Every word in Russian has a nominative meaning. This helps to correlate speech with reality and express thoughts. In addition to the main meaning, most words are included in a specific one and have an additional symbolic meaning, which is most often figurative. This lexical property is actively used by poets and writers to create, and a similar phenomenon in the Russian language has also received the name of literary tropes. They give the text expressiveness and help to convey your idea more accurately.
Types of artistic and visual means
Among the tropes, metonymy, periphrase, synecdoche, litote, hyperbole are distinguished. The ability to see them in works allows you to understand the ideological intent of the author, to enjoy the richness of the magnificent Russian language. And the use of tropes in one's own speech is a sign of a literate, cultured person who can speak accurately and expressively.
How can one recognize in the text and learn to apply literary tropes on one's own?
Table with examples from fiction
Let's see how the recognized poets and writers do it.
Literary tropes | Property | Example |
An adjective, less often a noun, an adverb, a participle used in a figurative sense and denoting an essential feature of an object | "And blue eyes bottomless bloom ... "(A. Blok) |
|
Comparison | Turnover with unions AS, AS IF, AS IF, AS LIKE or words SIMILAR, SIMILAR; noun in instrumental case; adjective or adverb in the comparative degree. The point is to liken | “The block seemed to me ... expensive ..., like a nightingale in a spring bush..."(K. Balmont) |
Metaphor | Based on value transfer by similarity | «… the soul is full of fire"(M. Lermontov) |
personification | Animation of natural phenomena, objects | « The azure of heaven laughs..."(F. Tyutchev) |
Metonymy | Transfer value by adjacency | « Rugal Homer, Theocritus... "(A. Pushkin), i.e. their works |
Synecdoche | It implies the transfer of meaning based on the ratio in quantity: singular instead of and vice versa | "To him … and the beast is gone... "(A. Pushkin) |
Hyperbola | over exaggeration | « Man ... with a fingernail"(N. Nekrasov) |
An over-understatement | « From the wings of a mosquito he made himself two shirt-fronts"(K. Aksakov) |
|
paraphrase | The name of an object or phenomenon through an essential, well-recognized feature | "Love you, petra creation... "(A. Pushkin), i.e. Saint Petersburg |
Thus, literary tropes - the table fully reflects their essential features - can be determined even by a person who does not have a special education. It is only necessary to delve into their essence. To do this, let us consider in more detail those means of expression that usually cause the greatest difficulties.
Metaphor and personification
Unlike comparison, in which there are two objects or phenomena - the original and the one taken for comparison, these literary tropes contain only the second. In a metaphor, similarity can be expressed in color, volume, shape, purpose, etc. Here are examples of this use of words in a figurative sense: moon clock wooden», « noon breathes».
Personification differs from metaphor in that it is a more detailed image: The suddenly rising wind tossed and groaned all night».
Metonymy, synecdoche, paraphrase
These literary tropes are often confused with the metaphor described above. To avoid such mistakes, it should be remembered that the manifestation of adjacency in metonymy can be as follows:
- content and what it includes: eat a plate»;
- author and his work: remembered Gogol well»;
- action and the instrument for its accomplishment: " villages were doomed to swords»;
- object and material from which it is made: " porcelain at the exhibition»;
- the place and the people in it: the city didn't sleep».
Synecdoche usually implies a quantitative relationship between objects and phenomena: " here everyone aims at Napoleons».
paraphrase
Sometimes writers and poets, for greater expressiveness and imagery, replace the name of an object or phenomenon with an indication of its essential feature. Paraphrasing also helps to eliminate repetitions and connect sentences in the text. Consider these literary tropes with examples: shining steel"- dagger," author of Mumu"- I. Turgenev," old woman with a scythe" - death.
A polysemantic word, except for its direct meaning, i.e., the primary one, directly related to the object or phenomenon of reality ( varnish- “lacquer”), can also have a figurative meaning, secondary, not directly related to the real object ( varnish- “to embellish, to present something in a better way than it actually is”).
Tropes are turns of speech in which a word or expression is used in a figurative sense for the purpose of greater artistic expressiveness, figurativeness.
Types of trails:
1. An epithet is a figurative definition that allows you to more clearly characterize the properties, qualities of objects or phenomena: deceived steppe, tanned hills, dissolute wind, drunken expression of a cloud(Chekhov).
General epithets are distinguished, constantly used ( bitter cold, quiet evening), folk poetic ( red girl, clean field, damp land), individually-author's: marmalade mood(Chekhov), globe belly(Ilf, Petrov), rough smell of naphthalene balls(Nabokov).
