye.
Livonian War (1558-1583), lastingalmost 25 years , ended for Russiadefeat .
Question 22. Great geographical discoveries and their significance. Formation of the colonial system and the world capitalist economy.
Geographic discovery- this is not only a visit by representatives of any civilized people to a previously unknown part of the Earth, but also the establishment of a direct connection between the newly discovered earthling centers of culture of the Old World
The Portuguese navigators were the first to start looking for new sea routes to Asia.
In 1488Bartolomeu Dias reached the Cape of Good Hope in southern Africa. The knowledge gained by the Portuguese as a result of their travels gave navigators of other countries valuable information about the ebb and flow, the direction of winds and currents, and made it possible to create more accurate maps on which latitudes, lines of the tropics and the equator were plotted. These maps contained information about previously unknown countries.
In 1492 Spanish King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella adopted the project of the Genoese navigator Christopher Columbus (1451-1506 ) to reach the shores of India, sailing to the west. The Columbus flotilla, which consisted of 3 ships (Santa Maria, Pinta and Nina), whose crews numbered 120 people. From the Canary Islands, Columbus headed west. October 12, 1492, after a month's sailing in the open ocean, the fleet approached a small island in the Bahamas, then named San Salvador. Although the newly discovered lands bear little resemblance to the fabulous rich islands of India and China, Columbus was convinced until the end of his days that he had discovered islands off the east coast of Asia. During the first trip, the islands of Cuba, Haiti and a number of smaller ones were discovered. Subsequently, Columbus made three more trips to America - in 1493 - 1496, 1498-1500, 1502-1504, during which part of the Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, Jamaica, Trinidad and others were discovered; part of the Atlantic coast of Central and South America was surveyed. Although the open lands were very fertile and favorable for life, the Spaniards did not find gold there. Doubts arose that the newly discovered lands were India.
The discoveries of Columbus forced to hurry Portuguese. In 1497, a flotilla sailed from Lisbon Vasco da Gama (1469-1524) for reconnaissance of routes around Africa . Rounding the Cape of Good Hope, he entered the Indian Ocean. Moving north along the coast, the Portuguese reached the Arab trading cities of Mozambique, Mombasa and Malindi. With the help of an Arab pilot, on May 20, 1498, Vasco da Gama's squadron entered the Indian port of Calicut. In August 1499, his ships returned to Portugal. The sea route to the country of fabulous riches was opened. From now on, the Portuguese began to annually equip up to 20 ships for trade with India. Thanks to superiority in weapons and technology, they managed to oust the Arabs from there. In the early 16th century, the Portuguese captured Malacca and the Moluccas. In 1499-1500. Spaniards and in 1500-1502. The Portuguese discovered the coast of Brazil.
Portuguese navigators mastered sea islands in the Indian Ocean, reached the shores of China, and were the first Europeans to set foot on the land of Japan. Among them was Fernand Pinto, the author of travel diaries, where he gave a detailed description of the newly discovered country. Prior to this, Europe had only fragmentary information about Japan from the Book of Marco Polo, the famous Venetian traveler who, however, never reached the Japanese islands. In 1550, their image with the modern name first appeared on the Portuguese navigation chart.
At the beginning of the 16th century traveled to the western hemisphere Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512) - famous navigator and geographer. Thanks to his letters, the idea that Columbus discovered not the coast of India, but a new mainland, gained popularity. In honor of Vespucci, this continent was named America. In 1515, the first globe with this name appeared, and then atlases and maps. Vespucci's hypothesis was finally confirmed as a result of world travel Magellan (1519-1522). The name of Columbus remained immortalized in the name of one of the Latin American countries - Colombia.
In the 16-17 centuries. Russian explorers explored the northern coast of the Ob, Yenisei and Lena and mapped the contours of the northern coast of Asia. In 1642, Yakutsk was founded, which became the base for expeditions to the Arctic Ocean. In 1648 Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnev (ca..1605-1673), together with Fedot Popov, left the Kolyma on 6 ships and bypassed the Chukotka peninsula, proving that the Asian continent is separated from America by a strait. The outlines of the northeastern coast of Asia were refined and mapped (1667, "Drawing of the Siberian Land"). But Dezhnev's report on the opening of the strait lay in the Yakut archive for 80 years and was published only in 1758. In the 18th century. the strait discovered by Dezhnev was named after the Danish navigator in the Russian service, Vitus Bering, who in 1728 rediscovered the strait. In 1898, in memory of Dezhnev, a cape in the northeastern tip of Asia was named after him.
In the 15-17 centuries, as a result of bold sea and land expeditions, a significant part of the Earth was discovered and explored. Paths were laid that connected distant countries and continents. Great geographical discoveriesmarked the beginning of the colonial systems , contributed to the formation of the world market and played an important role in the formation of the capitalist economic system in Europe. For the newly discovered and conquered countries, they brought mass extermination of the population, the planting of the most cruel forms of exploitation, the forcible introduction of Christianity. The rapid decline in the indigenous population of the Americas led to the importation of African slaves and widespread plantation slavery.
America's gold and silver poured into Europe, causing there a frenzied rise in the prices of all commodities, the so-called price revolution. This primarily benefited the owners of manufactures, capitalists and merchants, since prices rose faster than wages. The “price revolution” contributed to the rapid ruin of artisans and handicraftsmen; in the countryside, nobles and wealthy peasants who sold food on the market benefited the most from it. All this contributed to the accumulation of capital. As a result of the Great geographical discoveries, Europe's ties with Africa and Asia expanded, and relations with America were established. The center of world trade and economic life has moved from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean.
Thus, 14-15 centuries. a new period begins in the history of colonialism, associated with the emergence and development of capitalist production relations in Europe. A systematic exploration of new lands and peoples begins. Following the navigators, thousands of destitute colonists, officials of the feudal monarchies of Europe, set off on their journey, in a hurry to secure open lands for the crown of their monarch. All of them were driven by the irresistible power of money, the thirst for wealth, the prospect of getting rich quick.
The emerging bourgeoisie of Europe set about organizing colonial rule on a world scale. The first colonial empires arose - Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, which captured the richest countries of Asia, Africa and America. The open robbery of the occupied countries was accompanied by the oppression of the indigenous population. Together with the export of wealth from the conquered countries, slaves are also exported. Slave markets were opened, which existed until the 19th century. and became a shameful stain in the history of "civilized" European states
Question 23. "Time of Troubles": the weakening of the state principles in Russia. The role of the militia of K. Minin and D. Pozharsky in the liberation of Moscow and the expulsion of foreigners. Zemsky Sobor in 1613
Under Time of Troubles understand the period from the death of Ivan the Terrible (1584) to 1613, when Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov reigned on the Russian throne. This period was marked by a deep socio-economic crisis that brought the Russian state to the brink of extinction.
The main causes of the Time of Troubles are: protracted wars of the second half of the XVI century. (Livonian, Swedish, military campaigns against Kazan, etc.); oprichnina, mass executions; boyar civil strife; dynastic crisis (the death of Tsarevich Dmitry in 1591, the son of Ivan the Terrible, the termination of the Rurik dynasty after the death of Tsar Fedor Ivanovich in 1598); crop failure and famine 1601–1603
The main events of the Time of Troubles. There are three components of the confrontation in the society of the Time of Troubles, which are closely intertwined: dynastic(the struggle for the Moscow throne between various applicants); social(the internecine struggle of classes and the intervention of foreign governments in this struggle); national(fight against foreign invaders).
With the advent of each new impostor, each new king or pretender to the throne, the socio-political situation became more complicated, and by 1612 the Time of Troubles reached its climax. In a short period since 1605, several governments have changed in Moscow (False Dmitry I, Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky, the "seven boyars" headed by F.I. Mstislavsky), and the "Tushino camp" was formed, headed by False Dmitry II, who formed parallel management structures state. Society was shaken by peasant riots, and foreign conquerors ruled all over the country from Kaluga to Novgorod. It should be noted here that the split of the country began with the accession of Vasily Shuisky, who was not recognized by all of Russia, and in subsequent years the process of disintegration gained momentum. The situation was further complicated by the fact that part of the Russian territories was captured by the Commonwealth and Sweden and. thus, did not fall under the jurisdiction of any of the existing Russian governments. Of course, in this situation there could be no question of law and order in the state.
Russian society was tormented to the limit by the civil war, the majority of the population demanded stability and order. Under these conditions, the top leadership became the collective leader of society. Second militia led by Minin and Pozharsky , which began its formation in Nizhny Novgorod. Quickly enough, the leaders of the militia managed to unite a significant territory of the country, create an army, a government apparatus and begin to liberate Russia.
The people's war against foreign invaders ended in victory. Having cleared most of the country from them, the leaders of the Second Militia raised the question of transferring power to the hands of the monarch. At the Zemsky Sobor in 1613. king was proclaimed Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov (1613–1645). The candidacy of the young Romanov, a representative of one of the most powerful families among the nobility, related to the last tsar, as well as to many princely and boyar families, made it possible to reconcile various warring factions.
Time of Troubles.
The appearance of False Dmitry I (Grigory Otrepiev), who was a monk of the Chudov Monastery, who fled to Poland and called himself the son of Ivan the Terrible Dmitry. In Poland, False Dmitry I recruited an army. Vasily Shuisky, who was on the commission investigating the murder of Dmitry, spoke about his salvation. False Dmitry I was a tool of the Moscow boyars and Polish-Catholic circles to overthrow Boris Godunov. In 1605 Godunov died, leaving the throne to his 16-year-old son. In early May 1605, the boyars killed Fyodor Godunov and his mother. False Dmitry 1 appeared in Moscow. The boyars expected to rule False Dmitry 1 (reign dates: June 1605 - May 1606), but this did not work out for them. Vasily Shuisky began to say that the king was not real. In 1606 Marina Mnishek, the bride of False Dmitry 1, arrived in Moscow from Poland. Together with her came the Poles, who began to behave in Moscow like hosts. The wedding was held according to the Catholic rite (discontent of the people and the church). 1606 - an uprising led by Prince Shuisky, False Dmitry I was killed.
From the summer of 1606 to 1610 began reign of Vasily Shuisky . He promised to rule on the advice of the Boyar Duma. He signed a decree according to which the escape of the peasants was a matter of state, the period of investigation was extended. 1606-1607 uprising of Ivan Bolotnikov , uniting peasants, Cossacks, petty feudal lords, Poles; they fought against the boyars, nobles, the top tenants, feudal lords and the enslavement of the peasants.
The appearance of False Dmitry 2; start of the intervention. False Dmitry 2 was a protege of Sigismund of Poland. Summer 1607 - the beginning of a campaign against Moscow. The army of False Dmitry was overgrown with dissatisfied authorities. In the autumn of 1608, the army ended up near Moscow, in the village of Tushino, where parallel governing bodies appeared: the Boyar Duma, orders, the second patriarch - Filaret. Marina Mnishek arrived in Tushino, False Dmitry 2 begins to conquer neighboring cities. In 1609 the Polish king invaded Russia (Smolensk was taken). Shuisky asks detachments from Sweden for land and money. In 1610 he was deposed and tonsured a monk. The boyars who rose to power (seven boyars - 1610) concluded an agreement with the Polish king on the invitation to the throne of his son Vladislav. For this d slander: the main government positions are occupied only by the boyars, it was forbidden to distribute land to the Poles, the Polish king Sigismund III married a Russian, the king had to convert to Orthodoxy, but he did not. In the fall of 1610, the Seven Boyars let Polish troops into Moscow, at the same time False Dmitry II was killed. In early 1610, the Swedes begin their occupation of the northwest. A movement against the interventionists is rising. Patriarch Germagen conducts anti-Polish sermons.
AT 1611 starts formationin Ryazan first militia led by Lyapunov, Cossack ataman Zarudsky, Prince Trubetskoy. In the summer of 1611 the uprising collapsed. in connection with the contradictions of the Cossacks and the nobles. Lyapunov program: restoration of boyar and noble land ownership, fugitive peasants returned, the Cossacks were not allowed to manage. The Cossacks did not like this, and they killed Lyapunov.
Autumn 1611- second militia in N. Novgorod, headed by Minin and Pozharsky . 1612 - Moscow is taken . The second militia had a government body - council of all land, which convened the Zemsky Sobor to elect the king.
Elected in 1613Mikhail Romanov.
Results of the Time of Troubles. The ruling circles were unable to lead the country out of the crisis, to resist attempts to dismember Russia from outside. There was a real threat of the loss of statehood by the Russian people, the loss of their independence. Under these conditions, the best representatives of the Russian and other peoples of the country, the broad masses of the people, became the main force that organized the fight against foreign intervention.
The struggle for power at the top of society dealt a serious blow to the economy of the state, its international position and territorial integrity.
1) Further weakening of the boyars, strengthening of the nobles
2) Severe economic and financial crisis; one of the ways to deal with the crisis was the enslavement of the peasants: 1637, 1641 - decrees on the extension of the lesson years from 5 to 15.
1617 - Stolbovsky peace with Sweden: the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, the mouth of the Neva and a number of fortresses departed to it. Russia lost access to the Baltic Sea.
1618 - a truce with Poland: the western regions of Russia and Smolensk retreated to it
and opportunities to participate in the choice of the monarch.
With the signing of these two unequal treaties, the Time of Troubles and foreign intervention ended for Russia.
5) The Time of Troubles showed the need to catch up with the Western countries in military-technical support. Russia in the 17th century could not create a regular army.
It is necessary to strengthen the feudal militia - to attach peasants to it.
Question 24. Russia under the first Romanovs (Mikhail and Alexei Romanovs)
The second militia had a government body - the "Council of All the Earth", which convenes the Zemsky Sobor to elect the king. In 1613 Zemsky Sobor elected a young king Mikhail Romanov (he was the son of Patriarch Filaret). Filaret ruled Russia together with his son.
