This article discusses mental operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, classification and seriation. Based on the analysis of psychological and diagnostic literature, a diagnostic complex was compiled and presented. The results obtained during the primary diagnosis are presented.
thinking
preschoolers
mental operations
diagnostics
comparison
abstraction
generalization
classification and seriation
1. Abulkhanova-Slavskaya K.A. Personal types of thinking. - M.: LPA Department - M., 1998. - 512 p.
2. Beloshistaya A.V. Formation and development of mathematical abilities of preschoolers. – M.: Perse, 2000. – 326 p.
3. Beloshistaya A. Preschool age: the formation of primary ideas about natural numbers // Preschool education. – M.: Perse, 2001. – 511 p.
4. Brushlinsky A.V. Thinking and forecasting. Logical-psychological analysis. – M.: Academy, 2004. – 544 p.
5.Vygotsky L.S. The history of the development of higher mental functions. - St. Petersburg: Speech, 2006. - 336 p.
6.Vygotsky, L.S. Thinking and speech. – M.: Flinta, 2006. – 413 p.
7. Galperin P. Ya. Psychology of thinking and the doctrine of the gradual formation of mental actions. – M.: Academy, 2007. – 320 p.
Thinking is one of the most important cognitive processes, because it is with the help of thought that we cognize the world, reasoning, analyzing and generalizing certain results of reality.
According to domestic and foreign psychologists, the development of thinking in the process of activity is the formation and improvement of all types, forms and operations of thinking, the development of skills and abilities to apply the laws of thinking in cognitive activity, as well as the ability to transfer the methods of mental activity from one field of knowledge to another. It should also be noted that the development of mental operations is also considered as the preparation of the foundation of educational activity. Therefore, it is necessary to start developing mental operations from preschool age.
Purpose of the study: to investigate the initial level of development of mental operations in children of senior preschool age.
Research base: MDOU No. 48 "Energetik", Neryungri. Contingent: 18 pupils.
An analysis of the psychological and pedagogical literature has shown that many domestic and foreign teachers and psychologists have paid attention to the problem of the development of mental operations in preschool children. Among them are such as L.A. Wenger, L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin, N.P. Anikeeva, N.N. Poddyakov, J. Piaget and many others. All authors distinguish as mental operations: analysis, synthesis, comparison, abstraction, generalization, classification and seriation.
Analysis is “the mental decomposition of the whole into parts or the mental separation of its sides, actions, relations from the whole”. In its elementary form, analysis is expressed in the practical decomposition of objects into their component parts.
Synthesis is “a mental combination of individual elements, parts, features into a single whole”.
Comparison is “the establishment of similarities and differences between objects and phenomena or their individual features. Comparison is one-sided, superficial and deep, direct and indirect. The main requirement for the comparison operation is that it be carried out in one relation. For a deeper and more accurate knowledge of reality, such a quality of thinking as the ability to find differences in the most similar objects and similarities in different ones is of particular importance.
Abstraction is "the mental selection of essential properties and features of objects and phenomena while simultaneously abstracting from non-essential features and properties." The selection in the process of abstraction of the essential features of objects and phenomena are usually common to a group of similar objects and phenomena.
Generalization is “a mental association of objects and phenomena into groups according to common and essential features that stand out in the process of abstraction”. The processes of abstraction and generalization are opposed to the process of concretization. Concretization involves the return of thought from the general and abstract to the concrete in order to reveal the content.
Seriation is “the ordering of objects according to the degree of intensity of the selected feature. Each element enclosed in a serial series is characterized in relation to two neighboring elements: the severity of the variable feature in it is simultaneously greater than in one of them, and less than in the other.
Classification is “the distribution of objects of any kind into interrelated classes according to the most significant features inherent in objects of this kind and distinguishing them from objects of other genera”.
We agree with the opinion of S.L. Rubinstein that these operations are different sides of the main operation of thinking - mediation (that is, the disclosure of more and more significant connections and relationships).
Based on the above mental operations, we compiled and tested a diagnostic complex, which included the following methods:
1. The method of "nonsense" (R.S. Nemov).
2. Methodology "Sequence of events" (N.A. Bernshtein).
3. Methodology "What is superfluous here" (R.S. Nemov).
So, according to the method of "nonsense", elementary figurative representations of the child about the world around, logical connections and relationships that exist between some objects of the world were revealed; the ability to reason logically and grammatically correctly express their thoughts. A low level of development of mental operations is observed in 21% of the subjects, an average level in 53% of children, a high level of development of mental operations was detected in 26%.