2. Metaphor - a type of path, which is based on the transfer of meaning based on the similarity of objects in shape, color, nature of action, quality, etc. It is customary to define a metaphor as a hidden comparison.
According to the degree of figurativeness, metaphors are erased, common language ( the prow of the ship, the gold of the hair, the speech flows) and original, individual author's, speech: I open the pages of my palms(Okudzhava); this vobla lives(about a human ) on his wife's estate(Chekhov).
According to the composition of words, metaphors are simple (see above) and complex, detailed, cf. metaphorical image of a storm: Here the wind embraces a flock of waves with a strong hug and throws them on a grand scale in wild anger on the cliffs, breaking emerald masses into dust and spray.(Bitter).
3. Metonymy - a type of path, which is based on the transfer of contiguity, contact of objects, phenomena, their close connection in space and time. This is the relationship between a) an object and the material from which it is made: Not on silver - on gold ate(Griboyedov); b) content and containing: The theater is already full: the boxes are shining, the stalls and chairs, - everything boils(Pushkin); c) action and instrument of action: The pen of his revenge breathes(A.K. Tolstoy); d) the author and his work: I read Apuleius willingly, but I did not read Cicero(Pushkin), etc.
4. Synecdoche - transferring meaning from part to whole or vice versa: All flags will visit us(Pushkin); the use of the singular instead of the plural or vice versa: And it was heard before dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced(Lermontov).
5. Comparison - a figurative expression based on the likening of one object to another on the basis of a common feature. The comparison is expressed: a) by the instrumental case of the noun: Ippolit Matveyevich, who could not bear all the upheavals of night and day, laughed like a rat's laugh.(Ilf, Petrov); b) using the words "similar", "similar": crying song(Chekhov); c) turnovers with comparative conjunctions “like”, “as if”, “exactly”: Tables, chairs, creaky cabinets scattered around the rooms ... like the bones of a disassembled skeleton(Nabokov); Life was rough and low like a bass clef(Ilf, Petrov); d) the form of the comparative degree of adjectives, adverbs: Under it, a stream of lighter azure(Lermontov).
6. Allegory - allegory, the image of an abstract concept using a specific image, for example, in fables, cowardice appears in the form of a hare, cunning - in the form of a fox, carelessness - in the form of a dragonfly, etc.
7. Hyperbole - a strong exaggeration: A rare bird will fly to the middle of the Dnieper(Gogol); Oh, spring without end and without edge - Without end and without edge dream!(Block).
8. Litota - an underestimation of the size, strength, significance of an object, phenomenon (this is an inverse hyperbole): Your spitz, lovely spitz, no more than a thimble(Griboyedov).
9. Irony is an allegory in which words take on the opposite meaning, denial and ridicule under the guise of approval and consent. Often used in fables: Otkle, smart, you wander, head(about a donkey)? (Krylov).
10. Personification - attributing to inanimate objects the properties of living beings: And the star speaks to the star(Lermontov); What are you howling about, night wind, What are you so madly complaining about?(Tyutchev); The steppe threw off the morning penumbra, smiled, sparkled(Chekhov).
11. Oxymoron - a combination of contrasting words in meaning: Mum! Your son is beautifully ill(Mayakovsky); And the snow all around burned and froze(Parsnip).
Types of figures of speech
In addition to tropes, to increase the figurativeness and emotionality of artistic speech, stylistic syntax techniques (figures of speech) can be used:
1. Antithesis - a sharp opposition of any phenomena, signs, etc. to give speech a special expressiveness: They agreed. Wave and stone, Poetry and prose, Ice and fire Not so different from each other…(Pushkin); I see sad eyes, I hear cheerful speech(A.K. Tolstoy).
2. Inversion - indirect word order, which has a certain stylistic and semantic meaning: The servants do not dare to die, waiting for you around the table(Derzhavin); Smooth horns rustle in the straw A sloping cow's head(Zabolotsky).
3. Repetitions (words, several words, whole sentences) - are used to enhance the utterance, to give speech dynamism, a certain rhythm.
There are repetitions:
a) at the beginning of sentences (anaphora):
I know the city will
I know the garden is blooming
When such people
In the Soviet country there is(Mayakovsky);
b) at the end of phrases (epiphora):
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me.
Can't find me a place in a quiet house
Near peaceful fire(Block);
c) at the junction of poetic lines (anadiplosis), which gives the effect of "enlarging" the overall picture of the depicted:
He fell on the cold snow
On the cold snow, like a pine(Lermontov).