Tasks of Mikhail Romanov :
1. Strengthening of the Romanov dynasty. Zemsky Sobors met constantly until the 2nd half. 1620s
2. Strengthening the position of the nobles and the distribution of land to the nobles together with the peasants.
New measures to enslave the peasants. In 1637 and 1641 - new decrees, the terms of the investigation increased from 5 to 15 years
3. The functions of orders have been streamlined.
4. Reduced penalties for crimes
5. Reducing direct taxes.
6. Industrial development. Manufactory develops.
7. Foreign regiments created
8. Advance to Siberia - development of Eastern Siberia.
9. 1634 - Pole Vladislav renounced the Russian throne
10. Trade with: England, Holland, Persia, Turkey, France.
11. unsuccessful attempt to return Smolensk, which was in Poland
Since 1645 - tsarAlexey Mikhailovich Romanov (16 years old) - the son of Mikhail Fedorovich (dates of reign 1645-1676). He married Maria Miloslavskaya, then Naryshkina, from her son - Peter I.
1645- reunification of Ukraine and Russia (liberation wars of Bohdan Khmelnytsky.
In 1654 . Russian troops took Smolensk and 33 cities of Eastern Belarus.
In 1646. Was held household census, thanks to which the peasants were documented assigned to certain owners. In 1648, salt prices quadrupled. June 1st 1648 in Moscow unrest began, called "salt riot" which was suppressed by the archers. Similar riots took place in Voronezh, Novgorod, Kursk, Vladimir, Pskov, Tomsk - in more than thirty cities of Russia.
1649 G. adopted new set of laws Cathedral Code, which acted nearly 200 years before 1832
Cathedral Code of 1649legally formalized strengthening of the serf rights .
Was an indefinite search for runaway serfs was established . Peasants were forbidden to change their masters. The feudal lords received the right to dispose of the property and personality of the peasant.
Citizens, under pain of execution, were forbidden to move from settlement to settlement. The townspeople were obliged to bear duties in favor of the sovereign.
The landlords and boyars received the right to judge the peasants; led the peasant families;
The landowner was responsible for the performance of state duties by the peasants;
If the landowner went bankrupt, he paid with the property of the peasants
The right to transfer estates as fiefdoms was assigned to the nobles Þ rapprochement between nobles and boyars.
White settlements (people who worked for monasteries and nobles (boyars)), who did not pay state taxes, were liquidated Þ the rest of the population paid more.
Church land ownership was limited. A monastery order was created for control (then canceled). The Council Code began with the assertion of the significance of the role of the king: a crime against the person of the king is a state crime.
The tendency to replace the class-representative monarchy with an absolute one.
- harsh punishmentsfor crimes against the king and the church (quartering, burning at the stake, etc.), for making counterfeit money, for mutilating, for murder and other serious crimes
The tightening of feudal serf oppression naturally led to new uprisings.
Besides in 1654, instead of full-fledged silver money, copper money was introduced. Whereinthe tax was collected in silver , and salaries were paid out in copper . Money depreciated, prices rose, primarily for bread.
1658 Start protracted war with Poland.
January 30, 1667 was signed Andrusovo truce with Poland.
For Russia recognized Smolensk, Left-bank Ukraine with the city of Kyiv. Right-bank Ukraine and Belarus remained within Poland.
The wars waged by Russia in the 50s - 80s. XVII century, showed its weakness, inability to solve such important foreign policy problems as the elimination of the Baltic blockade, the creation of reliable southern borders, a breakthrough to the Black Sea, etc.
In July 1662 . broke out in Moscow so-called " Copper Riot". And again the archers crushed the uprising. But copper money had to be abolished.
DISCHARGE IN THE CHURCH:
wide mass discontent was at the root schism of the Russian Orthodox churches when in the ranks of the defenders of the old rites (Old Believers) there were hundreds of thousands of peasants, townspeople, dissatisfied with the strengthening of serfdom.
In the 40s. 17th century in Moscow at the court developed "Circle of zealots of the ancient piety ", which included prominent clergy, including the confessor of Tsar Nikon himself. "Zealots" came out for bringing order to church life, against drunkenness, debauchery and money-grubbing among the clergy, for streamlining church services, rituals, and interpretations of sacred texts (books). But when it comes to choosing samples, "zealots" disagreed. Alone ( archpriestHabakkuk and his supporters) believed that the sample should be taken Old Russian originals, other ( Patriarch Nikon, etc.) insisted on Greek samples. Nikon won. Avvakum was exiled first to Siberia and then to Solovki. church cathedral 1666 - 1667 cursed everyone opponents of Patriarch Nikon and his reforms. In accordance with the Council Code, they were put on trial and bonfires blazed across the country (as in their time in Western Europe). In 1682, Avvakum was also burned.
Thousands of supporters of the "old rites" - and they were most often peasants, ordinary townspeople - fled north, to Zavolochye, to the Urals, to Siberia. It came to uprisings, collective self-immolations.
One of the main areas Where have the peasants fled? , was Don. Over time, a special Don Cossacks. The Cossacks not only defended the southern borders of the Russian state, but also went on campaigns against the Crimean Khanate, Turkey, and Iran.
In 1668 - 1669. a detachment of Cossacks went on such a campaign under the leadership ofStepan Razin , which devastated the Caspian coast and even defeated the Iranian fleet shah. In the spring of 1670 Stepan Razin undertook a new campaign,but already against the Russian boyars and nobles . Therefore, not only the lower classes of the Cossacks (“goat Cossacks”) participated in the campaign, but also the peasants, the townspeople (urban) lower classes, barge haulers, working people, archers, etc.
Spring 1670 . Razin masteredTsaritsyn, then Afear , and then moved up the Volga, captured Saratov, Samara and besieged Simbirsk . Thus, Stepan Razin's campaign resulted in great peasant war . It was attended not only by Russians, but also by Ukrainians, Tatars, Chuvashs, Mordovians, and Maris. The uprising covered the territory from Ukraine to Zavolochye, from Astrakhan to Nizhny Novgorod . What did the rebels expect? ? Defeat the "blood drinkers", conquer land and freedom,put on the throne "good, just father-king ". It was not for nothing that there was a rumor among the rebels that the tsar's son Alexei Alekseevich, the future "good tsar" was going along with Razin (in fact, Alexei died in January 1670).
But by the fall of 1670, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich collected Noble militia (over 30 thousand people) and moved under Simbirsk. The twenty-thousandth army of Razin was defeated and Simbirsk was liberated from the Razin people. The seriously wounded Razin was taken to the Don, to the Kagalnitsky town, where he was captured by prosperous ("household") Cossacks and handed over to the tsar.
June 6, 1671 Stepan Razinwas executed on theRed Square in Moscow.
25 .European Enlightenment and rationalism.
Enlightenment is an important phenomenon in the intellectual life of various European states of the 18th century. (France, Great Britain, Germany, Poland, Russia, etc.).
THE DREAM OF THE ENLIGHTENERS is to "rationalize" nature and especially society.
Rationalism(from lat. ratio- mind) - a method according to which the basis of knowledge and action of people is intelligence. Among the representatives of philosophical rationalism are Benedict Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, Rene Descartes, Georg Hegel and etc.
Many enlighteners were supporters of "enlightened absolutism", suggesting that the executor of the necessary social transformations would be legitimate monarch , brought up in the spirit of enlightenment ideas, for it is incomparably easier to educate one person than the whole people. In the XVIII century. the boundless faith in science, in our mind, is further consolidated. Not only successes in knowledge, but also hopes for a favorable reorganization of both nature and society began to be associated with reason. For many thinkers of the 18th century, scientific progress began to act as a necessary condition for the successful advancement of society along the path to human freedom, to the happiness of people, to public well-being. At the same time, it was accepted that all our actions, all actions (both in production and in the reorganization of society) can only be guaranteed to be successful when they are permeated with the light of knowledge and will be based on the achievements of the sciences. Therefore, the main task of a civilized society was declared to be the general education of people.
Many thinkers of the 18th century confidently began to declare that the first and main duty of any “true friend of progress and humanity” is “enlightenment of minds”, enlightenment of people, familiarizing them with all the most important achievements of science and art. This orientation toward the enlightenment of the masses became so characteristic of the cultural life of European countries in the 18th century that the 18th century was later called the Age of Enlightenment, or the Age of Enlightenment.
England is the first to enter this era. The English Enlighteners (D. Locke, D. Toland, M. Tyndall, etc.) were characterized by a struggle with the traditional religious worldview, which objectively hindered the free development of the sciences of nature, man and society. The ideological form of freethinking in Europe since the first decades of the 18th century has been deism. Deism does not yet reject God as the creator of all animate and inanimate nature, but within the framework of deism it is cruelly postulated that this creation of the world has already happened, that after this act of creation God does not interfere in nature: now nature is not determined by anything external and now the causes and explanations of all events and processes in it should be sought only in itself, in its own laws. This was a significant step towards a science free from the fetters of traditional religious prejudices.
In France in line with this democratic enlightenment, the idea of creating an “Encyclopedia, or an explanatory dictionary of sciences, arts and crafts”, an encyclopedia that would acquaint readers with the most important achievements of sciences, arts and crafts in a simple and intelligible form (and not in the form of scientific treatises) was born.
The ideological leader of this undertaking is D. Diderot, and his closest colleague is D. Alamber. According to the plan of D. Diderot, the “Encyclopedia” should have reflected not only the achievements of specific sciences, but also many new philosophical concepts regarding the nature of matter, consciousness, knowledge, etc.
In Germany The movement of the Enlightenment is associated with the activities of H. Wolf, I. Herder, G. Lessing and others. If we keep in mind the popularization of sciences and the dissemination of knowledge, then the activity of H. Wolf plays a special role here. His merits were later noted by both I. Kant and Hegel. Philosophy for H. Wolf is “world wisdom”, which implies a scientific explanation of the world and the construction of a system of knowledge about it. He proved the practical usefulness of scientific knowledge. He did not reject God as the creator of the world, and he associated the expediency that is characteristic of nature, for all its representatives, with the wisdom of God: when creating the world, God thought through everything and foresaw everything, and hence expediency follows. But asserting scope for the development of the natural sciences, H. Wolf remained a supporter of deism, which undoubtedly predetermined the subsequent deism of M.V. Lomonosov.
ORIENTATION TO PEDAGOGY has become one of the most important specific features of the philosophy of the Enlightenment. The problems of educating a new man, that is, a man who completely coincides with his nature, were the focus of attention of all enlighteners (especially Helvetius and Rousseau). The communicative, i.e., providing the transfer of thought from one individual to another, component of philosophy, came to the fore. It was not only what was said that mattered, but also how it was said. Philosophy appeared to be the most important tool for communication between people, and hence the condition for their unity.
Education, according to Rousseau, was not supposed to be spiritual or secular, but natural, focused on the natural inclinations of the child. There is no need to teach the child dead languages, scriptural interpretation, scholasticism, secular manners, he will need subjects useful for his future life: geography, botany, writing, arithmetic. Not science, but life is the main educator of the natural man.
The French Enlightenment called their age "the age of philosophers", "the age of reason". Physics for philosophers of the XVIII century. acted as an exemplary science, a model of science and scientific thinking as such. But not every physics could serve as a model of a scientific approach to reality.
LEGALITY OF NATURE is possible because there are causal connections in it. Every phenomenon has its cause. Cognition is the movement from a phenomenon to a cause. In turn, every cause needs its cause for its existence. The world is thus a chain of cause and effect relationships. According to Holbach, every thing has only one cause. The connection between causes and effects is unilinear. It is impossible to break the chain of causes and effects - the whole will collapse
26. THE GREAT FRENCH REVOLUTIONand its impact on the political and socio-cultural development of Europe.
A heavy legacy left the French with the long reign of the "Sun King" Louis XIV. His huge court and constant wars demanded a lot of money. Louis XV also waged wars, and almost all failed. And he also kept a huge lush yard. At the same time, collecting taxes in France was very difficult.. The medieval system was kept here under which many nobles had huge privileges. Yes, and trade and industry were entangled with various restrictions. But the peasants had a very hard time. The nobles continued to live as if life had stopped forever in the Middle Ages. Meanwhile, the sciences developed, enlightenment spread. And already few people could believe that the royal power was established by God himself. King Louis XVI was not like his predecessors. He was modest, he loved not the brilliant company of courtiers, but a quiet family circle. But his attempts at reform with the help of the best economists failed. Many influential people wanted change for the country, but for themselves they wanted everything to remain the same. Looking for a way out king Louis XVI assembled Estates General, i.e. gathering of all the estates of his kingdom. But after a month of work, the States refused to obey the decree on their dissolution, which was issued by the king, who was afraid of their strengthening. The threat of a dispersal of the assembly caused an uprising in Paris. July 14, 1789 the people stormed the fortress-prison Bastille, a symbol of royal power.This day is considered the date of the beginning of the revolution. After the storming of the Bastille was created the army of the revolution is the national guard. Following the uprising in Paris, unrest broke out in the countryside: peasants burned castles, destroyed IOUs and archives. The Constituent Assembly on the night of August 4 announced the "complete destruction of the feudal order" in France and the laws of the new society were enshrined in "Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen" (August 26, 1789), which became an introduction to the constitution of 1791. In 1793, the revolutionary government was headed by Maximilian Robespierre, who dreamed of the destruction of royal power and the transformation of the country into a republic. According to the laws issued by the Jacobin government, the lands of the nobles were transferred for their division, all feudal rights and privileges were completely destroyed. Then, in 1793, it was adopted Constitution, which proclaimed that all citizens of France have the right to choose their own government and to be elected themselves. In France itself, the revolution was accompanied by a fierce political struggle between various political groups and powerful peasant uprisings. There were numerous changes of a radical nature in the political, economic and spiritual life of the people. The agrarian issue was radically resolved: communal lands and emigre lands (opponents of the revolution) were transferred to the peasants for division. Completely, without any redemption, all feudal rights and privileges were destroyed. Several million private small peasant farms have sprung up in the country. The church was separated from the state, the king was executed, and the Constitution adopted shortly thereafter on June 24, 1793, proclaimed France a republic.
27. War for the independence of the North American colonies of England. US education.
The war of the North American colonies for independence was a natural result of those complex processes that took place both in America and in England. The incompatibility of the bourgeois development of North America and its colonial dependence manifested itself with particular force in the 1960s. XVIII century, when, after the accession to the English throne of George III, the provinces were attacked by absolutist methods of government and arbitrariness, which 120 years earlier caused an anti-feudal revolution in England itself.
