Biology(from the Greek bios - life, logos - word, science) is a complex of sciences about wildlife.

The subject of biology is all manifestations of life: the structure and functions of living beings, their diversity, origin and development, as well as interaction with the environment. The main task of biology as a science is to interpret all the phenomena of living nature on a scientific basis, while taking into account that the whole organism has properties that are fundamentally different from its components.

Biology studies all aspects of life, in particular, the structure, functioning, growth, origin, evolution and distribution of living organisms on Earth, classifies and describes living beings, the origin of their species, interaction with each other and with the environment.

At the heart of modern biology are 5 fundamental principles:

1. cell theory
2. evolution
3. genetics
4. homeostasis
5. energy

Biological Sciences

Currently, biology includes a number of sciences that can be systematized according to the following criteria: subject and predominant methods research and study the level of organization of wildlife.

By subject of researchI biological sciences are divided into bacteriology, botany, virology, zoology, mycology.

Botany is a biological science that comprehensively studies plants and the vegetation cover of the Earth.

Zoology - a branch of biology, the science of diversity, structure, life, distribution and relationship of animals with the environment, their origin and development.

Bacteriology - biological science that studies the structure and vital activity of bacteria, as well as their role in nature.

Virology is the biological science that studies viruses.

main object mycology are mushrooms, their structure and features of vital activity.

Lichenology - biological science that studies lichens.

Bacteriology, virology and some aspects of mycology are often considered within microbiology - section of biology, the science of microorganisms (bacteria, viruses and microscopic fungi).

Systematics, or taxonomy, - biological science that describes and classifies into groups all living and extinct creatures.

In turn, each of the listed biological sciences is subdivided into biochemistry, morphology, anatomy, physiology, embryology, genetics and taxonomy (of plants, animals or microorganisms). Biochemistry - this is the science of the chemical composition of living matter, chemical processes occurring in living organisms and underlying their vital activity.

Morphology - biological science that studies the shape and structure of organisms, as well as the patterns of their development. In a broad sense, it includes cytology, anatomy, histology and embryology. Distinguish the morphology of animals and plants.

Anatomy - This is a branch of biology (more precisely, morphology), a science that studies the internal structure and shape of individual organs, systems and the body as a whole. Plant anatomy is considered as part of botany, animal anatomy is considered as part of zoology, and human anatomy is a separate science.

Physiology - biological science that studies the processes of vital activity of plant and animal organisms, their individual systems, organs, tissues and cells. There are physiology of plants, animals and humans.

Embryology(developmental biology)- a branch of biology, the science of the individual development of the organism, including the development of the embryo.

object genetics are patterns of heredity and variability. Currently, it is one of the most dynamically developing biological sciences.

By the studied level of organization of living nature they distinguish molecular biology, cytology, histology, organology, biology of organisms and supraorganismal systems.

Molecular biology is one of the youngest sections of biology, a science that studies, in particular, the organization of hereditary information and protein biosynthesis.

Cytology, or cell Biology,- biological science, the object of study of which are the cells of both unicellular and multicellular organisms.

Histology - biological science, a section of morphology, the object of which is the structure of tissues of plants and animals.

To the sphere organology include the morphology, anatomy and physiology of various organs and their systems. Biology of organisms includes all sciences that deal with living organisms, for example, ethology the science of the behavior of organisms.

The biology of supraorganismal systems is subdivided into biogeography and ecology. The distribution of living organisms studies biogeography, whereas ecology - organization and functioning of supraorganismal systems at various levels: populations, biocenoses (communities), biogeocenoses (ecosystems) and the biosphere.

By prevailing research methods one can distinguish descriptive (for example, morphology), experimental (for example, physiology) and theoretical biology. Revealing and explaining the regularities of the structure, functioning and development of living nature at various levels of its organization is a task general biology. It includes biochemistry, molecular biology, cytology, embryology, genetics, ecology, evolutionary science and anthropology. evolutionary doctrine studies the causes, driving forces, mechanisms and general patterns of evolution of living organisms. One of its sections is paleontology- science, the subject of which are the fossil remains of living organisms. Anthropology- a section of general biology, the science of the origin and development of man as a biological species, as well as the diversity of populations of modern man and the patterns of their interaction. Applied aspects of biology are assigned to the field of biotechnology, breeding and other rapidly developing sciences. Biotechnology called the biological science that studies the use of living organisms and biological processes in production. It is widely used in food (baking, cheese making, brewing, etc.) and pharmaceutical industries (obtaining antibiotics, vitamins), for water treatment, etc. Selection- the science of methods for creating breeds of domestic animals, varieties of cultivated plants and strains of microorganisms with the properties necessary for a person. Selection is also understood as the process of changing living organisms, carried out by man for his needs.

The progress of biology is closely related to the success of other natural and exact sciences, such as physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science, etc. For example, microscopy, ultrasound (ultrasound), tomography and other processes occurring in living systems would be impossible without the use of chemical and physical methods. The use of mathematical methods allows, on the one hand, to identify the presence of a regular connection between objects or phenomena, to confirm the reliability of the results obtained, and on the other hand, to model a phenomenon or process. Recently, computer methods, such as modeling, have become increasingly important in biology. At the intersection of biology and other sciences, a number of new sciences have arisen, such as biophysics, biochemistry, bionics, etc.