4. A rhetorical question that does not require an answer serves to emotionally affirm or deny something: What Russian does not like fast driving?(Gogol); Didn't you first so viciously persecute His free, bold gift?(Lermontov).
5. Rhetorical appeal - an appeal to an absent person, an inanimate object to enhance the expressiveness of speech: I greet you, a deserted corner, a haven of tranquility, work and inspiration.(Pushkin).
6. Gradation - alignment of homogeneous members according to the principle of strengthening (ascending gradation) or weakening (descending gradation) of a sign, action: You were, you are, you will be forever!(Derzhavin).
Tropes and figures of speech are used not only in fiction, but also in journalism, in oratory speeches, as well as in proverbs and sayings, in works of oral folk art.
Tasks for self-study
1. Indicate the tropes and stylistic figures used in this text.
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withering gold embraced,
I won't be young anymore.
Now you won't fight so much
Cold touched heart
And the country of birch chintz
Not tempted to wander around barefoot.
Wandering spirit! You are less and less
You stir the flame of your mouth.
Oh my lost freshness
A riot of eyes and a flood of feelings.
Now I have become more stingy in desires,
My life, or did you dream of me?
Like I'm a spring echoing early
Ride on a pink horse.
All of us, all of us in this world are perishable,
Copper quietly pours from maple leaves ...
May you be blessed forever
That came to flourish and die.
(S. Yesenin)
2. Determine in what functional style the passage of this text is written, argue your answer.
This day has been preserved in me as a memory of the gentle smell of dusty homespun rugs with a cozy, gaudy old-fashioned pattern, the feeling of warmth with which the recently whitewashed walls were soaked through and through, and the image of a huge stove, like a formidable black ship, rooted into one of the white walls.
We drank fragrant tea, smelling of the countryside, from dull glasses, bit by bit with the city biscuits we had brought, and raspberry jam flowed down on the striped oilcloth of the table in thick bloody waterfalls. The glasses clinked festively on the coasters, a freshly woven silver cobweb shone cunningly in the corner, and somehow natively floated into the room from the cold vestibule a dope of worn, frosted boots and wicker mushroom baskets.
We go to the forest, the winter forest frozen in crystal. I was given earflaps eaten by more than one generation of moths, felt boots that belonged to the once deceased Pooh's grandfather, and a cheburashka fur coat that belonged to Pooh himself. We walk along a drizzled path leading to Nowhere, since near the forest itself, ceasing to wind, it sticks into the snowdrift pulp. Further only on skis. Skis, too, Pooh, with one stick, in scales of peeling paint, like two flat skinny fish.
Frost burns bare hands, pitifully peeking out of the stubby, not the size of a quilted jacket. Shrouded in mirror blue, the branches tinkle above our heads like a theatrical chandelier. And silence. (S.-M. Granik "My Fluff")
Means of enhancing the expressiveness of speech. The concept of a path. Types of tropes: epithet, metaphor, comparison, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.
A trope is a rhetorical figure, word or expression used in a figurative sense in order to enhance the figurativeness of the language, the artistic expressiveness of speech. Tropes are widely used in literary works, oratory and in everyday speech.
The main types of tropes: Epithet, metaphor, simile, metonymy, synecdoche, hyperbole, litote, irony, allegory, personification, paraphrase.
An epithet is a definition attached to a word that affects its expressiveness. It is expressed mainly by an adjective, but also by an adverb (“to love passionately”), a noun (“fun noise”), a numeral (second life).
An epithet is a word or a whole expression, which, due to its structure and special function in the text, acquires some new meaning or semantic connotation, helps the word (expression) to acquire color, richness. It is used in both poetry and prose.
Epithets can be expressed by different parts of speech (mother-Volga, wind-tramp, bright eyes, damp earth). Epithets are a very common concept in literature, without them it is impossible to imagine a single work of art.
Under us with a cast-iron roar
Bridges instantly rattle. (A. A. Fet)
Metaphor (“transfer”, “figurative meaning”) is a trope, a word or an expression used in a figurative meaning, which is based on an unnamed comparison of an object with any other on the basis of their common feature. A figure of speech consisting in the use of words and expressions in a figurative sense on the basis of some kind of analogy, similarity, comparison.
There are 4 “elements” in the metaphor:
An object within a specific category,
The process by which this object performs a function,
Applications of this process to real situations, or intersections with them.
In lexicology, a semantic relationship between the meanings of one polysemantic word, based on the presence of similarity (structural, external, functional).