By the middle of the XVIII century. the economy of the colonies strengthened, internal trade was established, and dependence on supplies from the mother country weakened. The colonies had their own fleet, inexhaustible supplies of timber and fertile land; planters produced products for export (tobacco, rice, indigo), attempts were made to breed cotton. The population has grown significantly.
In the 17th century, when the colonists most of all needed the guardianship of the metropolis, it was absorbed in solving its internal problems (the struggle between the king and parliament, the civil war, the restoration of the Stuarts, the Glorious Revolution). In the XVIII century. a fundamentally different situation emerged. The colonies were ripe for independence, and Great Britain, having achieved internal stabilization and defeated France in the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), became the sovereign mistress of North America, annexing Canada and other French possessions.
Economic contradictions between the mother country and the colonies escalated after the publication of a number of parliamentary acts regulating the foreign trade of North America.
It was in the 60s. XVIII century in the colonies, a broad liberation movement began, which grew into a revolutionary war. It was natural for American patriots to turn to the slogans of the English bourgeois revolution (for example, "No taxes without representation!"). The American Revolution, unlike the English bourgeois revolution, was not religious, but secular character.
The causes of the War of Independence were:
1. The strengthening of the colonial oppression of England, expressed in the ban on the opening of manufactories, on the production and export of woolen products, on trade with other countries, in the prohibition of colonists to move to the west (1763).
2. Introduction of new customs duties on a number of goods (1764).
3. Quartering in America of 10 thousand soldiers of the regular army (1765).
4. The introduction of stamp duty - a tax on any product (1765).
War for independence:
a) goals, character, belligerents
Most of the inhabitants of the 13 rebellious colonies fought for the cause of revolution, but not all Americans supported the idea of independence from England. Part of the population did not want separation from England. They were called loyalists due to their loyalty to the Crown and the British Parliament. Most of the landlords, royal officials, some merchants did not want to lose business ties with the metropolis, they were afraid of civil war and anarchy. The Negro slaves, who were promised freedom, also came out on the side of the British.
At the same time, the majority of planters - patriots – supported the idea of independence, the economic reason for which was a huge debt to the English trading houses. This category included the majority of American merchants who advocated freedom of trade and entrepreneurship and provided financial assistance to the colonists. The leaders of the patriots were young freedom-loving politicians who made a career in the Continental Congress, the army. Among them was Benjamin Franklin(1706 - 1790) - scientist, writer, public and statesman, bearer of the new American national identity, proclaiming the idea of the unity of the colonies.
The war for independence took place under the banner of enlightenment ideas. American educators include Thomas Jefferson(1743 - 1826) - Virginian planter and lawyer, author of the United States Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776. Thus, within the colonies, a struggle unfolded between the allies of the British and the patriots who fought for independence, and therefore this war had the features of a civil one.
During the war, under pressure from the popular masses, individual colonies declared themselves "free, independent and independent states" (in English, "state" state - "state").
In 1776, the colonies were represented at the Continental Congress as separate and independent states-states. In June, a delegation from the state of Virginia, headed by T. Jefferson, proposed to Congress a resolution on secession of the colonies. A commission (Jefferson, Adams, Franklin, Sherman, Livingston) was created to draw up the declaration. In less than a month, she crafted the Declaration of Independence. ("Declaration of Separation") which was adopted by the Continental Congress July 4, 1776
28 . Petrine modernization, its features and significance for the development of Russia.
During the Northern War, Peter I realized the need to create a regular army (after the defeat near Narva (1700)) and Peter I creates regular army through recruiting kits.
Governing bodies by the 18th century
1. Zemsky Sobors .
From the mid-60s of the 17th century. Zemsky Sobors were convened less frequently. 1653 - the last Zemsky Sobor (on the annexation of Ukraine). In Russia, these cathedrals are purely deliberative bodies. There was no specific order in which members were elected.
2. Boyar Duma.
It solved minor issues, the main issues were decided by the Middle Duma (up to 10 people). The political and physical withering away of the Duma takes place (after 1704, mention of it ceased). Officials (clerks) - full members of the Duma Þ its bureaucratization.
3. Orders.
A sharp increase in the number of orders: territorial, military, patriarchal, palace, discharge, local. There was no clear distribution of the functions of orders. Often one official supervised the activities of several orders. That. there is a need to create new governing bodies.
Sweden was taken as the basis for the transformations, where the Emperor was the head of state (1721).
Instead of the Boyar Duma created Senate (1711. Functions of the Senate: court, and punishment of judges, state expenses, money for the war, gathering young nobles into officers, engaged in the supply of salt, trade with China and Persia, followed bills.
- instead of orders created Boards. Main colleges : foreign affairs, chambers (management of money), justice (court), revision (receipt-expenditure account), military, admiralty (fleet), commerce (trading actions), state office (state expenses), Berg and manufactories (factories) . In the collegiums, there was a clear division into branches of management, uniformity in staffing and structure, and collegial decision-making.
Created Holy Synod, at the head of the synod was socialite, thus the church becomes part of the state apparatus, and it was subordinate to the state.
- City government - chief magistrate. Peter introduced public (political investigation) and covert control over government officials. Secret control - fiscalite t (people quietly wrote denunciations).
Reorganization local government : in seat of numerous counties the country was divided for 8 provinces . At the head of the province was appointed by the king governor. In his hands was the local executive and judicial power. The governor was given a provincial office. The provinces were dividedfor 50 provinces , which in turn shared on the counties . At their head were governors with their offices.
The armies were stationed in the cities. The advantage was that the population fed the soldiers, there were no uprisings, the mobility of the army. Decree of succession: goal decree- to ensure the continuity of policy (the king himself appoints a successor). This decree lasted until Tsar Paul. The result was a regular state with a strong bureaucracy and an army.
Socio-economic transformations of PeterI.
Economic sphere :
The economy worked for wartime tasks. 1700 - a monopoly on exports, as a result, a greater attraction of funds to the budget (destroyed small merchants). Forced industrialization for state-owned industry and military orders. The number of manufactories increased from 20 to 200.
Reasons for creating manufactories : in the conditions of the Northern War, the army needed ammunition and other equipment. Due to the creation of manufactories, industrial areas and cities begin to develop. Not only the old districts (Tula), but also new ones (Petersburg) developed. The Admiralty was both a shipyard and a fortress(this is important to know).
In 1720 - export monopoly abolished . Merchants fell under the control of the Commerce College. There is a development of private enterprises.
Was held The politics of mercantilism : based on the export of domestic goods (export). This was supposed to contribute to the enrichment of the state treasury and the development of Russian industry . Increased duties were introduced on those foreign goods that competed with Russian manufactured goods. . At the same time, the country's dependence on foreign merchants was weakened.
In 1724. - customs regulations. Manufactories used forced labor.
Social sphere:
Before Peter I, the division into estates was amorphous.
Tax reform : was created new tax system , which strengthened feudal dependence, the entire taxable population was rewritten, introduced pillow tax. This reform was carried out because of the need to find money for the army. The passport system was introduced.
Nobility: it was necessary to force the nobles to enter the service of the state. 1714 adopted a law on unity of inheritance(not to be confused with the law of succession to the throne): real estate from a nobleman passes to the eldest son (estates were not split), then. younger sons went to serve . 1714 - decree that untrained nobles could not marry.
Table of ranks (1722): Determined the system of ranks and the order of advancement in the military and civil service. The ranks were divided into 14 classes. From now on, career advancement depended not on “breed”, but from skills, skills, and most importantly from devotion to the emperor The assignment was made for military merits, thus, the principle of nobility was removed, non-noble people could receive noble titles.
The Petrine era is a time of achievements in the political and economic spheres, military victories, strengthening of national self-consciousness, the victory of the secular principle in culture, the time of Russia's inclusion in the common European family of peoples. On the other hand, Peter's reforms are the development of a totalitarian state, the time of the growth of the bureaucratic system of universal control. Note that the core of Russian life, the inner essence of Russian society has remained the same - feudal. Peter I took from the West and mercilessly introduced in Russia only the external manifestations of European civilization. This is where the main paradox of Russian reformism lies. Trying with one hand to “pull up” Russia to the Western European level, with the other hand he laid the foundations for an even greater lag behind the country from the West in the future. Peter I set and solved tasks of a great political and national nature, but on a feudal basis and by serf-owning methods. The formation of absolutism ended with the appearance of a new title for the Russian monarch: from 1721 he began to be called emperor, and Russia turned into an empire.
29 . Industrial revolution in Europe and Russia: general and special.
Form start
End of form
industrial revolution, which began at the end of the 18th century in England and subsequently engulfed developed countries (in the 19th century), represented the replacement of manual production by machine production, the transition to the factory from manufactory. The leading social classes are the workers and the bourgeoisie. The basis of production is a factory and a plant equipped with machines.
The industrial revolution was gradual. In the first half of the 19th century, the industrial revolution after England covers the United States. Then came the industrial revolution in Europe. Moreover, in its eastern part, the industrial revolution did not end.
The beginning of the industrial revolution affected light industry. Then mechanization began to cover other manufacturing industries. This period was marked by technical inventions, including a lathe, a sewing machine, new transport (locomotive and steamboat), types of communication (radio, telegraph, telephone).
In the second half of the 19th century, the industrial revolution entered a new stage of development. During this period it was invented ICE (internal combustion) engine, phonograph(sound recording and playback device), open oil, chemical production. People started to actively use electricity.
Looms and mechanical spinning wheels appeared in the USA in 1789, the first textile factory began to operate. Were implemented steam engine and later in single engine.
Great importance in the development of the industrial revolution in America was given to construction of railways. Between 1830 and 1850 there was more than a fivefold increase in the railway network.
Unlike England, France, the USA, in which the necessary prerequisites for an industrial revolution were created by the bourgeois revolutions of the 17th-18th centuries. ., in Russia industrial revolution started before carrying out bourgeois reforms. In the 30-40s. 19th century under the dominance of feudal relations, an industrial revolution began in Russia. The transition from manual labor to machine labor covered the cotton industry, ensuring the growth of labor productivity and production volume, then - the sugar beet and stationery industries. Only in the Moscow province by 1856 there were 152 steam engines. Machine-building plants began to be intensively built. If in 1851 there were 19 machine-building plants in Russia, then in 1860 there were already 99 plants. In 1860, factories and factories provided 56.8% of the output of the entire manufacturing industry. By 1879, metalworking enterprises produced 86.3% of their products by machines. Pudding furnaces, which replaced the bloomery forges, produced about 90% of the metal. An important direction of the industrial revolution was the construction of railways; in the 60-70s. 20 thousand km of roads were built. The completion of the industrial revolution in Russia took place in the 1980s and 1990s. 19th century
In Russia, the process of the industrial revolution was not coordinated in the territorial and sectoral sectors. This was the reason for the rather long, half-century transition of the country from manual labor to automated production. Mechanization began in the cotton industry in the thirties, and ended in metallurgy in the eighties.
By the time of the abolition of serfdom, more than 60% of the products in the manufacturing industry were produced by civilian workers in factories and factories.
In the middle of the 19th century, about a hundred machine-building industries were founded, but manual labor continued to be used in metallurgy.
30. The era of "enlightened absolutism". Domestic and foreign policy of Catherine II.
Enlightened absolutism- the policy of achieving the "common good" in the state, pursued in the second half 18th century. close to European absolute monarchs who adopted the ideas of philosophy of the XVII century. in the period from 1740 to 1789, that is, from accession to the throne Prussian king Frederick II before French revolution..
Fundamentals of enlightened absolutism:
The founder of the theory of "enlightened absolutism" is consideredThomas Hobbes . Its essence lies in the idea of a secular state, in the desire of absolutism to put the central power above all else.
Until the 18th century the concept of the state was reduced to the totality of the rights of state power. Holding firmly to the views worked out by tradition, enlightened absolutism introduced at the same time a new understanding of the state, which already imposes obligations on state power. The consequence of this view, which has developed under the influence of theories of contractual origin of the state, was the theoretical limitation of absolute power, which caused a number of reforms in European countries, where, along with the desire for "state benefit", concerns about the general welfare were put forward. The aspirations of philosophers and politicians of that time agreed that reform must be carried out by the state and in the interests of the state. So characteristic feature of enlightened absolutism - the union of monarchs and philosophers who wished to subordinate the state to pure reason.
Attempts to transform in the spirit enlightened absolutism of CatherineII were: -convocation and activities of the Legislative Commission (1767-1768); -reform of the administrative-territorial division of the Russian Empire; -Adoption of the Letter of Complaint to the cities, which formalized the rights and privileges of the "third estate" - the townspeople. The urban estate was divided into six categories, received limited self-government rights, elected the mayor and members of the city Duma; - the adoption in 1775 of the Manifesto on the freedom of enterprise, according to which the permission of government bodies was not required to open an enterprise; -reforms of 1782-1786 in the field of school education.
In domestic politics Catherine had to solve the following 4 tasks:
1) improve finances and streamline the state economy in general; 2) resolve the issue of church property; 3) appease the rebellious peasant population; 4) streamline justice and reduce the cost of the trial.
The result of the Enlightenment in Russia was the strengthening of serfdom and the formation of a self-sufficient bureaucratic system, the traditions of which still make themselves felt.
Foreign policy- the most brilliant side of Catherine's state activity, which made the strongest impression on contemporaries and immediate offspring. Russia faced two major questions: Turkish and Polish (Rzeczpospolita).
After first Turkish war Russia acquires in 1774 important points at the mouths of the Dnieper, Don and in the Kerch Strait (Kinburn, Azov, Kerch, Yenikale). in 1783, Balta, Crimea and the Kuban region join.
Second Turkish War ends with the acquisition of the coastal strip between the Bug and the Dniester (1791). Thanks to all these acquisitions, Russia is becoming a firm foot on the Black Sea.
At the same time, the division of the Commonwealth gives Russia western Russia . According to the first of them, in 1773 Russia received a part of Belarus (the provinces of Vitebsk and Mogilev); according to the second partition of Poland (1793), Russia received the regions: Minsk, Volyn and Podolsk; according to the third (1795-1797) - Lithuanian provinces (Vilna, Kovno and Grodno), Black Russia, the upper course of the Pripyat and the western part of Volyn. Simultaneously with the third section, the Duchy of Courland was annexed to Russia.