The role of biology in the formation of the modern natural-science picture of the world

At the stage of formation, biology did not yet exist separately from other natural sciences and was limited only to observation, study, description and classification of representatives of the animal and plant world, that is, it was a descriptive science. However, this did not prevent the ancient naturalists Hippocrates (c. 460-377 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC) and Theophrastus (real name Tirtham, 372-287 BC). e.) to make a significant contribution to the development of ideas about the structure of the human and animal body, as well as the biological diversity of animals and plants, thereby laying the foundations of human anatomy and physiology, zoology and botany. The deepening of knowledge about wildlife and the systematization of previously accumulated facts that took place in the 16th-18th centuries culminated in the introduction of binary nomenclature and the creation of a coherent taxonomy of plants (C. Linnaeus) and animals (J.-B. Lamarck). The description of a significant number of species with similar morphological features, as well as paleontological finds, became prerequisites for the development of ideas about the origin of species and the paths of the historical development of the organic world. Thus, the experiments of F. Redi, L. Spallanzani and L. Pasteur in the 17th-19th centuries refuted the hypothesis of spontaneous spontaneous generation put forward by Aristotle and existed in the Middle Ages, and the theory of biochemical evolution by A. I. Oparin and J. Haldane, brilliantly confirmed by S Miller and G. Urey, made it possible to answer the question of the origin of all living things. If the very process of the emergence of the living from non-living components and its evolution in themselves no longer raise doubts, then the mechanisms, ways and directions of the historical development of the organic world are still not fully elucidated, since none of the two main competing theories of evolution (the synthetic theory evolution, created on the basis of the theory of C. Darwin, and the theory of J.-B. Lamarck) still cannot provide exhaustive evidence. The use of microscopy and other methods of related sciences, due to progress in the field of other natural sciences, as well as the introduction of experimental practice, allowed the German scientists T. Schwann and M. Schleiden to formulate a cell theory back in the 19th century, later supplemented by R. Virchow and K. Baer. It became the most important generalization in biology, which formed the cornerstone of modern ideas about the unity of the organic world. The discovery of the patterns of transmission of hereditary information by the Czech monk G. Mendel served as an impetus for the further rapid development of biology in the 20th-21st centuries and led not only to the discovery of the universal carrier of heredity - DNA, but also the genetic code, as well as fundamental mechanisms for controlling, reading and variability of hereditary information . The development of ideas about the environment has led to the emergence of such a science as ecology, and wording the doctrine of the biosphere as a complex multi-component planetary system of interconnected huge biological complexes, as well as chemical and geological processes occurring on Earth (V.I. Vernadsky), which ultimately allows at least to a small extent to reduce the negative consequences of human economic activity. Thus, biology has played an important role in the formation of the modern natural-science picture of the world.

Methods for studying living objects

Like any other science, biology has its own arsenal of methods. In addition to the scientific method of cognition, which is used in other fields, such methods as historical, comparative descriptive, etc. are widely used in biology.

scientific method knowledge includes observation, formulation of hypotheses, experiment, modeling, analysis of results and derivation of general patterns.

Observation- this is a purposeful perception of objects and phenomena with the help of sensory organs or instruments, due to the task of activity. The main condition for scientific observation is its objectivity, i.e. the possibility of verifying the data obtained by repeated observation or the use of other research methods, such as experiment. The facts obtained as a result of observation are called data. They can be like quality(describing smell, taste, color, shape, etc.), and quantitative, moreover, quantitative data are more accurate than qualitative ones.

Based on the observational data, a hypothesis is formulated - a hypothetical judgment about the regular connection of phenomena. The hypothesis is tested in a series of experiments.

experiment called scientifically posed experience, the observation of the phenomenon under study under controlled conditions, allowing to identify the characteristics of this object or phenomenon. The highest form of experiment is modeling - the study of any phenomena, processes or systems of objects by building and studying their models. In essence, this is one of the main categories of the theory of knowledge: any method of scientific research, both theoretical and experimental, is based on the idea of ​​modeling. The results of the experiment and simulation are subjected to a thorough analysis.

Analysis called the method of scientific research by decomposing an object into its component parts or mental dismemberment of an object by logical abstraction. Analysis is inextricably linked with synthesis.

Synthesis- this is a method of studying the subject in its integrity, in the unity and interconnection of its parts. As a result of analysis and synthesis, the most successful research hypothesis becomes a working hypothesis, and if it is able to resist attempts to refute it and still successfully predicts previously unexplained facts and relationships, then it can become theory.

Under theory understand such a form of scientific knowledge that gives a holistic view of the patterns and essential connections of reality. The general direction of scientific research is to achieve higher levels of predictability. If no facts can change a theory, and the deviations from it that occur are regular and predictable, then it can be elevated to the rank law- a necessary, essential, stable, recurring relationship between phenomena in nature. As the body of knowledge increases and research methods improve, hypotheses and even well-established theories can be challenged, modified, and even rejected, since scientific knowledge itself is dynamic in nature and is constantly subject to critical rethinking.

The historical method reveals the patterns of the appearance and development of organisms, the formation of their structure and function. In a number of cases, with the help of this method, hypotheses and theories that were previously considered false acquire new life. So, for example, happened with Darwin's assumptions about the nature of signaling through the plant in response to environmental influences. The comparative-descriptive method provides for an anatomical and morphological analysis of the objects of study. It underlies the classification of organisms, identifying patterns of emergence and development of various forms of life.

Monitoring is a system of measures for monitoring, evaluating and predicting changes in the state of the object under study, in particular the biosphere. Observations and experiments often require the use of special equipment, such as microscopes, centrifuges, spectrophotometers, etc. Microscopy is widely used in zoology, botany, human anatomy, histology, cytology, genetics, embryology, paleontology, ecology and other branches of biology. It allows you to study the fine structure of objects using light, electron, X-ray and other types of microscopes.

The light microscope consists of optical and mechanical parts. The optical parts are involved in the construction of the image, and the mechanical ones serve for the convenience of using the optical parts. The total magnification of a microscope is determined by the formula: objective magnification x eyepiece magnification = microscope magnification.

For example, if the objective magnifies an object by 8 times and the eyepiece magnifies by 7 times, then the total magnification of the microscope is 56.

Differential centrifugation, or fractionation, makes it possible to separate particles according to their size and density under the action of centrifugal force, which is actively used in studying the structure of biological molecules and cells.