In order to study the development of logical thinking, the ability to generalize, the test "Sequence of events" (A.N. Bernshtein) was carried out.
So, 4 children belonged to the low level, who could not find a sequence of pictures and refused to compose a story or, based on the sequence of pictures they found themselves, made up an illogical story; the sequence compiled by the child does not correspond to the story; each picture is told separately, by itself, not connected with the others - as a result, a story is not obtained.
8 children had an average level. Those children who correctly found the sequence, but could not compose a story or composed it with the help of leading questions, belonged to this level.
Among 15 subjects, 3 children had a high level of conceptual thinking. These children independently found a sequence of pictures, and made up a logical story.
According to the method "What is superfluous here" R.S. Nemov, the processes of figurative-logical thinking, mental operations of analysis and generalization in a child were studied. The interpretation of the results was carried out on the basis of the scores that the child scored during the diagnosis.
In the course of this technique, it was revealed that out of 15 people in the group, 13 children completed the task (4 at high and 9 at medium levels;) 2 children showed a low level of children's ability to generalize and classify.
The results of diagnostics according to the third method indicate that most children have such mental operations as generalization and classification. Children easily picked out the extra words. In children with a low level, the ability to generalize and classify is poorly developed.
After carrying out all three methods, it was revealed that the low level of development of mental operations is 16%, the average is 66%, and the high level is 16%.
A comparative analysis of the data obtained from the results of all diagnostic methods showed that in preschoolers the level of formation of mental operations is at an average level. The operations of analysis and generalization turned out to be the most preserved in children, the operations of comparison and classification were the least preserved.
Bibliographic link
Galeeva A.R., Mamedova L.V. STUDY OF THE LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITIVE OPERATIONS IN CHILDREN OF THE OLDER PRESCHOOL AGE // International Journal of Experimental Education. - 2015. - No. 12-2. – P. 187-188;URL: http://expeducation.ru/ru/article/view?id=9037 (date of access: 02.11.2019). We bring to your attention the journals published by the publishing house "Academy of Natural History"
MUNICIPAL BUDGET GENERAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
STEPANOVSK SECONDARY EDUCATIONAL SCHOOL
VERKHNEKETSKY DISTRICT OF THE TOMSK REGION
Study of the level of development of mental operations in children.
Prepared by a teacher-psychologist:
Ovechkina N.V.
The study of mental operations.
Basic mental operations:
Analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, concretization, abstraction.
Methodology "Classification"
Instruction: 1. various objects are shown here, your task is to arrange them in groups(no further clarifications).
The subject arranges the cards into groups, naming each group. The experimenter carefully writes down everything that the subject said, the names of all groups.
2. Now, if possible, arrange these groups according to more general features.(the second alignment is carefully recorded).
Thus, with the help of this technique, the level of performance of mental operations by the subject is determined: analysis, synthesis, generalization.
More than 3 layouts are considered the norm, the last layout should contain 2 groups: “living” and “non-living”, and even after such a scenario, the experimenter repeats the instruction to the subject until the subject says: “That’s it, you can’t combine it anymore.”
Methodology "Exclusion of the 4th superfluous"
Instruction: These pictures show 4 items. 3 of them are united by a common theme, the fourth does not fit them. It is necessary to say which topic unites 3 subjects, and which subject does not fit them (the method is used to study the operations of analysis, synthesis).
The exception of the umbrella is considered the norm, the rest is objects in
Methodology "Comparison of concepts".
Instruction: I call you 2 words, your task is to say what they have in common and what are the differences ( comparison operations are studied by the technique).
Technique "Simple analogies"
Instruction:
Instruction : In each line there is one word located slightly higher than the others, and 5 words located below, they indicate that this object (the word located above) always has, without which it cannot exist.
Method "Metaphors and proverbs"
( understanding the figurative meaning of metaphors, proverbs and sayings; processes of abstraction are studied). For the experiment, 3 metaphors and 2 proverbs are taken.
Instruction : I tell you metaphors and proverbs, you explain them;
what is the meaning of the proverb or saying that I am telling you(this also includes an explanation of the meaning, morality of the fable).