MAIN EDITORIAL BOARD:
| academician | A.O. CHUBARYAN (Chief Editor) |
| corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences | IN AND. VASILIEV (deputy editor-in-chief) |
| corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences | P.Yu. UVAROV (deputy editor-in-chief) |
| Doctor of Historical Sciences | M.A. LIPKIN (executive secretary) |
| corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences | HA. AMIRKHANOV |
| academician | B.V. ANANYCH |
| academician | A.I. GRIGORIEV |
| academician | A.B. DAVIDSON |
| academician | A.P. DEREVYANKO |
| academician | S.P. KARPOV |
| academician | A.A. KOKOSHIN |
| academician | V.S. MYASNIKOV |
| corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences | V.V. NAUMKIN |
| academician | A. D. NEKIPELOV |
| Doctor of Historical Sciences | K.V. NIKIFOROV |
| academician | Yu.S. PIVOVAROV |
| corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences | E.I. BREWER |
| corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences | L.P. REPINA |
| academician | V.A. TISHKOV |
| academician | A.V. TORKUNOV |
| academician | THEM. URILOV |
Editorial team:
HER. Berger (executive secretary), M.V. Vinokurova, I.G. Konovalova, A.A. Mayzlish, P.Yu. Uvarov, A.D. Shcheglov
Reviewers:
Doctor of Historical Sciences Yu.E. Arnautova,
Doctor of Historical Sciences M.S. Meyer
INTRODUCTION
The third volume of "World History" brought to the attention of the reader is devoted to the period that in recent decades, domestic historians have begun to call "early modern times", following the trend that has emerged in Western countries. In Soviet historiography, the era of the Middle Ages ended in the middle of the 17th century, the turning point of which was considered the English bourgeois revolution. The obvious convention of this date forced some historians to bring the era of the Middle Ages to the end of the 18th century. in particular, because the uprising in the Netherlands, which ended with the secession of the United Provinces from the Spanish possessions, was considered the first bourgeois revolution, and the Great French Revolution was the classical bourgeois revolution that ended the Old Regime. In any case, today the need for isolating a relatively independent period between the Middle Ages and the New Age is obvious, the chronology and name of which can be the subject of discussion.
In this edition, the beginning of the transition from the classical Middle Ages to the New Age is counted approximately from the middle of the 15th - early 16th centuries. and ends in 1700, the date of the conditional, but denoting the actual dividing line between the era of confessional wars and the age of Enlightenment in Europe. Thus, the period commonly referred to as "Early Modern" is divided into two parts in our edition.
A brief analysis of the very concept of the Early Modern Age and separate arguments in favor of and against its application to the period of the 16th-17th centuries. are listed below.
THE CONCEPT OF EARLY MODERN TIME
The origin of the idea of the New Age is associated with the evolution of the three-term scheme (Ancient, Middle and New epochs), which crystallized in the works of historians of the Renaissance. Humanists compared originally ancient and new (modern to them - moderna) history. Flavio Biondo (1392-1463), not yet using the term medium aevum, considered the interval between them as the period of the decline of the Roman Empire, the spread of Christianity and, finally, the heyday of new states in Italy. Renaissance thinkers fully experienced the respect for antiquity characteristic of the Middle Ages, at the same time they were aware of their difference from ancient authors and strove to be pioneers, which indicates the emergence of a development model as the creation of a new one. But in the minds of educated people of the XV century. the idea of progressive development inherent in the Christian worldview was pushed aside by the idea of cyclism. "Le temps revient" - "times are returning" - was the French motto of the Medici house.
In essence, the idea of the Early Modern Age is a product of the collective creativity of several generations of scientists, and the historians of the 17th century themselves, when the three-term scheme was finally formed, considered their time to be “New”. If the Middle Ages and Modern times (like Antiquity) are concepts conditioned by the development of European history and culture and having behind them some kind of historical and cultural objective (existing regardless of the mind of the historian) reality, then the Early Modern Age primarily reflects only the fact that the Middle Ages did not give up positions for a very long time. Many historians note that the conditional dates that complete the chronology of the Middle Ages: 1453, 1492, 1500, whether they have political, cultural or civilizational foundations, do not at all correspond to the moment when the Middle Ages as a phenomenon of human history go into the past. The end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries can claim this with good reason. Even the term "Long Middle Ages" was born, indicating the dominance of the old way of life in most of Europe until the French Revolution. At the same time, in the Romance historiography, “New History” is precisely the period from the middle / end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th century to the end of the 18th century. (modernité), and the next - "The History of Modernity" (histoire contemporaine). The term "Early Modem" (Early Modem, Fruhe Neuzeit) for the first of these periods is used by Anglo-Saxon and German historians.
The periodization that we inherited bears many traces of chance and historicity, one might say, historically transient. Its vitality, at the same time, is explained by its certain colorlessness, inclusiveness, even optionality. Old and new are universal categories. The idea of changing social formations turned out to be more artificial and less viable from this point of view (although its concepts and terms continue to be used and, therefore, are not without roots).
Why do we need the concept of early modern times, if it is so approximate? If we take conditional time points, for example, 1200 and 1900, the difference will be significant, they fit into different historical spaces that differ in all the main (socially and culturally) features. But there was no border between the epochs, the change of “paradigms” took place gradually, and the early New Age makes a rather wide band out of this border. The term is thus not ideal, but useful, reflecting the growth of historical scientific specialization. Most often, the early modern period ends with the end of the 18th century, but regardless of the nuances of periodization, the originality of the two previous centuries and this century itself (the beginning of industrialization, the spread of secular freethinking, enlightened absolutism and the redrawing of the map of Europe and the world between the “great powers”) encourage to talk about this century separately.
FEATURES OF THE TRANSITION PERIOD
If we talk about phenomena that are typologically not typical for the Middle Ages and are more likely associated with the New Age, then this is primarily the market and finance. Of course, they existed both in Antiquity and later, but in medieval society, commodity-money relations were not dominant in the economy, where land was the main source of value; possession of it endowed with a place in society, in the hierarchy of power.
The Late Middle Ages in Western Europe is the period of the 16th-first half of the 17th centuries. Now this period is called the early modern time and is distinguished as a separate period of study. In pre-revolutionary domestic and foreign historiography, this period was designated as the new time. This period is a transitional epoch from the Middle Ages proper to capitalism and is characterized by the disintegration of feudal relations and the emergence of capitalist ones. These processes developed most intensively in such countries as England and the Netherlands.
Genesis of capitalism has its own chronology, acting on two levels: pan-European (that is, tending to become world-historical) and local-historical (more precisely, national). Although the dating of its beginning at these levels may differ significantly (delay at the last level), nevertheless, not a single national economic organism remained aloof from one form or another of interaction with this process. In the same way, the scatter of individual regions is significant in terms of the forms and rhythms of the process that logically and to a large extent historically preceded the genesis of capitalism - the so-called primitive accumulation.
The main prerequisite for the emergence of capitalist forms of production was the development of productive forces, the improvement of tools of labor. By the beginning of the XVI century. shifts have taken place in a number of branches of handicraft production. In industry, the water wheel was increasingly used. Significant progress was observed in the textile craft, in cloth making. They began to produce thin woolen taki, dyed in different colors. In the XIII century. the spinning wheel was invented, and in the XV century. self-spinning wheel, performing 2 operations - twisting and winding the thread. This made it possible to increase the productivity of spinners. There were also shifts in weaving - the vertical loom was replaced by a horizontal one. Great successes were achieved in mining and metallurgy. In the XV century. they began to make deep mines with drifts - branches diverging in different directions and adits - horizontal and inclined exits for mining ore in the mountains. They began to build houses. In the cold working of metals, turning, drilling, rolling, drawing and other machines were used. In Western European languages, the term "engineer" is found in the XIII-XIV centuries. (from Latin - ingenium - “innate abilities, intelligence, wit, ingenuity.” Through French and German, the word “engineer” entered Russia in the 17th century. With the invention of printing, a new branch of production began to develop - typography. In the XIII-XIV centuries clocks with a spring and a pendulum were known.In the 15th century, pocket watches appeared.Charcoal was used as fuel, from the 15th century, coal began to be used.Great successes were achieved in the 14th-15th centuries in shipbuilding and navigation.The size increased vessels, technical equipment, which led to the expansion of world trade, shipping.But still, the 16th century, despite numerous technical discoveries and innovations, was not yet marked by a genuine technical and technological revolution.In addition to the spread of pumps for pumping water from mines, which allowed them deepen, blower bellows in metallurgy, which made it possible to proceed to the smelting of iron ore, and mechanical machines (drawing, nailing, hosiery nyh), productive labor in industry largely remained manual.
The development of industry and the increase in demand for agricultural products contributed to the growth of agricultural production. But there was no drastic change in agricultural implements, they were the same - a plow, a harrow, a scythe, a sickle, but they were also improved - they became lighter, made of the best metal. In the second half of the XV century. a light plow appeared, where 1-2 horses were harnessed, and which was controlled by 1 person. The areas of cultivated lands have increased due to the melioration of arid and wetlands. Improved agricultural practices. Fertilization of the soil with manure, peat, ash, marl, etc. was practiced. Along with the three-field, multi-field and grass sowing appeared. The expansion of commodity economy in the city and in the countryside created the prerequisites for the replacement of small-scale individual production by large-scale capitalist production.
Finally, the nature of the genesis of the capitalist structure also depended on the geographical position of a given country in relation to the new direction of international trade routes - to the Atlantic. After the discovery of the New World and the sea route to India, the transformation of the Mediterranean Sea into the far periphery of the new, northwestern hub of international maritime communications played an important role in the backward movement - the withering and gradual disappearance of the sprouts of early capitalism in the economy of Italy and Southwest Germany.
Capitalist production requires money and labor. These prerequisites were created in the process of primitive accumulation of capital. Of course, the existence of a market for "free" labor power is a necessary condition for the emergence of capitalist forms of social production. However, the forms of forcible separation of the worker from the means of production that actually or legally belonged to him differ from one country to another to the same extent as the forms and rates of formation of the capitalist system itself. The intensity of the process of primitive accumulation is not in itself an indication of the intensity of the capitalist development of a given country.
Large cash fortunes accumulated earlier as trade and TAR developed. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the money savings of merchants, usurers, "financiers" increased significantly. This was facilitated by the development of the practice of tax repayments, the provision of loans to crowned persons at high interest rates, profits from loans to nobles, peasants, and artisans. To a greater extent, the growth of savings was facilitated by the policy of mercantilism pursued by the feudal state (the era of mercantilism - to accumulate as much money as possible in the country (the theoretical justification for mercantilism was obtained in England) Thomas Maine - “he who has goods, he has money, and whoever has money, he can gain a lot” and protectionism (encouraging the development of national industry and the establishment of protective duties on imports from abroad);
Colonial robbery was a significant source of money savings. Spanish conquistadors captured treasures in the New World. Following the Spaniards and the Portuguese, the Dutch and English conquerors and merchants entered the path of colonial robbery. Merchants, speculators, entrepreneurs benefited greatly from the so-called. price revolution.
Based on a combination of traditional and new (capitalist) socio-economic structures in countries involved in intensive trade exchange, the international division of labor makes it possible to isolate in Europe the 16th century. three areas, each of which, precisely due to the specifics of regional conditions, becomes a component of a single economic system. In the last third of the XVI century. this system included:
a). the northwestern region (England, the Netherlands), in which the capitalist way of life was already leading in terms of economic dynamics;
b). the central region (including, on the one hand, the Christian Mediterranean, and above all the Iberian Peninsula, and on the other, Scandinavia), which delivered certain types of industrial raw materials and precious metals flowing from the New World to the European market;
in). the eastern region (including the Balkan countries and Hungary in the southeast, Poland and the Baltic states in the east), which delivered grain, livestock, timber, etc. to the same market.
As for the general European situation in its leading trends, the problem of the so-called price revolution. Period 1480-1620 characterized by high food prices in Europe. But if this starting fact of the economic history of the XVI century. is not questioned, then the answers to the question about the causes of the “price revolution” in the 16th century. sparked a long scientific discussion that continues to this day. From the Middle Ages, Europe inherited a large discrepancy in synchronous prices between different economic regions. So, in 1500 the gap between prices in the markets of northern Italian cities and Eastern Europe was 6:1, in 1600 - 4:1; only by the middle of the 18th century. prices gradually leveled off. This meant that the formation of a common European market was completed. The explanation of this phenomenon, which initiated such a long discussion, belongs to the American historian E. Hamilton, who saw a direct connection between the intensity of price growth and the volume of precious metals delivered to Europe from the New World. A different point of view was held by the Swedish researcher I. Hammarström, who believed that the growth in business activity led to an increase in prices, which in turn led to an increase in the supply of precious metals to the European market.
Further discussion led, on the one hand, to limiting the chronological framework of the money supply growth factor to the 20s of the 16th century. (when the influx of precious metals from overseas has reached a sufficient level to affect price movements); on the other hand, the influence of this factor was made dependent on the increase in employment, that is, on whether the influx of precious metals led to an expansion in the volume of production of the product. The "price revolution" was determined not by the influx of precious metals per se, but by the context of socio-economic and political conditions in which this factor manifested itself - such is the objective way of analyzing the thesis put forward by Hamilton.
The whole problem of the consequences of the influx of precious metals into Europe from across the ocean should be considered not globally, but purely regionally, that is, in connection with the specifics of the political, economic and social conditions characteristic of this area.
So, for example, in Spain, the influx of overseas treasures affected primarily the military-political sphere - the treasures turned into an instrument of war, which diverted the energy and resources of the nation from their productive use, and led to the neglect of the interests of national industry. The result was the economic impoverishment of the country among the wealth that flowed to other countries, supplying the Spanish market, and thus to the Spanish possessions overseas, goods that could be successfully produced domestically.
At the same time, countries like Holland and England, with a growing urban population (against a general population growth) and a redistribution of labor resources in favor of industry, transport, crafts, reached the limit - for that level of agriculture - in grain production. Hence the growth of grain imports from Poland and the Baltic States. For these countries, the rise in prices had a beneficial effect on business activity in both the city and the countryside.