The main levels of organization of wildlife

1. Molecular genetic. The most important tasks of biology at this stage is the study of the mechanisms of transmission of gene information, heredity and variability.
2. Cellular level. The elementary unit of the cellular level of organization is the cell, and the elementary phenomenon is the reaction of cellular metabolism.
3. tissue level. This level is represented by tissues that combine cells of a certain structure, size, location and similar functions. Tissues arose in the course of historical development along with multicellularity. In multicellular organisms, they are formed in the process of ontogeny as a result of cell differentiation.
4. Organ level. The organ level is represented by the organs of organisms. In protozoa, digestion, respiration, circulation of substances, excretion, movement and reproduction are carried out by various organelles. More advanced organisms have organ systems. In plants and animals, organs are formed due to a different number of tissues.
5. Organism level. The elementary unit of this level is an individual in its individual development, or ontogenesis, therefore the organismal level is also called ontogenetic. An elementary phenomenon of this level is the changes in the organism in its individual development.
6. Population-species level. A population is a collection of individuals of the same species that freely interbreed and live apart from other similar groups of individuals. In populations, there is a free exchange of hereditary information and its transmission to descendants. The population is the elementary unit of the population-species level, and the elementary phenomenon in this case are evolutionary transformations, such as mutations and natural selection.
7. Biogeocenotic level. Biogeocenosis is a historically established community of populations of different species, interconnected with each other and the environment through the metabolism and energy. Biogeocenoses are elementary systems in which the material-energy cycle is carried out, due to the vital activity of organisms. Biogeocenoses themselves are elementary units of a given level, while elementary phenomena are energy flows and the circulation of substances in them. Biogeocenoses make up the biosphere and determine all the processes occurring in it.
8. biospheric level. The biosphere is the shell of the Earth inhabited by living organisms and transformed by them. The biosphere is the highest level of organization of life on the planet. This shell covers the lower part of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the upper layer of the lithosphere. The biosphere, like all other biological systems, is dynamic and actively transformed by living beings. It itself is an elementary unit of the biospheric level, and as an elementary phenomenon, they consider the processes of circulation of substances and energy that occur with the participation of living organisms.

As mentioned above, each of the levels of organization of living matter contributes to a single evolutionary process: the cell not only reproduces the inherent hereditary information, but also changes it, which leads to the emergence of new combinations of signs and properties of the body, which in turn undergo the action of natural selection at the population-species level, etc.

Biology Glossary

Abiogenesis is the development of living things from inanimate matter in the process of evolution (a hypothetical model of the origin of life).

Acarology is the science that studies ticks.

An allele is one of the specific states of a gene (dominant allele, recessive allele).

Albinism is the absence of pigmentation of the skin and its derivatives, caused by a violation of the formation of melanin pigment. The causes of albinism are different.

The aminoacial center is the active site in the ribosome where the contact between the codon and anticodon occurs.

Amitosis - direct cell division, in which there is no uniform distribution of hereditary material between daughter cells.

Amniotes are vertebrates in which a provisional organ, the amnion (water shell), is formed in embryogenesis. The development of amniotes occurs on land - in an egg, or in utero (reptiles, birds, mammals, humans).

Amniocentesis - obtaining amniotic fluid with the cells of a developing fetus in it. It is used for prenatal diagnosis of hereditary diseases and sex determination.

Anabolia (Supplement) - the appearance of new characters in the late stages of embryonic development, leading to an increase in the duration of ontogenesis.

Analogous organs - organs of animals of different taxonomic groups, similar in structure and functions performed by them, but developing from different embryonic rudiments.

Anamnia is the stage of mitosis (meiosis) in which the chromatids separate to the poles of the cell. In anaphase I of meiosis, not chromatids diverge, but gel chromosomes consisting of two chromatids, as a result of which a haploid set of chromosomes appears in each daughter cell.

Anomalies of development - a violation of the structure and function of organs in the process of individual development.

Antigens are substances of a protein nature that, when they enter the body, cause an immunological reaction with the formation of antibodies.

An anticodon is a triplet of nucleotides in a tRNA molecule that contacts an mRNA codon in the aminoacial center of the ribosome.

Antimutagens are substances of various nature that reduce the frequency of mutations (vitamins, enzymes, etc.).

Antibodies are immunoglobulin proteins produced in the body in response to the penetration of antigens.

Anthropogenesis is the evolutionary path of the origin and development of man.

Anthropogenetics is a science that studies the issues of heredity and variability in humans.

Aneuploidy - changes in the number of chromosomes in the karyotype (heteroploidy).

Arachnology is the science that studies arachnids.

Aromorphosis - evolutionary morphofunctional transformations of general biological significance that increase the level of organization of animals.

Archallaxis - changes that occur at different stages of embryonic development and guide phylogeny along a new path.

Archanthropes - a group of ancient people united in one species - homo erectus (straightened man). This species includes Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, Heidelberg man and other closely related forms.

Atavism is the complete development of a rudimentary organ, which is not characteristic of this species.

Autophagy is the process of digestion by a cell of its irreversibly altered organelles and cytoplasmic regions with the help of hydrolytic enzymes of lysosomes.

Twins:

Monozygotic - twins that develop from one egg fertilized by one sperm (polyembryony);

Dizygotic (polyzygotic) - twins that develop from two or more eggs fertilized by different sperm (poliovulation).

Hereditary - diseases caused by a violation of the structure and function of hereditary material. There are gene and chromosomal diseases;

Molecular - diseases caused by gene mutations. In this case, the structure of structural proteins and proteins of enzymes may change;

Chromosomal - diseases caused by a violation of the structure or number of chromosomes (autosomes or sex chromosomes) due to chromosomal or genomic mutations;

Wilson-Konovalov (hepatocerebral degeneration) is a molecular disease associated with impaired copper metabolism, which leads to damage to the liver and brain. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;

Galactosemia is a molecular disease associated with impaired carbohydrate metabolism. Inherited in an autosomal recessive manner;

Sickle cell anemia is a molecular disease based on a gene mutation that leads to a change in the amino acid composition of the hemoglobin B-chain. Inherited by the type of incomplete dominance;

Phenylketonuria is a molecular disease caused by a violation of the metabolism of amino acids and phenylalanine. It is inherited in an autosomal recessive manner.

Basal body (kinetosome) - Structure at the base of the flagellum, or cilia, formed by microtubules.

Biogenesis - The origin and development of organisms from living matter.

Developmental biology is a science that arose at the intersection of embryology and molecular biology and studies the structural, functional and genetic foundations of individual development, the mechanisms of regulation of the vital activity of organisms.

Blastoderm - a collection of cells (blastomeres) that form the wall of the blastula.

Brachydactyly - short fingers. It is inherited in an autosomal dominant manner.

Genetic vectors are DNA-containing structures (viruses, plasmids) used in genetic engineering to attach genes and introduce them into a cell.