Metaphor often becomes an aesthetic end in itself and displaces the original original meaning of the word.
In the modern theory of metaphor, it is customary to distinguish between diaphora (sharp, contrasting metaphor) and epiphora (usual, erased metaphor).
An extended metaphor is a metaphor that is consistently implemented over a large fragment of a message or the entire message as a whole. Model: "The hunger for books continues: products from the book market are increasingly stale - they have to be thrown away without even trying."
A realized metaphor involves operating a metaphorical expression without taking into account its figurative nature, that is, as if the metaphor had a direct meaning. The result of the realization of a metaphor is often comical. Model: "I lost my temper and got on the bus."
Vanya is a real loach; This is not a cat, but a bandit (M.A. Bulgakov);
I do not regret, do not call, do not cry,
Everything will pass like smoke from white apple trees.
Withering gold embraced,
I won't be young anymore. (S. A. Yesenin)
Comparison
Comparison is a trope in which one object or phenomenon is likened to another according to some common feature for them. The purpose of the comparison is to reveal new, important properties that are advantageous for the subject of the statement in the object of comparison.
In comparison, the following are distinguished: the object being compared (object of comparison), the object with which the comparison takes place (means of comparison), and their common feature (base of comparison, comparative feature). One of the distinguishing features of comparison is the mention of both compared objects, while the common feature is not always mentioned. Comparison should be distinguished from metaphor.
Comparisons are characteristic of folklore.
Comparison types
There are different types of comparisons:
Comparisons in the form of a comparative turnover, formed with the help of unions as if, as if, exactly: "A man is stupid as a pig, but cunning as hell." Non-union comparisons - in the form of a sentence with a compound nominal predicate: "My house is my fortress." Comparisons formed with the help of a noun in the instrumental case: "he walks like a gogol." Negative comparisons: "An attempt is not torture."
Crazy years, the extinct fun is hard for me, like a vague hangover (A.S. Pushkin);
Under it is a stream lighter than azure (M.Yu. Lermontov);
Metonymy
Metonymy (“renaming”, “name”) is a type of trope, a phrase in which one word is replaced by another, denoting an object (phenomenon) that is in one or another (spatial, temporal, etc.) connection with the object that is indicated replaced word. The replacement word is used in a figurative sense.
Metonymy should be distinguished from metaphor, with which it is often confused: metonymy is based on the replacement of words “by adjacency” (part instead of the whole or vice versa, class representative instead of the whole class or vice versa, receptacle instead of content or vice versa) and metaphor - “by similarity”. Synecdoche is a special case of metonymy.
Example: "All flags will visit us", where "flags" means "countries" (a part replaces the whole). The meaning of metonymy is that it singles out a property in a phenomenon that, by its nature, can replace the rest. Thus, metonymy essentially differs from metaphor, on the one hand, by a greater real relationship of substituting members, and on the other hand, by greater limitation, the elimination of those features that are not directly noticeable in this phenomenon. Like metaphor, metonymy is inherent in language in general (cf., for example, the word “wiring”, the meaning of which is metonymically extended from action to its result), but it has a special meaning in artistic and literary creativity.
In early Soviet literature, an attempt to maximize the use of metonymy both theoretically and practically was made by the constructivists, who put forward the principle of the so-called "locality" (the motivation of verbal means by the theme of the work, that is, their limitation by real dependence on the theme). However, this attempt was not sufficiently substantiated, since the promotion of metonymy to the detriment of metaphor is illegitimate: these are two different ways of establishing a connection between phenomena, not excluding, but complementing each other.
Types of metonymy:
General language, general poetic, general newspaper, individual-author's, individual-creative.
Examples:
"Hand of Moscow"
"I ate three plates"
“Black tailcoats flashed and rushed apart and in heaps here and there”
Synecdoche
Synecdoche is a trope, a kind of metonymy based on the transfer of meaning from one phenomenon to another on the basis of a quantitative relationship between them. Usually used in synecdoche:
Singular instead of plural: "Everything is sleeping - both man, and beast, and bird." (Gogol);
Plural instead of singular: "We all look at Napoleons." (Pushkin);
A part instead of a whole: “Have you any need? “In the roof for my family.” (Herzen);
The generic name instead of the specific one: "Well, sit down, luminary." (Mayakovsky) (instead of: the sun);
The specific name instead of the generic one: "Better than all, take care of the penny." (Gogol) (instead of: money).
Hyperbola
Hyperbole (“transition; excess, excess; exaggeration”) is a stylistic figure of explicit and intentional exaggeration, in order to enhance expressiveness and emphasize the thought said. For example: "I've said this a thousand times" or "we have enough food for six months."