PROTOCOL #2
From ___________________ 200__
FULL NAME. psychologist ___________________
F.I. ___________________________
Date of Birth
School_____________________class_____________
Exclusion of concepts( for students 1-2 cells)
Doll, jump rope, sand, ball, spinning top
Tulip, lily, bean, chamomile, violet
River, lake, sea, bridge, pond
_______________________________________________________________________
Table, carpet, armchair, bed, stool
_______________________________________________________________________
Chicken, rooster, eagle, goose, turkey
_______________________________________________________________________
Cheerful, fast, sad, delicious, careful
_______________________________________________________________________
Note
Conclusion____________________________________________________________
Exclusion of concepts
This technique is presented in two versions: the exclusion of the “inappropriate” concept from 4 and from 5 words. The data obtained in the study using this method make it possible to judge the level of the child's generalizing operations, the possibility of distraction, his ability to single out the essential features of objects or phenomena and, on this basis, make the necessary judgments.
The tasks of both options are arranged in order of increasing difficulty level.
The technique is presented to children with a formed reading skill (meaningful reading). Provided that there is a sufficient amount of auditory-speech memory and for children who cannot read, the task is presented by ear. Procedure
The child is offered to single out one "inappropriate" concept and explain on what basis (principle) he did it. In addition, you need to choose a generalizing word for all other words.
It is assessed whether the child can be distracted from secondary and random signs, habitual (situationally determined) relations between objects and generalize essential signs, find a generalizing word (level of conceptual development). Other features of the formation of the generalization process are also revealed. The level of generalizing operations is analyzed, namely: association according to specific situational, functional, conceptual, latent features. Analyzed indicators:
the nature of the activity (purposefulness, randomness, etc.);
availability of the task;
the nature of errors in feature extraction;
the nature of the child's reasoning and the level of generalizing operations;
the amount and nature of the necessary assistance from an adult.
Age features of use
Option 1 can be used when working with children starting with 5,5 years; option 2 - with 6-7 years.
Technique "Simple analogies"
Instruction: The first column contains pairs of words that are related to each other in a certain way. In the second column, you need to match the top word with the word in the bottom line so that there is the same ratio between them (generalization operations are studied by the method).
SIMPLE ANALOGIES (2-4 cells)
The spoon Fork
Porridge Butter, Knife, Plate, Meat, Dishes
Horse Cow
Foal Pasture, Horns, Milk, Calf, Bull
_________________
Ear Teeth
Listen See, Treat, Mouth, Cheek, Chew
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Tea Soup
Sugar Water, Plate, Cereals, Salt, Spoon
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Skates A boat
Winter Ice, Skating rink, Paddle, Summer, River
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_ Thin Ugly
Fat Beautiful, Fat, Dirty, Ugly, Cheerful
_______________________________________________________________________________
Note
Conclusion_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Technique "Simple analogies"
Instruction: The first column contains pairs of words that are related to each other in a certain way. In the second column, you need to match the top word with the word in the bottom line so that there is the same ratio between them (generalization operations are studied by the method)
SIMPLE ANALOGIES (5 -11kl)
Cork A rock
Swim swimmer, sink, granite, haul, mason
1 egg Potato
chicken shell, vegetable garden, soup, cabbage, husk
__________________________________________________________________________
2 raspberry physics
berry red, scientist, machine, science, electricity
__________________________________________________________________________
3. sea cool
ocean clothing, wind, bad weather, frost, rain
_______________________________________________________________________________
4 light war
darkness soldiers, fight, explosion, weapon, world
________________________________________________________________________
5 _ Knife table
steel fork, wood, chair, food, tablecloth
_______________________________________________________________________________
Note
Procedure
The child is invited to choose a word by analogy with the proposed example. Tasks for the selection of paired analogies are arranged in order of increasing level of complexity.
In case of pronounced difficulties in updating the desired word, it is preferable to work with such a task (for example, using the technique Selection of simple analogies (sheet 17), where the actualization difficulty factor is minimal.
Analyzed indicators:
a strategy for the child to identify logical connections and relationships between concepts;
the presence of difficulties in updating the desired word;
criticality of the child to the results of their activities;
The technique is available to children with 7 years. The implementation of the methodology in full (13-14 correct answers) is conditionally normative for children 10-11 years.
Children 8-9 years, as a rule, they perform 9-10 tasks with little help or on their own.
Selection of simple analogies (sheet 17)
The methodology is aimed at the possibility of establishing logical connections and relationships between concepts.
Procedure
The difference from the previous technique is the assignment of words to select one by analogy. In this version of the methodology, the factor of difficulties in updating the desired word is minimized.