Viruses are non-cellular life forms; capable of living cells and reproducing in them. They have their own genetic apparatus, represented by DNA or RNA.

Vital staining (lifetime) is a method of staining other structures with dyes that do not have a toxic effect on them.

Inclusions are non-permanent components of the cell cytoplasm, represented by secretory granules, reserve nutrients, end products of metabolism.

Degeneracy of the genetic code (redundancy) - the presence in the genetic code of several codons corresponding to one amino acid.

Gametogenesis - the process of formation of mature germ cells (gametes): female gametes - ovogenesis, male gametes - spermatogenesis.

Gametes are sex cells with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Haploid cells - cells containing a single set of chromosomes (n)

Gastrocoel is a cavity in a two- or three-layer embryo.

Gastrulation is the period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a two- or three-layer embryo is carried out.

Biohelminths - helminths, in the life cycle of which there is a change of owners or the development of all stages occurs within one organism without access to the external environment;

Geohelminths - helminths, the larval stages of which develop in the external environment (ascaris, crooked head);

Contact-transmitted - helminths, the invasive stage of which can enter the host's body upon contact with the patient (pygmy tapeworm, pinworm).

A hemizygous organism is an organism that has a single allele of the analyzed gene due to the absence of a homologous chromosome (44+XY).

Hemophilia is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifested with a violation of blood clotting.

Gene - Structural unit of genetic information:

Allelic genes are genes that are localized in the same loci of homologous chromosomes and determine different manifestations of the same trait.

Non-allelic genes - localized in different loci of homologous chromosomes or in non-homologous chromosomes; determine the development of different signs;

Regulatory - controlling the work of structural genes, their function is manifested in interaction with enzyme proteins;

Structural - containing information about the polypeptide structure of the chain;

Mobile - able to move around the cell genome and take root in new chromosomes; they can change the activity of other genes;

Mosaic - eukaryotic genes, consisting of informative (exons) and non-informative (introns) sections;

Modulators - genes that enhance or weaken the action of the main genes;

Mandatory (housekeeping genes) - genes encoding proteins synthesized in all cells (histones, etc.);

Specialized ("luxury genes") - encoding proteins synthesized in individual specialized cells (globins);

Hollandic - localized in regions of the Y chromosome that are not homologous to the X chromosome; determine the development of traits inherited only through the male line;

Pseudogenes - having similar nucleotide sequences with functioning genes, but due to the accumulation of mutations in them, they are functionally inactive (they are part of the alpha and beta globin genes).

Genetics is the science of heredity and variation in organisms. The term was introduced into science in 1906. English geneticist W. Batson.

A genetic map is a conditional image of chromosomes in the form of lines with the names of genes printed on them and observing the distances between genes, expressed as a percentage of crossing over - morganids (1 morganid = 1% crossing over).

Genetic analysis is a set of methods aimed at studying the heredity and variability of organisms. It includes the hybridological method, the method of accounting for mutations, cytogenetic, population-statistical, etc.

Genetic load - the accumulation in the gene pool of a population of recessive alleles, leading in a homozygous state to a decrease in the viability of individuals and the population as a whole.

The genetic code is a system of "recording" genetic information in the form of a sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule.

Genetic engineering is a purposeful change in the hereditary program of a cell using the methods of molecular genetics.

Genocopies - the similarity of phenotypes that have a different genetic nature (mental retardation in some molecular diseases).

Genome - the number of genes of a haploid cell, characteristic of a given type of organism.

Genotype - a system of interacting alleles of genes characteristic of a given individual.

The gene pool is the totality of the genes of the individuals that make up the population.

Geriatrics is a branch of medicine dedicated to the development of treatments for the elderly.

Gerontology is a science that studies the processes of aging of organisms.

Geroprotectors are antimutagens that bind free radicals. Slow down the onset of old age and increase life expectancy.

Genetic heterogeneity of populations - the presence in individuals of a given population of several allelic variants (at least two) of one gene. Causes genetic polymorphism of populations.

A heterozygous organism is an organism whose somatic cells contain different alleles of a given gene.

Heteroploidy - an increase or decrease in the number of individual chromosomes in a diploid set (monosomy, trisomy).

Heterotopia is a change in the process of evolution of the place of laying in the embryogenesis of one or another organ.

Heterochromatin - sections of chromosomes that retain a spiralized state in interphase are not transcribed. Heterochrony - changes in the process of evolution of the laying time in the embryogenesis of one or another organ.

A hybrid is a heterozygous organism formed by crossing genetically different forms.

Hypertrichosis - local - a sign linked to the Y-chromosome; manifested in increased hair growth on the edge of the auricle; inherited in a recessive manner.

Embryonic histogenesis - the formation of tissues from the material of the germ layers by cell division, their growth and differentiation, migration, integration and intercellular interactions.

The hominid triad is a combination of three characteristics that are unique to humans:

Morphological: absolute upright posture, development of a relatively large brain, development of a hand adapted to subtle manipulations;

Psychosocial - abstract thinking, the second signal system (speech), conscious and purposeful labor activity.

Homozygous organism - an organism whose somatic cells contain the same alleles of a given gene.

Homoithermal animals - organisms that are able to maintain a constant body temperature regardless of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animals, humans).

Homologous organs - organs that develop from the same embryonic rudiments; their structure may be different depending on the function performed.

Homologous chromosomes - a pair of chromosomes of the same size and structure, of which one is paternal, the other is maternal.

The gonotrophic cycle is a biological phenomenon observed in blood-sucking arthropods, in which the maturation and laying of eggs are closely associated with blood feeding.

Linkage group - a set of genes located on the same chromosome and inherited linkage. The number of linkage groups is equal to the haploid number of chromosomes. Clutch failure occurs during crossover.

Color blindness is a molecular disease linked to the X chromosome (recessive type of inheritance). Manifested by a violation of color vision.

Deviation (deviation) is the appearance of new characters at the middle stages of embryonic development, which determines a new path of phylogenesis.

Degeneration - evolutionary changes characterized by a simplification of the structure of the body compared to ancestral forms.

A deletion is a chromosomal aberration in which a portion of a chromosome falls out.