Hyperbole is often combined with other stylistic devices, giving them the appropriate color: hyperbolic comparisons, metaphors (“the waves rose like mountains”). The character or situation depicted can also be hyperbolic. Hyperbole is also characteristic of the rhetorical, oratorical style, as a means of pathetic uplift, as well as the romantic style, where pathos is in contact with irony.
Examples:
Phraseological units and winged expressions
"sea of tears"
"fast as lightning", "lightning fast"
"as numerous as the sand on the seashore"
“We haven’t seen each other for a hundred years!”
Prose
Ivan Nikiforovich, on the other hand, has trousers with such wide folds that if they were blown up, the whole yard with barns and buildings could be placed in them.
N. Gogol. The story of how Ivan Ivanovich quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich
A million Cossack hats suddenly poured into the square. …
... for one hilt of my saber they give me the best herd and three thousand sheep.
N. Gogol. Taras Bulba
Poems, songs
About our meeting - what is there to say,
I waited for her, as they wait for natural disasters,
But you and I immediately began to live,
Without fear of detrimental consequences!
Litotes
Litota, litotes (simplicity, smallness, moderation) - a trope that has the meaning of understatement or deliberate mitigation.
Litota is a figurative expression, a stylistic figure, a turnover, which contains an artistic understatement of the size, strength of the meaning of the depicted object or phenomenon. Litota in this sense is the opposite of hyperbole, so it is called inverse hyperbole in another way. In litotes, on the basis of some common feature, two heterogeneous phenomena are compared, but this feature is represented in the phenomenon-means of comparison to a much lesser extent than in the phenomenon-object of comparison.
For example: “A horse the size of a cat”, “A person’s life is one moment”, etc.
Many litotes are phraseological units or idioms: “turtle pace”, “at hand”, “the cat cried money”, “the sky seemed like a sheepskin”.
There is a litote in folk and literary tales: “Boy-with-a-finger”, “man-with-nail”, “girl-inch”.
Litota (otherwise: antenantiosis or antenantiosis) is also called a stylistic figure of deliberate softening of an expression by replacing a word or expression containing the assertion of some feature with an expression that denies the opposite feature. That is, an object or concept is defined through the negation of the opposite. For example: “smart” - “not stupid”, “agree” - “I don’t mind”, “cold” - “not warm”, “low” - “low”, “famous” - “notorious”, “dangerous” - “ unsafe", "good" - "not bad". In this meaning, litote is one of the forms of euphemism (a word or descriptive expression that is neutral in meaning and emotional “load”, usually used in texts and public statements to replace other words and expressions that are considered indecent or inappropriate.).
... and love for his wife will grow cold in him
Irony
Irony (“mockery”) is a trope, while the meaning, from the point of view of due, is hidden or contradicts (opposed) to the explicit `meaning`. Irony creates the feeling that the subject matter is not what it seems. Irony is the use of words in a negative sense, directly opposite to the literal one. Example: “Well, you are brave!”, “Smart-smart ...” Here, positive statements have a negative connotation.
Forms of irony
Direct irony is a way to belittle, give a negative or funny character to the described phenomenon.
Anti-irony is the opposite of direct irony and allows the object of anti-irony to be underestimated.
Self-irony is irony directed at one's own person. In self-irony and anti-irony, negative statements can imply a reverse (positive) connotation. Example: "Where can we, fools, drink tea."
Socratic irony is a form of self-irony, constructed in such a way that the object to which it is addressed, as if on its own, comes to natural logical conclusions and finds the hidden meaning of the ironic statement, following the premises of the “not knowing the truth” subject.
An ironic worldview is a state of mind that allows you not to take common statements and stereotypes on faith, and not to take various "generally recognized values" too seriously.
"Did you all sing? This is the case:
So come on, dance!" (I. A. Krylov)
Allegory
Allegory (narrative) is an artistic comparison of ideas (concepts) through a specific artistic image or dialogue.
As a trope, allegory is used in poetry, parables, and morality. It arose on the basis of mythology, was reflected in folklore and developed in the visual arts. The main way of depicting allegory is a generalization of human concepts; representations are revealed in the images and behavior of animals, plants, mythological and fairy-tale characters, inanimate objects, which acquire a figurative meaning.
Example: justice - Themis (a woman with scales).
The nightingale is sad at the defeated rose,
hysterically sings over the flower.
But the garden scarecrow is shedding tears,
who secretly loved the rose.