Tasks for the selection of simple analogies are arranged in order of increasing level of complexity.
The technique is presented to children with a formed reading skill (meaningful reading). Only in the most extreme case can the task be presented to the child by ear based on passive reading, and only if there is a sufficient amount of auditory-speech memory.
The highlighted tasks are a visual aid option. Completing these tasks can be viewed as a learning option. In this case, it is possible to analyze the learning ability of the child. The child is presented with a pair of words from the left column, and he is asked to choose a word from the bottom five on the right that will relate to the top word on the right in the same way that the bottom word from the left side relates to its top (by analogy).
The possibility of identifying the relationship between the upper and lower words in the left part of the task and selecting, by analogy with this, the lower word from the right part is evaluated. Fatigue can be detected when working with verbal-logical material.
Analyzed indicators:
the ability to hold instructions and complete the task to the end;
the availability of performing tasks by analogy;
the ability to analyze a large amount of printed (visual) material;
strategy for the child to identify logical connections and
carrying between concepts;
the presence of impulsive responses;
inertia in the choice of connections;
the nature of learning and the amount of necessary assistance from an adult.
Age features of use and performance standards
The technique is more adequate for working with children with memory difficulties than the previous one, and can be used when working with children 7-8 years.
Conditionally normative is the correct performance of tasks in full (11-12 tasks with the identification of significant relationships) with10 years.
PAIR ANALOGIES (1-11 cells)
| School - student | Hospital - … |
| Task - solution | Question - ... |
| 1. Clock - time | Thermometer - ... |
| 2. Meadow - grass | |
| (hunter gun) | April - ... (Fisherman) |
| 4. Day - lunch | Evening - ... |
| 5. House - brick | Word - ... |
Note
Conclusion________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Methodology "Essential Features"
Instruction : in each line there is one word located slightly higher than the others, and 5 words located below, they indicate that this object (the word located above) always has, without which it cannot exist. Underline only these two words.
Identification of essential features ( for students 3-11 class)
Forest…
1. Garden…
plants, gardener, dog, fence, ground
__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
2. City...
car, buildings, crowd, street, bicycle ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
3. Shed...
hayloft, horse, roof, livestock, walls
4. Hospital...
room, injections, doctor, thermometer, patients ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
5. Game...
cards, players, chips, penalties, rules
Note
Conclusion________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Youdivisiontwo essential features
Forest…
soil, mushrooms, hunter, tree, wolf
Garden…
plants, gardener, dog, fence, ground
1. City...
car, buildings, crowd, street, bike
2. Barn...
hayloft, horse, roof, livestock, walls
3. Hospital...
room, injections, doctor, thermometer, patients
4. Game...
cards, players, chips, penalties, rules
5. War...
aircraft, guns, battles, guns, soldiers
6. Book...
drawings, story, paper, table of contents, text
8. Cube...
angles, drawing, side, stone, wood
9. Reading...
eyes,
book, text, glasses, word
10. Division...
class, dividend, pencil, divider, paper
Highlighting two essential features (sheet 21)
The technique reveals the ability to identify the most significant features of objects and phenomena and distinguish them from non-essential (minor), and also allows you to evaluate
sequence of the child's reasoning. The tasks are arranged in ascending order of difficulty. Procedure
The technique is presented to children with a formed reading skill (meaningful reading). Given a sufficient amount of auditory-speech memory, the task can be presented to the child by ear.
The highlighted tasks are a visual aid option. Completing these tasks can be viewed as a learning option. In this case, it is possible to analyze the learning ability of the child.
The child is asked to choose only two words from the five below, denoting the essential features of the first word, i.e. highlight that without which this concept does not exist.
Not only the correctness of the execution is evaluated, but also the ability to independently choose a solution, arbitrarily preserve the method of analysis, typical errors are noted, including the choice of more or less words, etc.
The task is considered partially completed if the child highlights one of the essential features; if both essential features are correctly identified, the task is completed in full.
Analyzed indicators:
available level of difficulty of tasks;
the ability to retain instructions;
the nature of the activity (purposefulness, randomness, etc.);
the nature of the errors in the selection of features (type, degree, "significance" of the selection);
the nature of the child's reasoning, the degree of their logic, the presence of inertia in thinking when choosing;
criticality of the child to the results of their activities; the amount and nature of the assistance needed.
Target: assessment of the level of development of mental operations of the subject.
Introductory remarks.