Determination is the genetically determined ability of embryonic cells only to a certain direction of differentiation.

Diakinesis is the final stage of prophase I of meiosis, during which the process of segregation of homologous chromosomes after conjugation is completed.

Divergence is the formation in the process of evolution of several new groups from a common ancestor.

A diploid cell is a cell containing a double set of chromosomes (2n).

Diplotene - stage of prophase I of meiosis - the beginning of the divergence of homologous chromosomes after conjugation.

Sex differentiation is the process of development of sexual characteristics in ontogeny.

Dominant trait - a trait that manifests itself in the homo- and heterozygous state.

A donor is an organism from which tissue or organs are taken for transplantation.

The tree of life is a schematic representation of the paths of evolutionary development in the form of a tree with branches.

Gene drift (genetic-automatic processes) - changes in the genetic structure in small populations, expressed in a decrease in genetic polymorphism and an increase in the number of homozygotes.

Cleavage is the period of embryogenesis in which the formation of a multicellular embryo occurs through successive mitotic divisions of blastomeres without increasing their size.

Duplication is a chromosomal aberration in which a portion of a chromosome is duplicated.

Natural selection is the process by which, as a result of the struggle for existence, the fittest organisms survive.

Gill arches (arterial) - blood vessels passing through the gill septa and undergoing quantitative and qualitative changes in the evolution of the circulatory system of vertebrates.

The life cycle is the time of the existence of a cell from the moment of its formation to death or division into two daughter ones as a result of the transition from the G 0 state to the mitotic cycle.

Embryonic period - in relation to a person, the period of embryogenesis from the 1st to the 8th week of intrauterine development.

The embryonic organizer is a part of the zygote (gray sickle), which largely determines the course of embryogenesis. When the gray crescent is removed, development stops at the crushing stage.

Zygotene is the prophase I stage of meiosis, in which homologous chromosomes combine (conjugate) into pairs (bivalents).

Idiodaptation (allomorphosis) - morphofunctional changes in organisms that do not increase the level of organization, but make this species adapted to specific living conditions.

Variability - the property of organisms to change in the process of individual development of individual signs:

Modification - phenotypic changes due to the influence of environmental factors on the genotype;

Genotypic - variability associated with quantitative and qualitative changes in the hereditary material;

Combinative - a type of variability that depends on the recombination of genes and chromosomes in the genotype (meiosis and fertilization);

Mutational - a type of variability associated with a violation of the structure and function of the hereditary material (mutations).

Immunosuppression - suppression of protective immunological reactions of the body.

Immunosuppressants are substances that suppress the response of the immune system of the recipient's body to the transplant, helping to overcome tissue incompatibility and engraftment of the transplanted tissue.

Inversion is a chromosomal aberration in which intrachromosomal breaks occur and the excised area is flipped 180 0 .

Embryonic induction is the interaction between parts of the embryo, during which one part (inductor) determines the direction of development (differentiation) of the other part.

Initiation is a process that ensures the start of matrix synthesis reactions (translation initiation is the binding of the AUG codon to tRNA-methionine in the peptide center of the small subunit of the ribosome of the ribosome).

Inoculation - the introduction of the pathogen by the carrier into the wound with saliva in the bite.

Interphase is the part of the cell cycle during which the cell prepares for division.

An intron is an uninformative region of a mosaic gene in eukaryotes.

Karyotype is a diploid set of somatic cells, characterized by the number of chromosomes, their structure and size. species-specific trait.

Housing is a form of symbiosis in which one organism uses the other as a home.

Keylons are substances of a protein nature that inhibit the mitotic activity of cells. Kinetoplast is a specialized part of the mitochondria that provides energy for the movement of the flagellum.

The kinetochore is a specialized region of the centromere, in the region of which the formation of short microtubules of the division spindle and the formation of connections between chromosomes and centrioles occurs.

Classification of chromosomes:

Denever - chromosomes are combined into groups based on their size and shape. To identify chromosomes, a continuous staining method is used;

Parisian - based on the characteristics of the internal structure of chromosomes, which is detected using differential staining. The same arrangement of segments is present only in homologous chromosomes.

Gene clusters are groups of different genes with related functions (globin genes).

A clone of cells is a collection of cells formed from one parent cell by successive mitotic divisions.

Cloning of genes - obtaining a large number of homogeneous DNA fragments (genes).

Codominance is a type of interaction of allelic genes (in the presence of many alleles), when two dominant genes appear in the phenotype independently of each other (IV blood group).

A codon is a sequence of three nucleotides in a DNA molecule (mRNA) corresponding to an amino acid (sense codon). In addition to sense codons, there are termination and initiation codons.

Collinearity is the correspondence of the order of nucleotides in a DNA molecule (mRNA) to the order of amino acids in a protein molecule.

Colchicine is a substance that destroys spindle microtubules and stops mitosis at the metaphase stage.

Commensalism is a form of symbiosis that benefits only one organism.

Complementarity - strict correspondence of nitrogenous bases to each other (A-T; G-C)

The type of interaction of non-allelic genes, when the development of a trait is determined by two pairs of genes.

Counseling (medical-genetic) - counseling the applicant about the possible inheritance of a particular disease and how to prevent it using the method of genetic analysis.

Contamination is a method of infection with the help of a carrier, in which the pathogen enters the body through microtraumas on the skin and mucous membranes or orally with contaminated products.

Conjugation - conjugation in bacteria - a process in which microorganisms exchange plasmids, in connection with which cells acquire new properties:

Conjugation in ciliates is a special type of sexual process in which two individuals exchange haploid migratory nuclei;

Chromosome conjugation is the joining of homologous chromosomes into pairs (bivalents) in prophase I of meiosis.

Copulation is the process of fusion of germ cells (individuals) in protozoa.

Correlations - interdependent, coupled development of certain structures of the body:

Ontogenetic - the consistency of the development of individual organs and systems in individual development;

Phylogenetic (coordination) - stable interdependencies between organs or parts of the body, determined phylogenetically (combined development of teeth, length of intestines in carnivores and herbivores).

Crossing over is the exchange of sections of chromatids of homologous chromosomes, which occurs in the prophase I of meiosis and leads to the recombination of genetic material.