The inclusion in the sphere of the European economic system of overseas sources of raw materials and precious metals, as well as markets for European goods, radically changed the passive trade balance that was so characteristic of medieval European trade with the countries of the East. And from this point of view, the decisive factor in the socio-economic history of Europe in the 16th century, which makes it possible to date the beginning of a new world historical era, was, of course, not the “price revolution”, but the emergence of the capitalist system and the world market associated with it, which has since become a key factor in the evolution of European, and not only European, society.
Considering the “price revolution” in connection with this key factor, it is easy to see that in some countries the inflationary conjuncture contributed to the process of primitive accumulation, elevating the bearers of the capitalist mode of production (primarily in the countryside) at the expense of the recipients of feudal rent, the feudal-dependent peasantry and early capitalist elements. in cities. As for the stratum of hired workers, then, admittedly, wages in the 16th century. clearly lagged behind the rise in grain prices, i.e., real wages fell compared with the previous period.
This is how the dynamics of the real wages of an English carpenter looks like in a region with an intensive process of initial accumulation, a harbinger of the genesis of capitalism of the corresponding intensity (in kilograms of wheat): 1501-1550. - 122.0; 1551-1600 - 83.0; 1601-1650 - 48.3. But here are examples of a different, if not opposite, dynamics. In the northern Italian cities, as well as in the Flanders, in the same XVI century. wages for wage earners adjusted almost sharply with the price of wheat. The reasons and essence of such dynamics are quite clear: we are talking about traditional centers where medieval structures were strong enough to resist the tendencies of primitive accumulation, which in itself served as evidence of the decline of these centers, which ceded their former leadership to new ones.
Forms and methods of expropriation could be different depending on the situation in each individual country, and only in England did they take the form of a direct forcible rounding up of holders by feudal lords, followed by the organization of large sheep-breeding, and then agricultural farms. In other countries, the fiscal system became the main lever for the gradual expropriation of peasants. State. taxes increased greatly with the growth of military spending associated with the transition from the feudal militias to the pro army with the constant improvement of weapons. The capital accumulated in the sphere of trade and usury allowed the treasury to quickly mobilize financial resources, but the only way to pay off creditors is by tightening the tax pressure.
In the XVI century. historians distinguish 7 types of categories of the main direct producer of Europe, the peasant, who made up 90-95% of its population. 1. Personally free holders of land for cash (rent in kind); 2. Free holders (tenants) of land for half - "shareholders"; 3. Personally dependent land holders with a small proportion of corvée in rent; 4. serfs with a predominance of corvee in the composition of the rent; 5. Unprivileged (personally free and serfs) hired workers or in the position of domestic servants; 6. Personally free peasants - the owners of their allotments; 7. Peasants-tenants.
The distribution of these types of peasants across the regions of Europe as a whole reflected the three regions known to us: the irreversible genesis of capitalism; the reversible genesis of capitalism (Southwestern and Rhineland Germany); second edition of serfdom. Naturally, types 1, b, 7 absolutely prevailed in the first of the listed regions, type 2 in the subregion of Southwestern Europe, type 3 - in the second region, type -4 - in the third region. As for the peasants of type 5, in the position of personally free, they are characteristic of the countries of North-Western Europe - here their role was especially great as workers in handicrafts, manufactory, in the position of dependent - for the third of the listed regions. In general, in regions where it was impossible to create - with the help of enclosures - estates of a new type, as well as estates based on corvée labor of serfs, i.e. in the south of France and in northern Italy, the system of polovnichestvo was a kind of middle way of reaction of the senior class for the commercialization of agriculture. An important factor in the spread of this practice was the existence of developed shopping centers and economically influential merchants: under these conditions, many land holdings ended up in the hands of urban money people: considering them as a commercial and secure investment of money, they resorted to the sublease system on the terms of the polovnichestvo, as the most "reasonable" system of doing business. As for Northern France, the very blurring of the system of large estates by the 16th century. in a number of provinces, it forced the lords to seek an increase in their income on the path of lord reaction, that is, the aggravation of feudal forms of power over the farmer. The picture of the shifts in the social structure of the population in Western Europe would be incomplete if we did not pay attention to the growth in the number of people ousted from the countryside, who constituted the pre-proletariat stratum. Since their labor could not yet find application in centralized manufactories, they filled the cities, in search of odd jobs they made up the crews of merchant ships, nourished vagrancy, mercenary armies. The cheapness of labor was an important prerequisite for the formation of the capitalist system, both in industry and in agriculture.
The result of a.s.c. there was the appearance of owners of large capitals and paupers, who turned into hired workers of capitalist enterprises.
Such enterprises arose only as a result of the combination of capital and wage labor, which created surplus value in the production process.
Manufactory production, based on the use of hired labor, originates in the XIII-XIV centuries. in the city-states of Italy (Florence, Siena, Venice, Genoa), the Iberian Peninsula, Flanders and other areas of Western Europe. As a characteristic form of cap. the production of manufactory has dominated since the middle of the 16th century. to the second third of the 18th century. Manufactory is a cooperation based on the division of labor, although at an early stage in the development of manufacturing production, there are also remnants of simple cooperation in it. There were 2 (3) forms of manufactory - centralized, scattered (mixed). Scattered manufactory arose from the house. crafts, for example, the cloth industry of Flanders, England; but in some branches of production - shipbuilding, mining, metallurgy - manufacturing enterprises were immediately centralized. All operations were carried out in one room, under the supervision of the owner or his managers. Each operation becomes the exclusive function of a particular worker. Since the various operations of manufacturing could be simpler and more complex, workers form a whole hierarchy of specialties that require different skills and have different pay. The lowest level is occupied by untrained workers - there were no such workers at all in the craft. Never and nowhere did manufactories arise as voluntary artels of artisans. The poor were driven by the most cruel methods to the first cap. manufactory.
The rural bourgeois are primarily capital farmers and wealthy peasants. As a rule, their large farms were found only in the most favorable economic areas. Medium farms were more common. However, even in large farms, along with hired labor, there was a family one. The middle peasants evolved into the petty bourgeoisie. This stratum was characterized by a combination of agriculture with handicraft labor for an urban merchant-buyer. Formally, the village poor can also be included in the category of small farmers, because they, having lost arable land, continued to own some kind of household - a house, a garden, a garden, livestock, a bird.
In the XVI-XVIII centuries. not only peasant, but also noble lands acquired mobility. The lower nobility could not hold on to their lands by mortgaging and then selling them to the townspeople. The estates created by the new nobles often became the organizational basis for maintaining a large capital. farms, so there were farms that were rented out to the rural elite or urban “money people”. For a wealthy peasant, the opportunity to expand his farm, i.e. to conduct it on large areas with the use of hired labor and the sale of almost all products on the market, was associated not so much with the purchase of land, but with a lease that did not require an immediate and large expense for the purchase of land, while the original movable capital was invested in living and dead inventory and in hiring workers. The tenant started his business on such enlarged areas that he was not able to buy either because of the high price or because of formal prohibitions (the church did not have the right to sell its land). Large rent was almost entirely commodity. The number of large farmers was small. It is characteristic that the large farmer's own land - if it existed - was often very small and did not play a role in his economy. He rented it out to fellow villagers. In some areas of England, Northern France and other countries, capital rent acquired the features of such an agricultural enterprise, in which the labor of the tenant (or his manager) was expressed only in the organization of work and in control over employees. The marketability of a medium-sized farm was lower. This lease was of a consumer nature, and family labor prevailed under it. Day laborers were hired for harvesting or for some specialized work. Small rent was different - winemakers and gardeners sold their products in their entirety, and the tenant of an arable plot worked to get bread for himself and his family, and sold piglets, lambs, poultry, etc., the cash rent paid by him was extracted on his own, not leased land. Den. the form of rent coexisted with share-cropping (share), which can be regarded as transitional to capitalist rent. Share-cropping is based on co-ownership of the movable capital of the owner of the land and the tenant. The owner gives the land, the tenant - his labor and the labor of his family. The resulting product is divided in half, or in any proportion. In the overwhelming majority of cases, sharecropping was a stagnant form of lease, leaving almost no opportunity for the tenant to break out into real entrepreneurs. Large scale cap. perestroika in agriculture was associated with the forcible breaking of share-cropping. The result of the lease was the stratification of the village. The lease was a kind of anti-holding. At the same time, all forms of rent existed in a feudal environment. It turned out that the peasant tenant was at the same time the payer of capital. (or polukap.) and feudal rent.
The advent of capitalism brought to life new classes- the bourgeoisie and hired workers, which were formed on the basis of the decomposition of the social structure of feudal society.
Along with the formation of new classes, the new forms of ideology reflecting their needs, in the form of religious movements. The 16th century was marked by a major crisis in the Roman Catholic Church, which manifested itself in the state of its doctrine, cult, institutions, its role in society, in the nature of education and the morals of the clergy. Diverse attempts to eliminate "corruption" through internal church transformations were not successful.
Under the influence of the innovative theological ideas of Martin Luther, which gave a powerful impetus to various opposition speeches against the Catholic Church, a movement began in Germany reformation from the Latin "reformation" - transformation), which rejected the power of the papacy, the Reformation processes, leading to a split in the Roman church to the creation of new creeds, manifested themselves with varying degrees of intensity in almost all countries of the Catholic world, affected the position of the church as the largest landowner and an organic component of the feudal systems that affected the role of Catholicism as an ideological force that defended the medieval system for centuries.
The Reformation took on the character of broad religious and socio-political movements in Europe in the 16th century, putting forward demands for the reform of the Catholic Church and the transformation of the orders sanctioned by its teaching.
Reflecting the sentiments of the socially heterogeneous opposition, the Reformation played an important role in the formation of early bourgeois social thought and led to the emergence of new forms of ideology in the form of the religious teachings of Protestantism.
Against the widely ramified system of institutions and the diversified teachings of the Catholic Church, the Reformation brought together the diverse forms of criticism of Catholicism that arose throughout the history of the Middle Ages. The ideologists of the Reformation made extensive use of the rich heritage of their predecessors in the fight against the Catholic Church - John Wycliffe, Jan Hus and other thinkers, as well as the experience of mass heretical movements, the traditions of unorthodox mysticism.
In the ideological preparation of the Reformation, the humanist movement of the Renaissance played an important role in its struggle against scholasticism as the theoretical basis of Catholicism, criticism of church rituals, magnificent cult, and ignorance of the clergy. Humanism prepared the Reformation by developing rationalistic methods for studying the Holy Scriptures, striving to give a new solution to fundamental socio-ethical and political issues, ridiculing class prejudices, and propagating patriotic ideas. Humanism, however, cannot be regarded merely as a prelude to the Reformation. Both of these major phenomena were caused by common causes associated with the disintegration of the feudal order and the emergence of elements of early capitalism. Both were associated with the growing self-awareness of the individual, freeing himself from the dominance of corporate institutions and ideas. But if humanism, as a movement for a new secular culture, appealed to the most educated part of society, then the Reformation, which aimed to renew the life of every Christian on the basis of the Gospel, appealed to the broad. the masses. The major theorists of the Reformation created systems of religious beliefs that corresponded to the new trends in social development of the 16th-17th centuries. The Reformation rejected the dogma of the Catholic Church about the obligatory mediation of the clergy between man and God. For the "salvation" of the believer, the church recognized it as necessary to communicate through the sacraments the grace lacking to the believers, through the clergy, separated from the laity by the acceptance of a special sacrament - the priesthood. The central principle of the new religious doctrines of the Reformation was the doctrine of the direct connection of man with God, of "justification by faith", that is, the "salvation" of a person not with the help of strict observance of rituals, not "by good deeds", but on the basis of God's inner gift - faith. The meaning of the doctrine of "justification by faith" was the denial of the privileged position of the clergy, the rejection of the church hierarchy and the supremacy of the papacy. This doctrine made it possible to implement the demand for a "cheap church", which had long been put forward by the burghers and picked up and developed by the ideologists of the Reformation. In addition, since it was recognized that internal communication with God is carried out in the course of worldly life itself, with the help of a properly organized secular order, then this order, primarily the state system, from now on received religious sanction for autonomous development. Reformation teachings thus strengthened the position of secular power and the emerging nation-states in the struggle against the claims of the papacy.
With the thesis of "justification by faith", the ideologists of the Reformation closely linked their second main position, which was fundamentally different from the Catholic dogma - the recognition of Holy Scripture as the only authority in the field of religious truth: this entailed the rejection of the authority of "sacred tradition" (decisions of the Roman popes and church cathedrals) and opened up the possibility for a freer and more rationalistic interpretation of religious issues.
The Reformation contrasted the autocratic structure of the Catholic church organization with a model that existed in the past and was "obscured" by subsequent establishments - the early Christian community of believers. The consistent application of the new principles served to substantiate a more democratic structure of church communities, their right to choose their own spiritual pastors.
The degree of criticism of the Catholic Church, as well as the programs of reforms in the ecclesiastical and secular areas, despite the commonality of the basic starting points, differed significantly among different strata of the public opposition. Each of them invested in reformative formulas content that corresponded to his social interests. The specific historical conditions of its development in different countries of Europe also left a strong imprint on the various manifestations of the Reformation.
The most radical moods of the peasantry and the plebeian masses of the city were expressed by the theoreticians of the popular direction of the Reformation, Thomas Müntzer, Michael Gaismair, and others. They interpreted it as the beginning of a radical revolution not only in church affairs, but also in social relations. Referring to the Gospel, they proclaimed the need to eliminate class privileges, demanded the transfer of power to the entire Christian community, the people, that is. essentially advocated a social revolution. This understanding of the Reformation played an important role in the movement of the masses from local and sectarian forms of struggle to broad programs of action, which were supplemented locally by the participants in the movements with specific demands. As a result of this process, the people's reformation, giving a rationale for various forms of anti-feudal struggle, contributed to overcoming its fragmentation and thus acquired important political significance.
The most common demands of the burgher opposition, which, as a rule, found support among a significant part of the nobility, were the secularization of church land ownership, the abolition of the Catholic hierarchy and monasticism, the rejection of magnificent rituals, the veneration of saints, icons, relics, and the observance of numerous religious holidays. The demands of a "cheap church" and adherence to the principle of frugality met the interests not only of the burghers, but also of the emerging entrepreneurs of a new type. The national-political aspects of this direction of reformation thought were expressed in the desire for the independence of church organizations from Rome, for worship in national languages.