This laboratory work involves the performance of several small tasks aimed at determining the level of development of such mental operations of the subject as analysis, synthesis, comparison, generalization, classification, abstraction.
For this, the subject is offered the following series of diagnostic methods:
• “Exclusion of the superfluous” (the technique has subject and verbal variants; the latter is recommended for the study of persons over 11–12 years of age);
• "Simple analogies" (the technique is used to examine people aged 10 years and older);
• "Complex analogies" (the technique is intended for the subjects of adolescence and adults);
• "Comparison of concepts" (the method is used to study children, adolescents and adults);
• "Interpretation of proverbs" (the method is used both in the study of adolescents and adults);
• "Identification of essential features" (the technique is suitable for examining children and adults).
Each technique has its own purpose, stimulus material, method of processing and presenting data. The order in which the methods are presented to the subject does not matter. For data registration, a common protocol is being prepared for all methods. To conduct a comparative analysis of the results, a diagnostic examination of several (two) subjects is recommended.
The results obtained for all methods are drawn up in one report, reflecting the level of development of mental operations of the subjects, taking into account their age, social and psychological characteristics.
Method "Exclusion of excess"
Target: study of the ability to generalize and abstract, the ability to highlight the essential features of objects and phenomena.
Stimulus material and equipment.
Subject option: a set of cards with four items on each (see Appendix 3).
Verbal option: A form with a printed series of five words (see Appendix 4).
Response registration protocol, pen.
Working process.
Subject option. The cards are presented one by one to the subject. Of the four objects drawn from each card, he must exclude one object, and give the rest one name. When an extra item is excluded, the subject must explain why he excluded this particular item.
The researcher together with the subject solves and analyzes the first task. The rest of the subject, as far as possible, analyzes independently. If he is having difficulty, the researcher asks him a leading question.
In the protocol, the subject writes down the number of the card, the name of the subject that he excluded, the word or expression with which he designated the other three, explanations, all the questions that were asked to him, and his answers. This option is used to study children and adults.
verbal option. The execution of this test variant is identical to the previous one.
Test subject instructions.
Subject option:“Look at these drawings, 4 objects are drawn here, three of them are similar to each other, and they can be called in one word, and the fourth object does not fit them. Tell me which one is superfluous and what can be called the other three if they are combined into one group.
Verbal option:“Here in each line five words are written, of which four can be combined into one group and give it a name, and one word does not belong to this group. It needs to be found and eliminated (deleted).
Processing of results.
Based on the answers of the subject, a certain number of points is assigned, corresponding to a certain level of development of the mental operation - generalizations (see the rating scale).
The scores obtained by the subject for each task are summed up, after which the arithmetic mean is found. Based on the latter, the level of development of the generalization operation with
taking into account the maximum and minimum possible number of points for the task (10 and 0, respectively).
If the subject copes with the first three or four tasks and makes mistakes as they become more difficult, or solves the task correctly, but cannot explain his decision, choose a name for a group of objects, then we can conclude that he is intellectually inadequate.
If the subject explains the reason for combining objects into one group not according to their generic or categorical characteristics, but according to situational criteria (i.e., invents a situation in which all objects somehow participate), then this is an indicator of concrete thinking, i.e. insufficient the development of the operation of abstraction, the inability to build generalizations according to essential features.
Technique "Simple analogies"
Target: revealing the nature of logical connections and relationships between concepts, developing the ability to identify essential features of objects and phenomena while abstracting from non-essential ones.
GBOU DPO "Chelyabinsk Institute of Retraining and Advanced Training of Educational Workers"
Department of Special (Correctional) Education
Attestation work
The development of mental operations of younger students
Completed by: Nazaykina E.V. gr.174
Chelyabinsk 2015
Table of contents
Introduction
Chapter 1 Thinking as the highest cognitive process
1.1Thinking is a cognitive process
1.2 Features of thinking of younger students
Chapter 2 Logical Thinking
2.1 Development of logical thinking
2.2 Methods aimed at the development of logical thinking
Conclusion
Literature
1.1 Thinking-cognitive process
Thinking is the highest cognitive process of generalized and mediated reflection of reality. Thinking is the most important process of cognition. With the help of thinking, we gain knowledge that the senses cannot give us. Thinking correlates the data of sensations and perceptions, compares, distinguishes and reveals the relationships between surrounding phenomena even in their absence. Thinking is generalized and mediated by the word, cognition of reality. Thinking makes it possible to know the essence of objects and phenomena. Thanks to thinking, it becomes possible to foresee the results of certain actions, to carry out creative activity. The result of thinking is a thought expressed in words.