Cultivation of cells, tissues is a method that allows preserving the viability of structures when they are grown on artificial nutrient media outside the body to study the processes of proliferation, growth, and differentiation.

Leptotene is the initial stage of prophase I of meiosis, in which the chromosomes in the cell nucleus are visible in the form of thin threads.

Lethal equivalent - a coefficient that allows you to quantify the genetic load of the population. In humans, the equivalent is 3-8 recessive homozygous states, leading the body to death before the reproductive period.

Ligases are enzymes that connect (“cross-link”) individual fragments of nucleic acid molecules into a single whole (joining exons during splicing).

Macroevolution - evolutionary processes occurring in taxonomic units above the species level (order, class, type).

Marginotomy hypothesis - a hypothesis that explains the aging process by a decrease in the DNA molecule by 1% after each cell division (shorter DNA - shorter life).

Mesonerphosis (primary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney, in which the structural and functional elements are the Bowman-Shumlyansky capsules beginning to form, associated with capillary glomeruli. It is laid in the trunk department.

Meiosis is the division of oocytes (spermatocytes) during maturation (gametogenesis). The result of meiosis is the recombination of genes and the formation of haploid cells.

Metagenesis is the alternation in the life cycle of organisms of sexual and asexual reproduction.

Metanephros (secondary kidney) is a type of vertebrate kidney, the structural and functional element of which is the nephron, which consists of specialized departments. Laid in the phase department.

Metaphase - the stage of mitosis (meiosis), in which the maximum spiralization of chromosomes located along the equator of the cell is achieved, and the mitotic apparatus is formed.

Genetic methods:

Twin - a method of studying twins by establishing intra-pair similarity (concordance) and differences (discordance) between them. Allows you to determine the relative role of heredity and the environment for the development of traits in a descendant;

Genealogical - a method of compiling pedigrees; allows you to establish the type of inheritance and predict the probability of inheritance of traits in descendants;

Hybridization of somatic cells is an experimental method that allows the fusion of somatic cells of various organisms in culture to obtain combined karyotypes;

Hybridological - a method that establishes the nature of the inheritance of traits using a system of crosses. It consists in obtaining hybrids, their analysis in a number of generations using quantitative data;

Modeling of hereditary diseases - the method is based on the law of homologous series of hereditary variability. Allows the use of experimental data obtained on animals for the study of human hereditary diseases;

Ontogenetic (biochemical) - the method is based on the use of biochemical methods to identify metabolic disorders caused by an abnormal gene in the individual development;

Population-statistical - the method is based on the study of the genetic composition of populations (Hardy-Weinberg law). Allows you to analyze the number of individual genes and the ratio of genotypes in the population;

Cytogenetic - a method of microscopic study of the hereditary structures of the cell. Used in karyotyping and determination of sex chromatin.

Microevolution - elementary evolutionary processes occurring at the population level.

Mitotic (cellular) cycle - the time of existence of the cell in the period of preparation for mitosis (G 1, S, G 2) and the mitosis itself. The period G 0 is not included in the duration of the mitotic cycle.

Mimicry is a biological phenomenon expressed in the imitative similarity of unprotected organisms to unrelated protected or inedible species.

Mitosis is a universal method of somatic cell division, in which there is a uniform distribution of genetic material between two daughter cells.

The mitotic apparatus is a division apparatus formed in metaphase and consisting of centrioles, microtubules and chromosomes.

mRNA modification is the final processing step that occurs after splicing. Modification of the 5'-end occurs by attaching a cap structure represented by methylguanine, and a polyadenine "tail" is attached to the 3'-end.

Sauropsid - a type of brain of vertebrates, in which the leading role belongs to the forebrain, where clusters of nerve cells in the form of islands first appear - the ancient cortex (reptiles, birds);

Ichthyopsid - type of vertebrate brain, in which the leading role belongs to the midbrain (cyclostomes, fish, amphibians);

Mammal - a type of vertebrate brain, in which the integrating function is performed by the cerebral cortex, which completely covers the forebrain - the new cortex (mammals, humans).

Genetic monitoring is an information system for registering the number of mutations in populations and comparing mutation rates over a number of generations.

Biology (from the Greek. bios- life and logos Teaching is the science of life. The term was proposed in 1802 by the French scientist J.B. Lamarck.

The subject of biology is life in all its manifestations: physiology, structure, individual development (ontogenesis), behavior, historical development (phylogeny, evolution), the relationship of organisms with each other and the environment.

Modern biology is a complex, a system of sciences. Depending on the object of study, such biological sciences are distinguished as: the science of viruses - virology, the science of bacteria - bacteriology, the science of fungi - mycology, the science of plants - botany, the science of animals - zoology, etc. Almost each of these Science is divided into smaller ones: the science of algae - algology, the science of mosses - bryology, insects - entomology, mammals - mammaliology, etc. The theoretical foundation of medicine is human anatomy and physiology. The most universal properties and patterns of development and existence of organisms and their groups are studied by general biology.

There were sciences that study the general laws of life: genetics - the science of variability and heredity, ecology - the science of the relationship of organisms between themselves and the environment, evolutionary doctrine - the science of the laws of the historical development of living matter, paleontology explores extinct organisms.

In various fields of biology, disciplines linking biology with other sciences: physics, chemistry, etc., are becoming increasingly important. Such sciences as biophysics, biochemistry, bionics, and biocybernetics are emerging. Biocybernetics (from the Greek bios - life, cybernetics - the art of control) is the science of the general patterns of control and transmission of information in living systems.

Biological sciences are the basis for the development of crop production, animal husbandry, biotechnology, medicine, etc. They can be used to solve such important tasks as providing humanity with food, overcoming diseases, stimulating body renewal processes, genetic correction of defects in people with hereditary diseases , for the introduction and acclimatization of organisms, for the production of biologically active and medicinal substances, for the development of biological plant protection products, etc.