Aidyn Khanmagomedov. two loves
Allegory is the artistic isolation of extraneous concepts, with the help of specific representations. Religion, love, soul, justice, strife, fame, war, peace, spring, summer, autumn, winter, death, etc. are depicted and presented as living beings. The qualities and appearance attached to these living beings are borrowed from the actions and consequences of what corresponds to the isolation contained in these concepts, for example, the isolation of battle and war is indicated by means of military weapons, the seasons - by means of the flowers, fruits or occupations corresponding to them, impartiality - by means of weights and blindfolds, death through clepsydra and scythes.
That with a quivering relish,
then a friend in the arms of the soul,
like a lily with a poppy,
kisses with the heart of the soul.
Aidyn Khanmagomedov. Kissing pun.
personification
Personification (personification, prosopopoeia) is a trope, the attribution of properties and signs of animate objects to inanimate ones. Very often, personification is used in the depiction of nature, which is endowed with certain human features.
Examples:
And woe, woe, grief!
And grief girded itself with a bast,
Feet are entangled with bast.
folk song
The personification was widespread in the poetry of different eras and peoples, from folklore lyrics to poetic works of romantic poets, from precision poetry to the work of the Oberiuts.
paraphrase
In stylistics and poetics, periphrase (paraphrase, periphrase; “descriptive expression”, “allegory”, “statement”) is a trope that descriptively expresses one concept with the help of several.
Periphrase - an indirect reference to an object by not naming, but describing (for example, "night luminary" = "moon" or "I love you, Peter's creation!" = "I love you, St. Petersburg!").
In paraphrases, the names of objects and people are replaced by indications of their characteristics, for example, “writer of these lines” instead of “I” in the author’s speech, “fall into a dream” instead of “fall asleep”, “king of beasts” instead of “lion”, “one-armed bandit” instead of "slot machine". There are logical paraphrases (“the author of Dead Souls”) and figurative paraphrases (“the sun of Russian poetry”).
Often the paraphrase is used to descriptively express "low" or "forbidden" concepts ("unclean" instead of "hell", "get by with a handkerchief" instead of "blow your nose"). In these cases, the paraphrase is also a euphemism. // Literary encyclopedia: Dictionary of literary terms: in 2 volumes - M.; L .: Publishing house L. D. Frenkel, 1925. T. 2. P-Ya. - Stb. 984-986.
4. Khazagerov G. G.Persuasive speech system as homeostasis: oratorics, homiletics, didactics, symbolism// Sociological journal. - 2001. - No. 3.
5. Nikolaev A.I. Lexical means of expression// Nikolaev A.I. Fundamentals of literary criticism: a textbook for students of philological specialties. - Ivanovo: LISTOS, 2011. - S. 121-139.
6. Panov M.I. trails// Pedagogical speech science: Dictionary-reference book / ed. T. A. Ladyzhenskaya, A. K. Mikhalskaya. M.: Flinta; Science, 1998.
7. Toporov V.N. trails// Linguistic Encyclopedic Dictionary / ch. ed. V. N. Yartseva. M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1990.
TROPE
Trope is a word or expression used figuratively to create artistic image and achieve greater expressiveness. Pathways include techniques such as epithet, comparison, personification, metaphor, metonymy, sometimes referred to as hyperbolas and litotes. No work of art is complete without tropes. The artistic word is polysemantic; the writer creates images, playing with the meanings and combinations of words, using the environment of the word in the text and its sound - all this makes up the artistic possibilities of the word, which is the only tool of the writer or poet.
Note!
When creating a trail, the word is always used in a figurative sense.
Consider the different types of trails:
EPITHET(Greek Epitheton, attached) - this is one of the tropes, which is an artistic, figurative definition. An epithet can be:
adjectives: gentle face (S. Yesenin); these poor villages, this meager nature ... (F. Tyutchev); transparent maiden (A. Blok);
participles: edge abandoned(S. Yesenin); frantic dragon (A. Blok); takeoff radiant(M. Tsvetaeva);
nouns, sometimes together with their surrounding context: There he is, leader without squad(M. Tsvetaeva); My youth! My dove is swarthy!(M. Tsvetaeva).
Each epithet reflects the uniqueness of the author's perception of the world, therefore it necessarily expresses some kind of assessment and has a subjective meaning: a wooden shelf is not an epithet, so there is no artistic definition, a wooden face is an epithet that expresses the impression of the interlocutor speaking about the facial expression, that is, creating an image.