In the works of the classic of Russian psychology L.S. Vygotsky repeatedly repeated the idea that mental processes are heterogeneous in terms of the degree of their generalized reflection of reality and the possibilities of mediation in a variety of ways, among which verbal signs play a leading role. A generalized reflection of reality by thinking leads to the emergence of special signs, primarily verbal, with the help of which effective communication between people becomes possible. “The highest forms of psychological communication inherent only to man are possible only due to the fact that a person, with the help of thinking, generally reflects reality.” Thus, thinking makes the process of communication possible.
Thinking comes in three main forms:
1 concept - a thought fixing the signs of the object and phenomena displayed in it, allowing you to distinguish these objects and phenomena from those adjacent to them.
2 judgment - a thought expressed by a declarative sentence and which is true or false.
3 conclusion - a thought process during which a new one is derived from one or more judgments, called a conclusion, conclusion or consequence.
In the process of mental activity, a person uses special techniques, or operations: 1. analysis (mental decomposition of the whole into parts). 2. synthesis (mental combination of parts into a single whole). 3. comparison (establishing similarities or differences between objects).
4. abstraction (highlighting the essential properties of the subject and abstracting from the non-essential). 5. generalization (mental association of objects according to their characteristics).
Thinking is of three types:
1 Visually - effective (is the leader for up to three years).
Features of object-effective thinking are manifested in the fact that problems are solved with the help of a real, physical transformation of the situation, testing the properties of objects. The child compares an object by putting one on top of the other, or putting one on top of the other; he analyzes, breaking apart the toy; he synthesizes by building a house out of cubes; he classifies and generalizes, laying out the cubes by color. The child does not set goals and does not plan his actions. The child thinks by acting. When solving practical problematic problems, the identification, “discovery” of the properties and relations of objects takes place. This type of thinking is also called manual.
2 Visual-figurative thinking is characteristic of preschoolers. They still have a connection between thinking and activity, however, there is not always a need to manipulate objects, but there is always a need to represent an object, an object. Preschoolers think in visual images and do not yet possess concepts in the full sense of the word. The ability to operate with images "in the mind" is not a direct result of the child's assimilation of knowledge and skills. It arises and develops in the process of interaction of certain lines of mental development: objective actions, substitution actions, speech, imitation, play activity, etc. In turn, images can differ in the degree of generalization, in the ways of formation and functioning. The mental activity itself acts as an operation with images. This type of thinking is sometimes called logical-sign, that is, one in which they rely on representations and images.
3 Verbal - logical (from 7 years onwards).
On the basis of visual-active and visual-figurative experience, school-age children gradually form abstract thinking, which exists in the form of abstract concepts and judgments. This kind of thinking is accompanied by speech. It is also called verbal-logical. Insufficient development of verbal-logical thinking leads to difficulties in performing any logical actions (analysis, generalization, highlighting the main thing when drawing conclusions) and operations with words. It should be noted that the higher the level of generalization, the better developed the child's ability to abstract.
1.2 Features of thinking of a younger student
A feature of a healthy psyche of a child is cognitive activity. The curiosity of the child is constantly directed to the knowledge of the world around him and the construction of his own picture of this world. The child, playing, experiments, tries to establish causal relationships and dependencies. He himself, for example, can find out which objects sink and which will float.
The more mentally active the child is, the more questions he asks and the more varied these questions are. A child may be interested in everything in the world: how deep is the ocean? How does the animal breathe there? how many thousand kilometers is the globe? Why doesn't snow melt in the mountains?
The child strives for knowledge, and the very assimilation of knowledge occurs through numerous “why?”, “How?”, “Why?”. He is forced to operate with knowledge, imagine the situation and try to find a possible way to answer the question. When some problems arise, the child tries to solve them, really trying on and trying, but he can also solve problems, as they say, in his mind. He imagines a real situation and, as it were, acts in it in his imagination. Such thinking, in which the solution of the problem occurs as a result of internal actions with images, is called visual-figurative. Creative thinking - the main type of thinking in primary school age.
The ability to think is gradually formed in the process of development of the child, the development of his cognitive activity. Cognition begins with the brain's reflection of reality in sensations and perceptions, which form the sensory basis of thinking.
One can speak about the child's thinking from the time when he begins to reflect some of the simplest connections between objects and phenomena and to act correctly in accordance with them. This is the elementary thinking of a child, directly related to the manipulation of objects, actions with them, I.M. Sechenov called the stage of objective thinking.