The degree of maturity of the burgher opposition in different countries determined different interpretations of the fundamental problems of public life, based on the ethical and religious teachings of the Reformation. Lutheranism was characterized by the idea of combining the "spiritual freedom" of a Christian with his obligatory loyalty to the powers that be - princely and city, and the existing legal order. The teachings of Zwingli and especially Calvin admitted the right of the community to resist the authorities if they act unrighteously, tyrannically. Similar features of these Protestant movements, which were at enmity with each other and equally fighting both against Catholicism and against the popular reformation, manifested themselves in their common fate: they retained the ritual side of religion, dogmatic elements intensified in these teachings over time, and intolerance towards dissidents increased.
In a number of European states (England, part of the principalities of Germany, the Scandinavian countries), the feudal authorities managed to take advantage of the reform movement in their own interests and confiscated monastic or even all church lands in favor of secular rulers. The church here has become an instrument of state power, strengthening its position. Such is the "royal reformation" in England, where the king subjugated a little changed ecclesiastical organization on a national scale. The separatist-minded nobility of other European countries (some principalities of Germany, France, Hungary, Scotland) in turn tried to adapt the organization and tyrannical ideas of Calvinism to combat absolutist claims.
The European reform movement went through several stages in its development. Its beginning is considered to be 1517, when Luther's speech with 95 theses against the sale of indulgences was a signal for an open manifestation of popular dissatisfaction with the Catholic Church in Germany. With the growth of the opposition movement in the country, various directions of the Reformation developed, expressing the socio-political interests of different classes. The final split of the Reformation was revealed in the course of the anti-feudal struggle of the masses during the Peasants' War of 1525. Speaking out with a sharp condemnation of the peasants, Luther narrowed the social support of the movement that followed him and, reflecting the political mood of the German burghers, moved to a position of compromise with the princely petty power. Lutheranism was used as an instrument of princely separatism and the secularization of church lands in favor of the princes.
Having begun in Germany, the Reformation quickly spread beyond its borders, became widespread and developed in other European countries, primarily in Switzerland and the Netherlands. Along with the reformation teachings of Zwingli, which enjoyed great influence in the economically developed cantons of Switzerland and the cities of Southwestern Germany, the teachings of the Anabaptists became popular in the anti-feudal peasant-plebeian movement, whose rebellious actions culminated in the creation of the Münster commune of 1535. Later, Zwinglianism degenerated into a narrowly provincial a kind of burgher reformation, and sectarian tendencies intensified in Anabaptism.
The Reformation achieved its greatest success at the next stage in the development of the all-European opposition movement, when, after Lutheranism, Zwinglianism and Anabaptism, which enjoyed the greatest influence in the 20-30s of the 16th century, Calvinism came in the 40-50s; later it became the ideological shell of the demands of the early bourgeois revolutions in the Netherlands and England.
From the second half of the XVI century. the banner of the Reformation was used by movements that were heterogeneous in socio-political content, from the liberation anti-Habsburg and anti-feudal struggle of the masses in Hungary and the Czech Republic (from the 60s of the 16th century) to the reactionary-separatist uprisings of the feudal aristocracy against the centralizing or absolutist policy of the state (“ political Huguenots" during the civil wars in France, the performances of large feudal lords in the Central European possessions of the Habsburgs, etc.). The most striking expression of the so-called "noble reformation" was taken in Poland, where the magnates and the gentry took advantage of the Reformation to seize church lands and fight for the "noble republic".
The powerful scope of the Reformation and the social movements that took place in its channel and against its background, which together were an expression of the process of revolutionary changes, caused resistance and a general offensive of the forces of feudal Catholic reaction in Europe in the middle of the 16th century, which was called the Counter-Reformation. Based on the decisions of the Council of Trent, which in its own way partially used the practical experience of the Reformation, the Catholic Church was rebuilt and strengthened with the help of the Inquisition and the new Jesuit order. International associations of reactionary forces were created against the anti-feudal and national liberation movements of the masses, in order to suppress progressive ideas. The counter-reformation won in Spain, Italy, Poland, the Czech Republic, and part of Germany. Later, the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 legally consolidated the peace proclaimed in the 16th century. principle: “Whose power, that is faith”, and confessional boundaries were fixed as of 1624.
The main results of the Reformation, which on the whole played an important progressive role, were expressed in the fact that the spiritual dictatorship of the Catholic Church was broken, the economic basis of its power was undermined by the secularization of its possessions, new Christian denominations, religious communities and churches independent of Rome, which were in in some cases by national churches. Conditions were created that contributed to the strengthening of secular power and the development of nation-states. The Reformation contributed to the development of new approaches to the problems of politics and law, which eventually became the school of bourgeois-democratic freedoms. The church and religion were adapted to the conditions of the emerging bourgeois society and had an impact on its economic and work ethic. The Reformation also contributed to a certain modernization of the Catholic Church. Under the conditions of religious polycentrism, secular science and culture received a great opportunity for its free development, rationalistic teachings spread, including those that substantiated the principles of religious tolerance and prepared for the subsequent spread of deism. The ideological disputes of the Reformation era grew into the 17th century. in the discussion of rationalists and sensualists, clearing the way for the enlightenment thought of the 18th century.
In the countries of Western and part of Central Europe, the development politiical structures in the 16th - early 17th centuries. took place in the context of the emergence and growth within the framework of feudalism of the new capitalist order, which was the main content of the socio-economic processes that took place in this region, and in the east of the continent - in the conditions of the restoration and legal consolidation of the most severe forms of feudal dependence of the peasantry ("the second edition of serfdom "). In contrast to the socio-economic sphere, the trends in the development of European statehood were of a more general nature, which is explained, on the one hand, by the fact that the forms of state power develop relatively independently, without an absolutely “rigid” conditionality of the state of socio-economic relations, and on the other hand, by the fact that they, to a greater extent than socio-economic structures, are subject to external influence, have a greater ability to assimilate the experience and practice of neighboring, more developed states.
In the evolution of the forms of state structure, the dialectic of the general and the particular in the European historical process was clearly manifested - the growing awareness of Europe as a certain geographical and cultural-historical community and the further growth of the independence of individual national and multinational state formations, accompanied by the rise of national self-consciousness and the rupture of the universalist ties of the medieval type, embodied in the west of the continent in the spiritual and political power of the papacy. The elimination of the ideological motivation of its existence external to the state through belonging to a single Catholic world, which was characteristic of the 16th century, led to the formation of the idea of the “self-sufficiency” of the state as a subject of history, to the search for new ideological justifications for the state, to the emergence of various kinds of doctrines about the essence and appointment of the state and the sovereign.
Throughout the 16th century The political map of Europe has changed significantly. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. the process of unification of the English and French lands was basically completed, a single Spanish state was formed, which in 1580 also included Portugal (until 1640). The concept of the Empire, called from the end of the XV century. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" was increasingly associated with purely German lands. In Eastern Europe, a new state appeared - the Commonwealth, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
At the same time, under the blows of the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary collapsed. Other Central European monarchies, united under the rule of the Austrian Habsburgs, lost their political independence. Most of the territories of South-Eastern Europe were under foreign domination.
Common to the development of most European states in the period under review was a sharp increase in centralization tendencies, which manifested itself in the acceleration of the processes of unification of state territories around a single center, in the formation of state administration bodies that were different from the Middle Ages, in a change in the role and functions of the supreme power.
Europe in the 16th century states of various types coexisted and were in complex interconnections - from monarchies going through different stages of development to feudal, and at the end of the century, early bourgeois republics. However, the dominant form of government is absolute monarchy. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was established, according to which the transition from estate-representative monarchies to absolutist-type monarchies is associated with the entry into the historical arena of new social forces in the person of the emerging bourgeoisie, creating a certain counterbalance to the feudal nobility; according to F. Engels, a situation arises when “state power temporarily acquires a certain independence in relation to both classes, as an apparent mediator between them) .
The degree of development of the bourgeois strata, as well as the characteristics of the previous development of political structures, to a certain extent determine the specific nature of absolutist power, the degree of its maturity in a given country. At the same time, absolutism, as a historically transient form of feudal monarchy, may also have external similarities with other forms of “autocratic” government based on a different social base and ascending to fundamentally different political traditions. In other words, absolutism is seen as a form of state corresponding to the final stage of the development of feudalism and characterized by a sharply increasing power of the monarch and the highest degree of centralization. In the transitional period, the form of political domination of the feudal lords is an absolute monarchy, i.e. when the bourgeoisie strengthens its positions, but cannot yet come to power. The backbone of absolutism is the middle and small strata of the nobility, the core of the army. The power of the monarch is unlimited and independent (in a certain sense) in relation to both estates as a whole. An absolute monarch relies on a standing army, a bureaucracy (an apparatus personally subject to him), a system of permanent taxes, and a church. Absolutism was a very effective form of state, using bourgeois development in the interests and to maintain the position of the ruling class of feudal lords. In the interests of the latter, he ensured the receipt of feudal rent, suppressing the anti-feudal struggle of the masses, spent a significant part of tax revenues on the court nobility, waged wars. At the same time, absolutism also supported the bourgeoisie - pursuing a policy of mercantilism and (trade wars, paying off taxes, loans from the king) and protectionism. The royal bureaucracy was created at the expense of the bourgeoisie. There are features of absolutism in different countries.
The lower chronological limit of absolutism can conditionally be attributed to the end of the 15th-beginning of the 16th century. The idea of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries is widespread. as a period of "early absolutism", although English absolutism (the existence of which, however, some schools and directions of foreign historiography deny) passed during the 16th century. the stage of maturity and entered a period of protracted crisis, which was resolved by the bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century.
Absolutism continues the earlier annexation of the outlying territories, sharply restrains the centrifugal, separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility, limits urban liberties, destroys or changes the functions of the old local governments, forms a powerful central authority that puts all spheres of economic and social life under its control, secularizes the church and monastic landownership, subordinates the church organization to its influence.
The organs of class representation (the Estates General in France, the Cortes in Spain, etc.) are losing the significance that they had in the previous period, although in a number of cases they continue to exist, forming a bizarre symbiosis with the new bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.
In England, the Parliament, created in the XIII century. as an organ of class representation, it becomes an integral part of the absolutist system, and the king, according to the ideas widespread in English political literature, acquires full power only in cooperation with parliament. Specificity English absolutetizma, and subsequently the nature of its crisis, were largely due to the peculiarities of the social structure of English society, the proximity of the economic positions and class interests of the emerging bourgeoisie and a significant part of the middle and petty nobility.
Relatively slow development French absolutism was largely due to the continued social predominance of the nobility and the underdevelopment of capitalist elements, as well as a number of other factors of a socio-economic, political, geographical nature that feed centrifugal tendencies to the detriment of centripetal ones. The powerful bureaucratic machine created by French absolutism, the presence of which is often regarded as the most characteristic feature of an absolutist state in general, in the 16th-early 17th centuries. still retained many archaic elements. The reforms of the 20-30s of the 17th century, which limited the positions of the feudal aristocracy and bureaucracy, became a kind of prelude to the entry of French absolutism into the “classical” stage of development, which began in the second half of the 17th century.
Peculiarities Spanish absolutism can be explained to a certain extent by the extreme narrowness of its social base, limited exclusively by the nobility, which occupied a dominant position in the class structure of the Spanish monarchy, pushing the middle entrepreneurial strata into the background. The weak interest of the Spanish nobility, whose important source of income was precious metals from the colonies, in the development of the national economy was combined with the predominant orientation of the policy of the ruling Austrian Habsburg dynasty in the country towards external goals in relation to Spain (achieving Habsburg hegemony in Western and Central Europe, fighting reformation movements, the expansion of the colonial empire in America). The aggressive foreign policy of Spanish absolutism found strong support among all strata of the nobility, which in the 16th century constituted. the basis of the Spanish army and who saw in the implementation of this policy an additional source of income.
The establishment of absolutist forms of government in Germany, representing in the period under review a conglomerate of states and political entities within the Empire. The emperors, elected by the college of electors, continued to maintain unrealistic claims to the political leadership of "Christendom", although in the Empire itself their power was sharply limited by the old imperial aristocracy and the new territorial-seigniorial nobility, the "imperial ranks" represented since the end of the 15th century. in the general imperial meetings (Reichstags). The national imperial tradition, embodied in the specific policy of the Habsburgs, contributed to the development of regional-particularist tendencies, the strengthening of territorial statehood, and ultimately led to the formation of petty-state absolutism in certain lands, which flourished in the second half of the 17th century. In contrast to the absolutism of the large Western European states, regional, small-power absolutism in Germany not only did not play a centralizing role, but, on the contrary, contributed to the strengthening of the political isolation of individual German lands. The Reformation, the Peasant War of 1524-1526, and subsequent intra-imperial conflicts also contributed to the consolidation of the territorial and political fragmentation of the German lands, which received an additional confessional coloring. The reliance of each of the confessional-political German camps - Catholic and Protestant - on external forces gradually turned Germany into a sphere of clashes of interests of other European states, which led to the all-European Thirty Years' War of 1618-1648. The Peace of Westphalia formalized the fragmentation of Germany, which persisted for the next two centuries.
The regional type of absolutism developed during the 16th century and on the territory Italy, where he replaced the regional estate monarchies and city-republics. At the same time, the structures of the Duchy of Savoy were close to the French type of absolute monarchy, and the structures of the Kingdom of Naples and the Papal States were close to the Spanish type. Actually, the Italian version of absolutism was embodied in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany and other state-political formations that developed on the basis of signories. unchanged until the 18th century. the state system of the Venetian Republic remained, the class base of which was mainly the patriciate, as well as partly the urban aristocracy and the nobility of the subordinate territory, which allowed it to carry out the same class functions as the absolutist-type monarchies.
A kind of reduced copy of the political structures of the Empire was Switzerland, which, even by the end of the period under review, having received the rights of a sovereign state as a result of the Thirty Years' War, remained essentially a rather amorphous association of political formations of the medieval type, although the cantons included in it pursued a very active economic policy, characteristic of the early stage of development of capitalism.