There are stable (permanent) folklore epithets: remote burly kind well done, clear the sun, as well as tautological, that is, epithets-repetitions that have the same root with the word being defined: Oh you, grief is bitter, boredom is boring, mortal! (A. Blok).
In a work of art An epithet can perform various functions:
- characterize the subject: shining eyes, eyes diamonds;
- create atmosphere, mood: gloomy morning;
- convey the attitude of the author (narrator, lyrical hero) to the subject being characterized: "Where will our prankster"(A. Pushkin);
- combine all previous functions in equal proportions (in most cases, the use of the epithet).
Note! All color terms in a literary text are epithets.
COMPARISON- this is an artistic technique (tropes), in which an image is created by comparing one object with another. Comparison differs from other artistic comparisons, for example, similes, in that it always has a strict formal feature: a comparative construction or a turnover with comparative conjunctions. as, as if, as if, exactly, as if and the like. Type expressions he looked like... cannot be considered a comparison as a trope.
Comparison examples:
Comparison also plays certain roles in the text: sometimes authors use the so-called extended comparison, revealing various signs of a phenomenon or conveying one's attitude to several phenomena. Often the work is entirely based on comparison, as, for example, V. Bryusov's poem "Sonnet to Form":
PERSONALIZATION- an artistic technique (tropes), in which an inanimate object, phenomenon or concept is given human properties (do not confuse, it is human!). Personification can be used narrowly, in one line, in a small fragment, but it can be a technique on which the whole work is built (“You are my abandoned land” by S. Yesenin, “Mom and the evening killed by the Germans”, “Violin and a little nervously” by V. Mayakovsky and others). Personification is considered one of the types of metaphor (see below).
Impersonation task- correlate the depicted object with a person, make it closer to the reader, figuratively comprehend the inner essence of the object, hidden from everyday life. Personification is one of the oldest figurative means of art.
HYPERBOLA(Greek Hyperbole, exaggeration) is a technique in which an image is created through artistic exaggeration. Hyperbole is not always included in the set of tropes, but in terms of the nature of the use of the word in a figurative sense to create an image, hyperbole is very close to tropes. A technique opposite to hyperbole in content is LITOTES(Greek Litotes, simplicity) is an artistic understatement.
Hyperbole allows the author to show the reader in an exaggerated form the most characteristic features of the depicted object. Often, hyperbole and litotes are used by the author in an ironic vein, revealing not just characteristic, but negative, from the author's point of view, sides of the subject.
METAPHOR(Greek Metaphora, transfer) - a type of so-called complex trope, speech turnover, in which the properties of one phenomenon (object, concept) are transferred to another. Metaphor contains a hidden comparison, a figurative likening of phenomena using the figurative meaning of words, what the object is compared with is only implied by the author. No wonder Aristotle said that "to compose good metaphors means to notice similarities."
Metaphor examples:
METONYMY(Greek Metonomadzo, rename) - type of trail: a figurative designation of an object according to one of its signs.
Examples of metonymy:
When studying the topic "Means of artistic expression" and completing assignments, pay special attention to the definitions of the above concepts. You must not only understand their meaning, but also know the terminology by heart. This will protect you from practical mistakes: knowing for sure that the comparison technique has strict formal features (see the theory on topic 1), you will not confuse this technique with a number of other artistic techniques that are also based on a comparison of several objects, but are not a comparison .
Please note that you must start your answer either with the suggested words (by rewriting them), or with your own version of the beginning of the full answer. This applies to all such assignments.
Recommended literature:
- Literary criticism: Reference materials. - M., 1988.
- Polyakov M. Rhetoric and Literature. Theoretical aspects. - In the book: Questions of Poetics and Artistic Semantics. - M.: Sov. writer, 1978.
- Dictionary of literary terms. - M., 1974.
In Russian, additional expressive means are widely used, for example, tropes and figures of speech.
Tropes are such speech turns that are based on the use of words in a figurative sense. They are used to enhance the expressiveness of the writer or speaker.
Tropes include: metaphors, epithets, metonymy, synecdoche, comparisons, hyperbole, litotes, paraphrase, personification.
Metaphor is a technique in which words and expressions are used in a figurative sense based on analogy, similarity or comparison.
And my tired soul is embraced by darkness and cold. (M. Yu. Lermontov)
An epithet is a word that defines an object or phenomenon and emphasizes any of its properties, qualities, signs. Usually an epithet is called a colorful definition.
Your thoughtful nights transparent dusk. (A S. Pushkin)
Metonymy is a means of replacing one word with another on the basis of adjacency.