Stages of development of biology

Prominent biologists: Aristotle, Theophrastus, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, Carl M. Baer, ​​Claude Bernard, Louis Pasteur, D. I. Ivanovsky

Biology as a science arose with the need to systematize knowledge about nature, to explain the accumulated knowledge, experience about the life of plants and animals. The famous ancient Greek scientist is considered the founder of biology Aristotle (384-322 BC), who laid the foundation for taxonomy, described many animals, and solved some questions of biology. His student Theophrastus (372-287 BC) founded botany.

The systematic scientific study of nature began with the Renaissance. With the accumulation of specific knowledge about nature, with the idea of ​​the diversity of organisms, the idea of ​​the unity of all living things arose. The stages in the development of biology are a chain of great discoveries and generalizations that confirm this idea and reveal its content.

The development of microscopic technology since the end of the XVI century. led to the discovery of cells and tissues of living organisms. The cell theory has become an important scientific evidence of the unity of living things. T. Schwanna and M. Schleiden (1839). All organisms are made up of cells, which, although they have certain differences, are generally built and function in the same way. K. M. Baer (1792-1876) developed the theory of germline similarity, which laid the foundation for the scientific explanation of the patterns of embryonic development. C. Bernard (1813-1878) studied the mechanisms that ensure the constancy of the internal environment of the animal organism. The impossibility of spontaneous generation of microorganisms was proved by a French scientist L. Pasteur (1822-1895). In 1892 the Russian scientist D. I. Ivanovsky (1864-1920) viruses were discovered.

Prominent biologists: Gregor Mendel, Hugo De Vries, Carl Correns, Erich Cermak, Thomas Morgan, James Watson, Francis Crick, J. B. Lamarck

The discovery of the laws of heredity belongs to G. Mendel (1865), G. De Vries, C. Corrensu, E . Chermak (1900) T. Morgan (1910-1916). Discovery of the structure of DNA - J. Watson and F. Cricu (1953).

Prominent biologists: Charles Darwin, A. N. Severtsov, N. I. Vavilov, Ronald Fisher, S. S. Chetverikov, N. V. Timofeev-Resovsky, I. I. Shmalgauzen

The creator of the first evolutionary doctrine was a French scientist J.B. Lamarck (1744-1829). The foundations of the modern theory of evolution were developed by an English scientist C. Darwin (1858). It received further development thanks to the achievements of genetics and population biology in scientific papers. A. N. Severtsova, N. I. Vavilov, R. Fisher, S. S. Chetverikov, N. V. Timofeev-Resovsky, I. I. Shmalgauzen. The emergence and development of mathematical biology and biological statistics led to the work of the English biologist R. Fisher (1890-1962).

At the end of the 20th century, significant advances were made in biotechnology, that is, the use of living organisms and biological processes in industry.

Prominent biologists

Prominent biologists: M. A. Maksimovich, I. M. Sechenov, K. A. Timiryazev, I. I. Mechnikov, I. P. Pavlov, S. G. Navashin, V. I. Vernadsky, D. K. Zabolotny

Remarkable scientists devoted their lives to the development of biology.

M. A. Maksimovich (1804-1873)- the founder of botany.

I. M. Sechenov (1829-1905)- the founder of the physiological school, who substantiated the reflex nature of conscious and unconscious activity, the creator of the objective psychology of behavior, comparative and evolutionary physiology.

K. A. Timiryazev (1843-1920)- an outstanding naturalist who revealed the laws of photosynthesis as a process of using light to form organic substances in a plant.

I. I. Mechnikov (1845-1916)- one of the founders of comparative pathology, evolutionary embryology, the founder of a scientific school, who developed the phagocytic theory of immunity.

I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936)- an outstanding physiologist, the creator of the doctrine of higher nervous activity, the author of classical works on the theory of digestion and blood circulation.

V. I. Vernadsky (1863-1945)- the founder of biogeochemistry, the doctrine of living matter, the biosphere, the noosphere.

D. K. Zabolotny (1866-1929)- an outstanding microbiologist, researcher of especially dangerous infections and others.

Biology The science that studies the properties of living systems. However, it is rather difficult to define what a living system is. That is why scientists have established several criteria by which an organism can be classified as living. Chief among these criteria are metabolism or metabolism, self-reproduction and self-regulation.

concept the science is defined as "the sphere of human activity to obtain, systematize objective knowledge about reality." In accordance with this definition, the object of science - biology is a life in all its manifestations and forms, as well as on different levels .

Every science, including biology, uses certain methods research. Some of them universal for all sciences, such as observation, proposing and testing hypotheses, building theories. Other scientific methods may be used only by certain science: genealogical, hybridization, tissue culture method, etc.

Biology is closely related to other sciences - chemistry, physics, ecology, geography. Biology itself is divided into many special sciences that study various biological objects: plant and animal biology, plant physiology, morphology, genetics, taxonomy, breeding, mycology, helminthology and many other sciences.

Method- this is the path of research that a scientist goes through, solving any scientific problem, problem.

Science Methods:

1.Universal:

Modeling - a method in which a certain image of an object is created, a model with which scientists obtain the necessary information about the object (James Watson and Francis Crick created a model from plastic elements - a DNA double helix that meets the data of X-ray and biochemical studies. This model fully met the requirements, applied to DNA).

Observation - a method by which a researcher collects information about an object (you can visually observe the behavior of animals, using instruments for changes in living objects, for seasonal changes in nature). The conclusions drawn by the observer are verified either by repeated observations or experimentally.

Experiment (Experience) - a method by which the results of observations, put forward assumptions are checked - hypotheses(obtaining new knowledge with the help of delivered experience). Examples of experiments: crossing animals or plants in order to obtain a new variety or breed, testing a new drug.

Problem- a question, a problem that needs to be solved. Problem solving leads to new knowledge. A scientific problem always hides some contradiction between the known and the unknown. Solving the problem requires the scientist to collect facts, analyze them, and systematize them.

It can be quite difficult to formulate a problem, but whenever there is a difficulty, a contradiction, a problem appears.

Hypothesis- an assumption, a preliminary solution to the problem. Putting forward hypotheses, the researcher is looking for relationships between facts, phenomena, processes. That is why the hypothesis most often takes the form of an assumption: "if ... then." The hypothesis is tested experimentally.

Theory is a generalization of the main ideas in any scientific field of knowledge. Over time, theories are supplemented by new data, develop. Some theories may be refuted by new facts. True scientific theories are confirmed by practice.