AT Central European region during the 16th century. basically, the political structures characteristic of medieval estate-representative monarchies were preserved, with the only difference being that in Poland, for example, against the background of the weakening of the central royal power, which unsuccessfully tried to use some elements and methods of absolutist politics, a regime of magnate oligarchy was taking shape, and in the Czech Republic and Austria, the evolution of forms of state power towards Spanish-type absolutism was outlined.
Elements of absolutist rule (the creation of central state institutions, attempts to maneuver between competing social strata) arose from the beginning of the 16th century. and in countries Scandinavia, however, they did not find stable forms here. Brief periods of increased royal power were followed by periods of political dominance by individual feudal groups.
Political development was fundamentally new for Europe NeitherNetherlands. The absolutist-bureaucratic system implanted by the Habsburgs, aimed at including the country in the structure of the Empire, the forced coexistence of absolutist institutions with local representative bodies and institutions harbored the germ of an inevitable conflict, which ultimately resulted in an anti-feudal national liberation movement that had the character of an early bourgeois revolution and culminating in the formation of the Republic of the United Provinces, in which the place of the sovereign-king was taken by the States General.
Europe in the Early Modern Period (Late Middle Ages)
"Europe in the Early Modern Times (Late Middle Ages)"
New story , or a new time in the history of mankind, is era of capitalism. It covers the period from the English bourgeois revolution of the XVII century. to the Great October Socialist Revolution of 1917. New history is divided into two periods: from the English bourgeois revolution in the middle of the 17th century. (1640) to the Paris Commune (1871) and from the Paris Commune to the Great October Socialist Revolution. New time was a stage of great changes in all spheres of life. It occupies a shorter period when compared with the Middle Ages or with the ancient world, but in history this period is of the utmost importance. Many historians call it "the time of the great breakthrough", and there are explanations for this. It was during this period that the foundations of the capitalist mode of production were laid, the level of productive forces increased significantly, the forms of organization of production changed, thanks to the introduction of technical innovations, labor productivity increased and the pace of economic development accelerated. This period was also a turning point in Europe's relations with other civilizations. If before that the West was a relatively closed region, then what happened in the XV-XVII centuries. The great geographical discoveries pushed the boundaries of the Western world, expanded the horizons of Europeans. The development of trade relations has deepened the process of formation of national markets, pan-European and world. In the XVI-XVII centuries. Europe became the birthplace of the first early bourgeois revolutions.
Transition to an industrial society:
During the New Age, qualitative changes took place in the life of the peoples of the Northern Hemisphere, and then of the whole world. They were due to the beginning of the transition from a traditional society to an industrial one, which is commonly called modernization. The new time, in short, has led to a change in the political system in many countries. The rapid development of trade, especially during the period of geographical discoveries, the emergence of banking, the emergence of manufactories began to increasingly contradict the traditional economy and political system. The emerging new class, the bourgeoisie, begins to play a significant role in the state. In many countries that have reached the limit of contradiction between the capitalist mode of production and the federal system, they have led to bourgeois revolutions. The Great English (1640-1660) and Great French Revolutions (1789-1794) initiated the process of establishing the bourgeoisie as the ruling class in the political organization of European society. In the 19th century bourgeois revolutions swept other European countries. In 1820-1821, 1848 revolutions took place in Italy. A whole series of revolutions of 1854-1856. shook Spain. In 1848 there were revolutionary uprisings in Germany. France played the role of the leader of social revolutions in Europe. After the Great Bourgeois Revolution of 1789-1794. she survived three more in 1830, 1848 and 1871. Along with the bourgeoisie in the social revolutions of the XIX century. the proletariat is active. In the form of major uprisings, he seeks to defend his rights. The uprising of the Lyon weavers in France (1830 and 1839), the uprising of the Silesian weavers in Germany (1839), the Chartist movement in England testify to the growing strength of the working class. By the middle of the XIX century. the political organization of the working class of Europe, the First International, is organized. Capitalism is finally victorious in Europe. The industrial revolution begins, and the obsolete manufactory is replaced by the factory. Most European countries in modern times are going through a difficult time of changing forms of power, a crisis of absolute monarchy. As a result of changes in the political system, parliamentary democracy is emerging in the most progressive countries. In the same period, the system of international relations began to take shape.
Geographic discoveries:
New time - the time of inventors and practitioners, the time of great geographical discoveries. In 1492, the Genoese Christopher Columbus discovered a new continent - America, in 1498 the Portuguese navigator Vasco da Gama established a sea route to India, in 1519 the Portuguese Magellan made the first trip around the world. In connection with these events, European trade, stretching across the oceans, became truly global. Spain and Portugal became colonial powers. The opening of a new sea route was a heavy blow to the traditional trade of the Arabs, Turks, and Venetians. The new economic center of Europe, and in fact, of the whole world, moved to the shores of the North Sea - first to Holland, then to England and Northern France. In these countries, both industry and trade developed simultaneously. Later, the exploitation of the gold and silver mines, sugar and tobacco plantations of America, based on the extensive use of the labor of slaves captured in Africa, brought enormous wealth mainly to Holland and England. These countries were ahead of Spain and Portugal in economic development, where feudal relations continued to exist. The success of the travels contributed to change in many areas of European life. New goods began to appear on the European markets, which arrived from the East and the West - cotton products, porcelain, cocoa, and tobacco. The opened up opportunities for new sea routes led to an increase in the requirements for shipbuilding and navigation, for the training of craftsmen for the production of maps, compasses and other tools. Maritime schools were founded in Portugal, Spain, England, Holland and France. Sea voyages made an important revolution in the sphere of ideas about the earth, the study of the movement of stars acquired practical value. At this time, the greatest inventions that expanded the possibility of observing nature, the telescope and microscope, found mass application. After geographical discoveries, the market for selling goods and obtaining raw materials for production expanded significantly, merchant capital grew rapidly, the bourgeoisie and merchants grew rich. During this period, the exchange of agricultural products for goods manufactured in the city developed, and the volume of goods produced increased. The development of commodity production and the increase in demand for handicraft products were accompanied by a stratification of artisans. Production based on the division of labor was called "manufactory". The very word "manufactory" means "manufacturing". But the manufacture is already an industrial enterprise with significant capital and hired workers who produce products for a wide market.
The first manufactories arose in Italy in the 14th century. At the end of the XV - beginning of the XVI century. manufactories were created in Germany, England, the Netherlands, France. In the XVI-XVII centuries. cloth and silk, weapons and glass, optical and other manufactories were distributed in all European countries. In Russia, the first manufactories appeared in the 17th century. Manufactory production in Russia began to develop most rapidly at the beginning of the 18th century, and manufactories were widely developed in the 18th - first half of the 19th centuries.
Creation of the first colonial empires:
Spanish colonial empire: Spain was the first to embark on the path of building an empire, declaring all the lands discovered by its navigators in the New World as its property. The very first Spanish colony was founded on Fr. Hispaniola (modern Haiti), then Cuba, Jamaica and other islands of the West Indies were captured. At the beginning of the XVI century. The Spaniards began to explore the mainland. For many centuries, highly developed civilizations existed here. inca(in Peru) Mayan and Aztecs(in what is now Mexico).
The first victim of the Spaniards was the power of the Aztecs, captured in 1519-1521. detachment of conquistadors (from the Spanish word conquest- conquest) under the command of Hernan Cortes. The Mayan city-states followed. In 1532-1534. it was the turn of the Inca state, defeated by the conquistadors led by F. Pissarro. On the ruins of the conquered states, the colonies of New Spain and Peru were formed.
Portuguese colonial empire:
The Portuguese used somewhat different methods to build their empire. Having established themselves first in the fortifications they built on the coast of India, they quickly began to spread their dominance throughout South Asia. The Portuguese followed the established trade routes in this part of the world, seeking to establish control over their key points. To begin with, they captured the ports to the west of India, through which the trade of the Arab states and Persia was carried out, and in 1511 they occupied Malacca, the largest port in Southeast Asia, located at the crossroads of the most important trade routes off the coast of Asia. The "spice islands" became the most valuable acquisition. In 1517 the Portuguese established trade relations with China, in 1542 with Japan. In 1557 they founded Macau, the first European colony in China. From the countries of the Far East, such valuable goods as tea, silk, porcelain were delivered to Europe.
The Portuguese were creating a colonial empire that was different from the Spanish. Spain sought to directly seize the vast undeveloped territories where the extraction of precious metals was organized and plantations were created - large agricultural holdings in which tea, sugar cane, cotton and other crops were grown. Instead of large colonies, the Portuguese created a network of strongholds, trying to bring under their control the richest trade of the East Indies. In contrast to the Spanish territorial empire, Portugal created the world's first trading empire of a global, that is, worldwide, scale. Common to the two powers was the establishment of a law according to which the right to trade with their colonies belonged only to their own subjects and was very strictly regulated by the royal power. In 1580, when Portugal was captured by Spain, a gigantic colonial empire was formed, which lasted until 1640.
Reformation and counter-reformation in Europe:
Reformation in the 16th century - the most important turning point in the history of the Western European Christian Church, a spiritual upheaval, as a result of which a number of dogmatic provisions were revised, new confessional movements and national church organizations arose. Reflecting the crisis of Catholicism, the Reformation at the same time made it possible to overcome it by adapting the Christian faith to the needs and ethical demands of contemporary society.
Anti-clerical sentiments were widespread in its most diverse layers at all stages of the Middle Ages: numerous "heresiarchs", political thinkers, humanist writers, representatives of the national clergy - supporters of the "cathedral movement" criticized the mores of the Roman curia, clergy and monasticism. Political claims against the Roman Catholic Church were expressed by secular rulers and the European nobility, who demanded the secularization of its property and lands. The burghers advocated the "cheapening" of the church, as well as the rejection of some of the provisions of its ethical teachings - from the condemnation of wealth and entrepreneurial activity.
By the beginning of the XVI century. these demands merged into a single stream and led to the realization of the need for a profound reform of church doctrine and organization. The most important prerequisites for the Reformation at the turn of the 15th-16th centuries were the general rise in education, the success of book printing, the spread of new principles of humanistic ethics and the Renaissance concept of man - the master of his own destiny. The intellectual needs that have matured in society have led to a rethinking of the theory of the "one-saving role" of the Catholic Church, as well as the significance of church sacraments (baptism, communion, chrismation, repentance, priesthood, marriage and unction) in individual salvation. The beginning of the European Reformation was laid in Germany.
Counter-Reformation and "Catholic Reform" in Europe:
The successes of Protestantism dealt a strong blow to the positions of the Catholic Church, which was losing its former power over the Christian world. This forced the papacy to take a number of measures aimed at combating the "Protestant heresy". The Church's policy to stop the spread of new teachings was called the "Counter-Reformation". It was actively supported by the sovereigns of the countries that remained Catholic - Spain, France, parts of the German and Italian states.
In these countries, the Inquisition became more active, condemning thousands of Protestants to a painful death at the stake as heretics. The Catholic Church encouraged denunciations of Protestants; the property of the convicted was handed over to scammers.
The Inquisition closely monitored the spread of "harmful" ideas in the universities, censorship of printed publications was introduced. In Catholic countries, the works of Protestant theologians were listed in the "index of forbidden books" and indulged in public burning. The importation of this literature or its underground publication was punishable by death.
One of the most effective means in the struggle for the minds of believers was the Jesuit order, founded in 1540. Its creator and first general was the Spanish nobleman and theologian Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). He drew up a program of action and spiritual commandments for members of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), the main purpose of which was to strengthen the position of the Catholic Church around the world, which Loyola divided into "provinces" that covered not only Europe, but also Asia and America, where Jesuit missionaries were sent . Each region was headed by a “provincial”, under which there was a council - a collegium subordinate to the general of the order.
Unlike medieval monks, the Jesuits lived in the world and tried not to differ in appearance from secular faces. They participated in political and public life in order to influence them in the interests of the Catholic Church: they entered into the confidence of sovereigns, ministers, court favorites, encouraging them to pursue a policy approved by the papacy.
The Jesuits were engaged in "trapping souls" among all walks of life and did it very subtly: in order to attract believers to themselves, they opened schools, hospitals, orphanages and the elderly. At the same time, the Jesuit colleges and schools were distinguished by the highest level of education. In the XVI-XVII centuries. the Jesuits were considered the best teachers in Europe, many outstanding historians and political thinkers came from the environment of the order.
The ability to intrigue and subjugate people to one's will made the concept of "Jesuit" a symbol of cunning and political unscrupulousness. In their eyes, the end justifies any means. In the name of the cause of the church, the Jesuits even allowed murder, which was considered a mortal sin. They prepared a series of assassination attempts on Protestant sovereigns and politicians in France, the Netherlands, England and supported Catholic conspiracies in Protestant countries. Strict discipline reigned in the order, which did not allow ordinary members to talk about the moral side of their actions. If a Jesuit received an order from a superior, he had to obey unconditionally, as if he were an inanimate being, the charter of the society read.
Many leaders of the Catholic Church realized that the preaching of Protestantism is successful due to the fact that it makes the Bible - the main authority for Christians - more accessible to believers by translating it into popular languages. The Reformation brought with it church enlightenment: people were taught to read and write, the basics of faith, catechisms were compiled - a summary of the foundations of faith in the form of questions and answers - which were memorized. Pastors ensured that those who did not know the basics of the faith did not receive the sacrament. Thanks to the Reformation, many Christians learned better what they should have believed.
The Catholic Church, with its Latin service and Latin Bible beyond the comprehension of the majority, was losing in this respect. She had to make up for lost time. In the second half of the 16th century, Catholic theologians - supporters of the "Catholic reform" - also took up the translation of the Bible into national languages. The network of Catholic schools and universities expanded.
The most far-sighted representatives of the Catholic Church were ready to accept some of the criticism of the papacy and the clergy. They did not support the principle of papal theocracy, they proposed to abandon the assertion of the infallibility of the pope and insisted that he must obey the collective decisions of the councils. However, the conservative part of the Catholic clergy resisted all attempts at reform.