The hiss of frothy goblets and punch blue flames. (A.S. Pushkin)
Synecdoche is one of the types of metonymy - the transfer of the meaning of one object to another on the basis of the quantitative relationship between them.
And it was heard until dawn how the Frenchman rejoiced. (M.Yu. Lermontov)
Comparison is a technique in which one phenomenon or concept is explained by comparing it with another. Comparative conjunctions are usually used in this case.
Anchar, like a formidable sentry, stands alone in the whole universe. (A.S. Pushkin).
Hyperbole is a trope based on the excessive exaggeration of certain properties of the depicted object or phenomenon.
For a week I won’t say a word to anyone, I’m all sitting on a stone by the sea ... (A. A. Akhmatova).
Litota is the opposite of hyperbole, an artistic understatement.
Your spitz, lovely spitz, is no more than a thimble ... (A.S. Griboyedov)
Personification is a means of transferring the properties of animate objects to inanimate ones.
Silent sadness will be consoled, and joy will reflect friskyly. (A.S. Pushkin).
Paraphrase - a trope in which the direct name of an object, person, phenomenon is replaced by a descriptive turn, which indicates the signs of an object, person, phenomenon that is not directly named.
"King of beasts" instead of a lion.
Irony is a technique of ridicule, containing an assessment of what is ridiculed. In irony there is always a double meaning, where the true is not directly stated, but implied.
So, in the example, Count Khvostov is mentioned, who was not recognized by his contemporaries as a poet because of the mediocrity of his poems.
Count Khvostov, a poet beloved by heaven, was already singing with immortal verses of the misfortune of the Neva banks. (A.S. Pushkin)
Stylistic figures are special turns that go beyond the necessary norms for creating artistic expression.
It is necessary to emphasize once again that stylistic figures make our speech information redundant, but this redundancy is necessary for the expressiveness of speech, and therefore, for a stronger impact on the addressee.
These figures include:
And you, arrogant descendants…. (M.Yu. Lermontov)
A rhetorical question is such a structure of speech in which the statement is expressed in the form of a question. A rhetorical question does not require an answer, but only enhances the emotionality of the statement.
And over the fatherland of enlightened freedom will the longed-for dawn finally rise? (A. S. Pushkin)
Anaphora is the repetition of parts of relatively independent segments.
As if you curse the days without a light,
As if gloomy nights scare you ...
(A. Apukhtin)
Epiphora - repetition at the end of a phrase, sentence, line, stanza.
Dear friend, and in this quiet house
The fever hits me
Can't find me a place in a quiet house
Near peaceful fire. (A.A. Blok)
Antithesis is an artistic opposition.
And the day, and the hour, both in writing and orally, for the truth yes and no ... (M. Tsvetaeva)
An oxymoron is a combination of logically incompatible concepts.
You are the one who loved me with the falseness of truth and the truth of lies ... (M. Tsvetaeva)
Gradation is a grouping of homogeneous members of a sentence in a certain order: according to the principle of increasing or weakening emotional and semantic significance
I don’t regret, I don’t call, I don’t cry ... (With A. Yesenin)
Silence is a deliberate interruption of speech, based on the guess of the reader, who must mentally finish the phrase.
But listen: if I owe you ... I own a dagger, I was born near the Caucasus ... (A.S. Pushkin)
Polyunion - the repetition of the union, perceived as redundant, creates the emotionality of speech.
And for him resurrected again: and the deity, and inspiration, and life, and tears, and love. (A. S. Pushkin)
Non-union is a construction in which unions are omitted to enhance expression.
Swede, Russian, cuts, stabs, cuts, drumming, clicks, rattle ... (A.S. Pushkin)
Parallelism is the identical arrangement of speech elements in adjacent parts of the text.
Some houses are as long as the stars, others as long as the moon .. (V. V. Mayakovsky).
Chiasmus is a cross arrangement of parallel parts in two adjacent sentences.
Automedons (coachman, charioteer - O.M.) are our strikers, our troikas are indomitable ... (A.S. Pushkin). The two parts of the complex sentence in the example in the order of the members of the sentence are, as it were, in a mirror image: Subject - definition - predicate, predicate - definition - subject.
Inversion - the reverse order of words, for example, the location of the definition after the word being defined, etc.
At the frosty dawn under the sixth birch, around the corner, by the church, wait, Don Juan... (M. Tsvetaeva).
In the above example, the adjective frosty is in the position after the word being defined, which is the inversion.
To check or self-control on the topic, you can try to guess our crossword
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