2. Private scientific methods:

Genealogical - used in the compilation of pedigrees of people, identifying the nature of inheritance of certain traits.

Historical - establishing relationships between facts, processes, phenomena that have occurred over a historically long time (several billion years).

paleontological - a method that allows you to find out the relationship between ancient organisms, the remains of which are in the earth's crust, in different geological layers.

centrifugation – separation of mixtures into component parts under the action of centrifugal force. It is used in the separation of cell organelles, light and heavy fractions (components) of organic substances, etc.

Cytological or cytogenetic - study of the structure of the cell, its structures using various microscopes.

Biochemical - the study of chemical processes occurring in the body.

Each particular biological science (botany, zoology, anatomy and physiology, cytology, embryology, genetics, breeding, ecology, and others) uses its own more particular research methods.

Every science has an object and thing research.

In biology, the object of study is LIFE. The subject of science is always somewhat narrower, more limited than the object. So, for example, one of the scientists is interested in metabolism organisms. Then the object of study will be life, and the subject of study will be metabolism. On the other hand, metabolism can also be an object of study, but then the subject of study will be one of its characteristics, for example, the metabolism of proteins, or fats, or carbohydrates.

THEMATIC ASSIGNMENTS

Part A

A1. Biology as a science studies
1) general signs of the structure of plants and animals
2) the relationship of animate and inanimate nature
3) processes occurring in living systems
4) the origin of life on Earth

A2. I.P. Pavlov in his works on digestion used the research method:
1) historical
2) descriptive
3) experimental
4) biochemical

A3. Ch. Darwin's assumption that each modern species or group of species had common ancestors is:
1) theory
2) hypothesis
3) fact
4) proof

A4. Embryology studies
1) the development of the organism from the zygote to birth
2) the structure and functions of the egg
3) postpartum human development
4) development of the organism from birth to death

A5. The number and shape of chromosomes in a cell is determined by research
1) biochemical
2) cytological
3) centrifugation
4) comparative

A6. Selection as a science solves problems
1) creation of new varieties of plants and animal breeds
2) conservation of the biosphere
3) creation of agrocenoses
4) creating new fertilizers

A7. Patterns of inheritance of traits in humans are established by the method
1) experimental
2) hybridological
3) genealogical
4) observations

A8. The specialty of a scientist who studies the fine structures of chromosomes is called:
1) breeder
2) cytogeneticist
3) morphologist
4) embryologist

A9. Systematics is the science that deals with
1) the study of the external structure of organisms
2) the study of body functions
3) identifying relationships between organisms
4) classification of organisms

Part B

IN 1. Indicate three functions that modern cell theory performs
1) Experimentally confirms scientific data on the structure of organisms
2) Predicts the emergence of new facts, phenomena
3) Describes the cellular structure of different organisms
4) Systematizes, analyzes and explains new facts about the cellular structure of organisms
5) Puts forward hypotheses about the cellular structure of all organisms
6) Creates new methods of cell research

Part C

C1. The French scientist Louis Pasteur became famous as the "savior of mankind", thanks to the creation of vaccines against infectious diseases, including such as rabies, anthrax, etc. Suggest hypotheses that he could put forward. Which of the research methods did he prove his case?

Biology is the science that studies living organisms. It reveals the patterns of life and its development as a special phenomenon of nature.

Among other sciences, biology is a fundamental discipline, one of the leading branches of natural science.

The term "biology" consists of two Greek words: "bios" - life, "logos" - doctrine, science, concept.

It was first used to refer to the science of life in the early XIX. This was done independently by J.-B. Lamarck and G. Treviranus, F. Burdach. At this time, biology is separated from the natural sciences.

Biology studies life in all its manifestations. The subject of biology is the structure, physiology, behavior, individual and historical development of organisms, their relationship with each other and the environment. Therefore, biology is a system, or complex, of sciences that are largely interconnected. Various biological sciences arose throughout the history of the development of science as a result of the isolation of various areas of the study of living nature.

As major branches of biology, zoology, botany, microbiology, virology, etc. are distinguished as sciences that study groups of living organisms that are different in key aspects of the structure and life. On the other hand, the study of the general patterns of living organisms led to the emergence of such sciences as genetics, cytology, molecular biology, embryology, etc. The study of the structure, functionality, behavior of living beings, their relationships and historical development gave rise to morphology, physiology, ethology, ecology, evolutionary teaching.

General biology studies the most universal properties, patterns of development and existence of living organisms and ecosystems.

Thus, biology is a system of sciences.

Rapid development in biology was observed in the second half of the 20th century. This was primarily due to discoveries in the field of molecular biology.

Despite its rich history, discoveries continue to be made in the biological sciences, discussions are underway, and many concepts are being revised.

In biology, special attention is paid to the cell (since it is the main structural and functional unit of living organisms), evolution (since life on Earth has undergone development), heredity and variability (underlying the continuity and adaptability of life).

There are a number of successive levels of life organization: molecular-genetic, cellular, organismal, population-species, ecosystem. On each of them, life manifests itself in its own way, which is studied by the relevant biological sciences.

The value of biology for humans

For a person, biological knowledge primarily has the following meaning:

• Providing food for mankind.
• Ecological value - control of the environment so that it is suitable for normal life.
• Medical significance - increasing the duration and quality of life, the fight against infections and hereditary diseases, the development of drugs.
• Aesthetic, psychological value.

Man can be regarded as one of the results of the development of life on Earth. The life of people is still highly dependent on the general biological mechanisms of life. In addition, man influences nature and experiences its effects on himself.

Human activities (development of industry and agriculture), population growth have caused environmental problems on the planet. There is pollution of the environment, destruction of natural communities.

To solve environmental problems, it is necessary to understand biological patterns.

In addition, many branches of biology are important for human health (medical significance). Human health depends on heredity, living environment and lifestyle. From this point of view, such sections of biology as heredity and variability, individual development, ecology, and the teachings about the biosphere and noosphere are most important.

Biology solves the problem of providing people with food and medicines. Biological knowledge underlies the development of agriculture.

Thus, a high level of development of biology is a necessary condition for the well-being of mankind.