The Council of Trent, which sat intermittently from 1545 to 1563, was to resolve the disagreements. The conservatives won in fierce disputes about reforms: they insisted on the supremacy of the pope over the cathedral, achieved strict observance by the clergy of all church rituals and papal prescriptions, and strengthened the inquisition. Contradictions in the Catholic Church were overcome, but it was a triumph for its reactionary part
Main trends in socio-economic development:
A characteristic feature of the economic life and economy of the early modern period is the coexistence of new and traditional features. Material culture (tools, technologies, people's skills in agriculture and crafts) retained medieval routine. XVI-XVII centuries did not know truly revolutionary advances in technology or new sources of energy. The water wheels known since antiquity, as well as windmills and the muscular strength of people and animals, remained the dominant types of engines; the main source of energy is charcoal. Techniques of "high" agriculture and complex crop rotations came into practice during the classical Middle Ages and have changed little since then. Some shifts took place in traditional crafts - the invention of a wide loom and self-spinning wheel contributed to the progress of textile production. However, the medieval guild system hindered the introduction of technical innovations. This period was the last stage in the development of pre-industrial agrarian civilization in Europe, which ended with the onset of the industrial revolution of the 18th century. in England. industrial colonial counter-reformation imperialism
On the other hand, several areas of accelerated development clearly emerged in the European economy, where new technologies and forms of labor organization were more widely used. The progress of mining and metallurgy, in which production was carried out on a share basis with the investment of large capital, made it possible to increase the smelting of iron, cast iron, steel, which in turn led to the rise of weapons, the production of artillery and firearms, in which Europe XV-XVI centuries . knew no equal. The consequence of the spread of firearms was a revolution in military affairs, the transition from heavily armed knightly cavalry and light cavalry to infantry armed with arquebuses, the loss of the feudal militia of its former importance, changes in fortification, in all strategy and tactics of war.
Rapid progress was also observed in the so-called. “new industries” that did not have medieval guild traditions, these included printing - the most important invention of Johannes Gutenberg (1445), both technically and culturally, the production of paper, glass, soap, mirrors, cotton and silk fabrics.
In the XV-XVII centuries. a dense network of communications connected the cities and countries of Europe. The development of trade and means of communication led to the formation of internal and European markets, and the establishment of regular ties with Africa, Asia and America laid the foundations of the world market.
An important factor in the economic development of the early modern era was the emergence of the capitalist way of life. It was a natural result of the evolution of small-scale commodity production under market conditions. By the end of the XV century. most of the European peasantry was personally free and enjoyed economic independence, like urban artisans. However, the economy of a small producer is extremely unstable: constantly working for the market, it either prospers and grows larger, or goes bankrupt. This trend was observed in the XVI-XVII centuries. both in the city and in the countryside, where hired labor for wages spread.
The slow natural evolution of the feudal economy to capitalism was accelerated by the process of "primitive capital accumulation" - a number of historical factors that contributed, on the one hand, to the rapid expropriation of small producers (for example, the forcible enclosure of peasant lands in England, the "price revolution", the public debt system, which increased the tax burden). On the other hand, they facilitated the formation of large capital in the hands of the merchants and entrepreneurs: such factors include non-equivalent trade with the colonies of the New World, the protectionist policy of states that contributed to the enrichment of the merchants, the same “price revolution”, the benefits of which were able to use the major food suppliers and raw materials to European markets.
Capitalism has taken hold in the urban economy, despite the moderating influence of the shop floor. Property and social stratification affected the guild artisans - the basis of the medieval burghers, the struggle within the guilds, their "closure", the subordination of the "senior" guilds to the "junior" ones by the end of the 15th century. put some of the masters in unequal conditions. The rise in prices in the 16th century, which especially hit the urban population, who bought both food and raw materials, accelerated this process. A free labor market was formed in the city at the expense of half-ruined craftsmen, "eternal apprentices", the plebs and peasants who came to work. This created opportunities for the organization of large-scale production - manufactory.
Imperialism: At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, capitalism entered a new and final stage of its development - imperialism, or monopoly capitalism. At this time, powerful associations of the largest industrialists and bankers were formed - monopolies. They seized control of the entire economic life of the capitalist countries, subjugated the bourgeois parliaments and the state apparatus. In their hands were schools, universities, scientific institutions, the press, theater, cinema. The imperialists carry the exploitation of the peoples of their own countries to the extreme, enslave and rob the peoples of other countries, especially the backward ones. At the end of the 19th century, when the capture of the colonies had already been completed, predatory wars began between the imperialist countries for the redivision of the colonies, for the redivision of the world. World War I 1914-1918 was an imperialist war for the redivision of the world.
At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. Russia, where the contradictions of imperialism have become particularly acute, has become the country of the most advanced labor movement in the world. A truly revolutionary Marxist party arose in Russia, the Bolshevik party headed by Lenin. When in 1914 the capitalists, in pursuit of profits, unleashed a world war, the Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, consistently fought for peace, for the proletarian revolution. In 1917, the proletarian revolution won in Russia under the leadership of the Leninist Communist Party.
Bourgeois revolutions were limited only to the replacement of feudalism by capitalism. The Great October Socialist Revolution abolished private ownership of the means of production and all exploitation of man by man, tore out the very roots of exploitation. Since 1917, the period of the collapse of capitalism and the victory of socialism began - first in Russia, then in other countries. This revolution stirred up the peoples of the colonial and dependent countries and gave a powerful impetus to their national liberation movement. The dictatorship of the proletariat was established in Russia - a new type of democracy, democracy for the working people.
October 1917 opened a new period in world history - the latest history.
The Late Middle Ages is a term used by historians to describe a period in European history between the 14th and 16th centuries.
The Late Middle Ages was preceded by the Mature Middle Ages, and the subsequent period is called the Modern Age. Historians differ sharply in defining the upper limit of the Late Middle Ages. If in Russian historical science it is customary to define its end as the English Civil War, then in Western European science the end of the Middle Ages is usually associated with the beginning of the Church Reformation or the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries. The late Middle Ages is also called the Renaissance.
Around 1300, the period of European growth and prosperity ended with a series of disasters, such as the Great Famine of 1315-1317, which happened due to unusually cold and rainy years that ruined the harvest. Famine and disease were followed by the Black Death, a plague that wiped out more than a quarter of the European population. The destruction of the social order led to massive unrest, it was at this time that the famous peasant wars raged in England and France, such as the Jacquerie. The depopulation of the European population was completed by the devastation caused by the Mongol-Tatar invasion and the Hundred Years' War. Despite the crisis, already in the XIV century. in Western Europe began a period of progress in the sciences and arts, prepared by the emergence of universities and the spread of scholarship. The revival of interest in ancient literature led to the beginning of the Italian Renaissance. Antiquities, including books, accumulated in Western Europe during the time of the Crusades, especially after the sack of Constantinople by the crusaders and the subsequent decline of culture in the Balkans, due to which Byzantine scholars began to migrate to the West, especially to Italy. The spread of knowledge was greatly facilitated by the invention in the 15th century. typography. Previously expensive and rare books, including the Bible, gradually became available to the public, and this, in turn, prepared the European Reformation.
The growth of the Ottoman Empire hostile to Christian Europe on the site of the former Byzantine Empire caused difficulties in trade with the East, which prompted Europeans to search for new trade routes around Africa and to the west, across the Atlantic Ocean and around the world. The voyages of Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama marked the beginning of the era of the Great Geographical Discoveries, which strengthened the economic and political power of Western Europe.
The genesis of capitalism has its own chronology, acting on two levels: pan-European (that is, tending to become world-historical) and local-historical (more precisely, national). Although the dating of its beginning at these levels may differ significantly (delay at the last level), nevertheless, not a single national economic organism remained aloof from one form or another of interaction with this process. In the same way, the scatter of individual regions is significant in terms of the forms and rhythms of the process that logically and to a large extent historically preceded the genesis of capitalism - the so-called primitive accumulation.
The main prerequisite for the emergence of capitalist forms of production was the development of productive forces, the improvement of tools of labor. By the beginning of the XVI century. shifts have taken place in a number of branches of handicraft production. In industry, the water wheel was increasingly used. Significant progress was observed in the textile craft, in cloth making. They began to produce thin woolen taki, dyed in different colors. In the XIII century. the spinning wheel was invented, and in the XV century. self-spinning wheel, performing 2 operations - twisting and winding the thread. This made it possible to increase the productivity of spinners. There were also shifts in weaving - the vertical loom was replaced by a horizontal one. Great successes were achieved in mining and metallurgy. In the XV century. they began to make deep mines with drifts - branches diverging in different directions and adits - horizontal and inclined exits for mining ore in the mountains. They began to build houses. In the cold working of metals, turning, drilling, rolling, drawing and other machines were used. In Western European languages, the term "engineer" is found in the XIII-XIV centuries. (from Latin - ingenium - "innate abilities, intelligence, wit, ingenuity." Through French and German, the word "engineer" entered Russia in the 17th century. With the invention of printing, a new branch of production began to develop - printing. In the XIII-XIV centuries clocks with a spring and a pendulum were known.In the 15th century, pocket watches appeared.Charcoal was used as fuel, from the 15th century, coal began to be used.Great successes were achieved in the 14th-15th centuries in shipbuilding and navigation.The size increased vessels, technical equipment, which led to the expansion of world trade, shipping.But still, the 16th century, despite numerous technical discoveries and innovations, was not yet marked by a genuine technical and technological revolution.In addition to the spread of pumps for pumping water from mines, which allowed them deepen, blower bellows in metallurgy, which made it possible to proceed to the smelting of iron ore, and mechanical machines (drawing, nailing, stocking nyh), productive labor in industry largely remained manual.
The development of industry and the increase in demand for agricultural products contributed to the growth of agricultural production. But there was no drastic change in agricultural implements, they were the same - a plow, a harrow, a scythe, a sickle, but they were also improved - they became lighter, made of the best metal. In the second half of the XV century. a light plow appeared, where 1-2 horses were harnessed, and which was controlled by 1 person. The areas of cultivated lands have increased due to the melioration of arid and wetlands. Improved agricultural practices. Fertilization of the soil with manure, peat, ash, marl, etc. was practiced. Along with the three-field, multi-field and grass sowing appeared. The expansion of commodity economy in the city and in the countryside created the prerequisites for the replacement of small-scale individual production by large-scale capitalist production.
Finally, the nature of the genesis of the capitalist structure also depended on the geographical position of a given country in relation to the new direction of international trade routes - to the Atlantic. After the discovery of the New World and the sea route to India, the transformation of the Mediterranean Sea into the far periphery of the new, northwestern hub of international maritime communications played an important role in the backward movement - the withering and gradual disappearance of the sprouts of early capitalism in the economy of Italy and Southwest Germany.
Capitalist production requires money and labor. These prerequisites were created in the process of primitive accumulation of capital. Of course, the existence of a market for "free" labor power is a necessary condition for the emergence of capitalist forms of social production. However, the forms of forcible separation of the worker from the means of production that actually or legally belonged to him differ from one country to another to the same extent as the forms and rates of formation of the capitalist system itself. The intensity of the process of primitive accumulation in itself is not yet an indicator of the intensity
The emergence of capitalism gave birth to new classes - the bourgeoisie and wage workers, which were formed on the basis of the decomposition of the social structure of feudal society.
Along with the formation of new classes, new forms of ideology developed, reflecting their needs, in the form of religious movements. The 16th century was marked by a major crisis in the Roman Catholic Church, which manifested itself in the state of its doctrine, cult, institutions, its role in society, in the nature of education and the morals of the clergy. Diverse attempts to eliminate "corruption" through internal church transformations were not successful.
Under the influence of the innovative theological ideas of Martin Luther, which gave a powerful impetus to various opposition speeches against the Catholic Church, the Reformation movement began in Germany from the Latin "reformation" - transformation), which rejected the power of the papacy, Reformation processes, leading to a split in the Roman Church to create new creeds, appeared with varying degrees of intensity in almost all countries of the Catholic world, affected the position of the church as the largest landowner and an organic component of the feudal system, affected the role of Catholicism as an ideological force that had defended the medieval system for centuries.
The Reformation took on the character of broad religious and socio-political movements in Europe in the 16th century, putting forward demands for the reform of the Catholic Church and the transformation of the orders sanctioned by its teaching.
Throughout the 16th century The political map of Europe has changed significantly. At the turn of the XV and XVI centuries. the process of unification of the English and French lands was basically completed, a single Spanish state was formed, which in 1580 also included Portugal (until 1640). The concept of the Empire, called from the end of the XV century. The "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" was increasingly associated with purely German lands. In Eastern Europe, a new state appeared - the Commonwealth, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.
At the same time, under the blows of the Ottoman Empire, the Kingdom of Hungary collapsed. Other Central European monarchies, united under the rule of the Austrian Habsburgs, lost their political independence. Most of the territories of South-Eastern Europe were under foreign domination.
Common to the development of most European states in the period under review was a sharp increase in centralization tendencies, which manifested itself in the acceleration of the processes of unification of state territories around a single center, in the formation of state administration bodies that were different from the Middle Ages, in a change in the role and functions of the supreme power.
Europe in the 16th century states of various types coexisted and were in complex interconnections - from monarchies going through different stages of development to feudal, and at the end of the century, early bourgeois republics. At the same time, the absolute monarchy becomes the predominant form of government. In Soviet historiography, the point of view was established, according to which the transition from estate-representative monarchies to absolutist-type monarchies is associated with the entry into the historical arena of new social forces in the person of the emerging bourgeoisie, creating a certain counterbalance to the feudal nobility; according to F. Engels, a situation arises when “state power temporarily acquires a certain independence in relation to both classes, as an apparent mediator between them).
The lower chronological limit of absolutism can conditionally be attributed to the end of the 15th-beginning of the 16th century. The idea of the 16th and the first half of the 17th centuries is widespread. as a period of "early absolutism", although English absolutism (the existence of which, however, some schools and directions of foreign historiography deny) passed during the 16th century. the stage of maturity and entered a period of protracted crisis, which was resolved by the bourgeois revolution of the middle of the 17th century.
Absolutism continues the earlier annexation of the outlying territories, sharply restrains the centrifugal, separatist aspirations of the feudal nobility, limits urban liberties, destroys or changes the functions of the old local governments, forms a powerful central authority that puts all spheres of economic and social life under its control, secularizes the church and monastic landownership, subordinates the church organization to its influence.
The organs of class representation (the Estates General in France, the Cortes in Spain, etc.) are losing the significance that they had in the previous period, although in a number of cases they continue to exist, forming a bizarre symbiosis with the new bureaucratic apparatus of absolutism.