The thinking of a child of this age is visual-figurative, the subject of his thoughts is the objects and phenomena that he perceives or represents. His analysis skills are elementary, the content of generalizations and concepts includes only external and often insignificant signs (“a butterfly is a bird because it flies”, and “a chicken is not a bird - it cannot fly”).
With the beginning of schooling, the child not only expands the range of ideas and concepts, but the concepts and ideas themselves become more complete and accurate.
The form of generalizing activity of schoolchildren at different levels of education does not remain constant: at the beginning it is usually built on an external analogy, then it is based on the classification of features related to the external properties and qualities of objects, and finally, students move on to systematize essential features (Appendix 4).
Younger students often confuse essential and non-essential features in the process of generalization. This leads to two kinds of errors: either to an unjustified narrowing of the scope of concepts, or to an unjustified expansion of their scope. Examples of narrowing the scope of the concept are the facts when younger students do not classify mushrooms as plants because “they have no leaves”, insects as animals because “they are small”. Examples of expanding the scope of the concept are such generalizations of schoolchildren when they include insects and birds in one group because “they fly”, a whale and a dolphin - to fish because they “live in the seas and swim”, etc.
When highlighting the features of objects, we can talk about a certain pattern. So, students of the 1st grade note, first of all, the most obvious external signs related to the actions of the object (“what it does”) or its purpose (“what it is for”), i.e. utilitarian and functional signs (“The moon is shining”; “Birds are flying”; “Plums are delicious, they are eaten”).
Approximately, starting from the 2nd grade, schoolchildren noticeably free themselves from the inspiring influence of visual signs and rely more and more on signs that reflect significant connections and relationships between objects and phenomena. Grade 3 students are capable of a higher level of generalization associated with the establishment of subordination of concepts: children single out broader and narrower concepts, establish connections between generic and specific concepts.
Analytical-synthetic activity at the beginning of a younger age is still very elementary, it is mainly at the stage of visual-effective analysis, based on the direct perception of objects. Second-graders can already analyze an object without resorting to practical actions with it, children are able to isolate various features, the sides of an object are already in speech form. From the analysis of a single object, phenomena are transferred to the analysis of connections and relationships between objects and phenomena.
Usually, with some difficulty, younger students learn causal relationships and relationships. The younger student understands the teacher's explanations better when these explanations go from cause to effect, and not vice versa, from effect to cause. When the teacher demonstrates to the students a metal ball that does not pass into the ring after heating, then this reason clearly precedes a certain effect. If the student is dealing with a consequence and he needs to make an assumption about the reasons, for example: the plant withered (why?), then he finds it difficult to give all possible explanations, although he knows the corresponding provisions.
In the process of learning at school, the ability of schoolchildren to formulate judgments and draw conclusions is also improved. The student's judgments develop from simple forms to complex ones gradually, as they acquire knowledge and more complex grammatical forms of speech. A first-grader in most cases judges this or that fact one-sidedly, relying on a single external sign or his limited experience. His judgments, as a rule, are expressed in a categorical affirmative form or an equally categorical negative form. The child cannot yet make suggestions, express, and even more so evaluate the probability, the possibility of the presence of this or that sign, this or that reason for the phenomenon.
The development of the ability to reason in primary school age goes through a number of stages. At the first stage, inferences are built on visual premises given directly in the observation. At the second stage, inferences based on abstract premises are already possible. However, they usually take place only when students rely on visual diagrams and familiar examples. In the third stage, students are able to deduce general laws and rules from particular cases, and usually do so with little help from the teacher. For example, third-graders can independently generalize certain similar phenomena and conclude that all bodies expand when heated. They explain each separate case of body expansion correctly and formulate a general rule.
The thinking of a child at the beginning of schooling is characterized by egocentrism, a special mental position, due to the lack of knowledge necessary for the correct solution of certain problem situations. So, the child himself does not discover in his personal experience knowledge about the preservation of such properties of objects as length, volume, weight, etc. The lack of systematic knowledge, insufficient development of concepts lead to the fact that the logic of perception dominates in the child's thinking. For example, it is difficult for a child to evaluate the same amount of water, sand, plasticine, etc. as equal, when before his eyes there is a change in their configuration in accordance with the shape of the vessel where they are placed. The child becomes dependent on what he sees at each new moment of changing objects. However, in the primary grades, a child can already mentally compare individual facts, combine them into a coherent picture, and even form abstract knowledge for himself, remote from direct sources.
J. Piaget established that the thinking of a child at the age of 6–7 is characterized by “centring” or the perception of the world of things and their properties from the only possible position for the child. It is difficult for a child to imagine that his vision of the world does not coincide with how other people perceive this world. So, if you ask a child to look at a layout that shows three mountains of different heights that obscure each other, and then offer to find a picture that shows the mountains as the child sees them, then he can easily cope with this task. But if you ask a child to choose a drawing that depicts mountains, as they are seen by a person looking from the opposite point, then the child chooses a drawing that reflects his own vision. At this age, it is difficult for a child to imagine that there can be a different point of view, that one can see in different ways.
J. Piaget described studies that indicate that the child does not have an idea of the constancy of certain properties of things as a characteristic feature of children under 6–7 years old. Experiments with plasticine balls are classic.
If you put two absolutely identical plasticine balls in front of the child, then the child immediately establishes that they are the same in terms of the amount of plasticine mass. It is worth, however, in front of the child's eyes to crush one ball into a cake and then ask where there is more plasticine, the child will immediately answer that there is more plasticine in the cake.
Thus, the specificity of the thinking of children at the beginning of primary school age, according to J. Piaget, is “centration” and unformed ideas about the constancy of the basic properties of things [
Of course, a younger student can think logically, but it should be remembered that this age is sensitive to learning based on visualization. When a child begins to speak, masters speech, he gradually moves to a higher level of reflection of reality - to the stage of verbal thinking.
Thus, at primary school age, a gradual transition from visual-figurative thinking to verbal-logical begins. The child begins to apply mental operations. In the process of generalization, it begins to rely on more significant features. Analytical-synthetic activity at the beginning of a younger age is still very elementary, it is mainly at the stage of visual-effective analysis. But it is gradually improving. Younger students learn cause-and-effect relationships and relationships. But they understand the teacher's explanations better when these explanations go from cause to effect, and not vice versa, from effect to cause. The ability of schoolchildren to formulate judgments and draw conclusions is also being improved.
Having established the features of the development of thought processes at this age stage, it must be said that they are different for each child. And, in case of insufficient development, they must be developed, since the low level of development of thinking negatively affects the student's progress.
2 Logical thinking of younger students
2.1 Development of logical thinking
Psychologist L.S. Vygotsky noted the intensive development of the intellect of children at primary school age. The development of thinking leads, in turn, to a qualitative restructuring of perception and memory, their transformation into regulated, arbitrary processes.
A child of 7-8 years old thinks in specific categories. Then there is a transition to the stage of formal operations, which is associated with a certain level of development of the ability to generalize and abstract.
By the time they enter the middle school (grade 5), students should learn to reason independently, draw conclusions, compare, compare, analyze, find the particular and the general, and establish simple patterns.
A child, starting to study at school, must have a sufficiently developed logical thinking. In order to form a scientific concept in him, it is necessary to teach him to approach the attributes of objects in a differentiated way. It must be shown that there are essential features, without which the object cannot be brought under this concept.
During the training in the primary level, the child, first of all, must get acquainted with the concepts, with their essential and non-essential features.
Therefore, the first stage in the development of theoretical thinking of younger schoolchildren can be called as follows: acquaintance with the features of concepts.
At the second stage, it is necessary to form the ability to operate with the essential features of concepts, omitting the non-essential features, that is, we are talking about the formation of such an operation of logical thinking as abstraction.
At the third stage, it is necessary to pay the most serious attention to the formation of a logical comparison operation based on essential and non-essential features of objects and phenomena. When forming this operation of logical thinking, special attention should be paid to the search for common and distinctive features of concepts, objects and phenomena.
The first three stages are implemented in grades 1-2 of elementary school.
At the fourth stage (grade 3), students must learn to build a hierarchy of concepts, isolate broader and narrower concepts, and find connections between generic and specific concepts. The formation of the ability to define concepts based on the ability to find a more general generic concept and specific distinctive features can also be attributed to this stage in the development of logical thinking. For example: a ring (species concept) is a platform (generic concept) for boxing (species distinguishing feature).
The fifth stage (grades 3-4) involves the development of analytical activity, which at first (grades 1-2) consists in the analysis of a single object (search for signs), and by grades 3-4 in the ability to analyze the relationship between objects and phenomena (part and whole, juxtaposition, opposition, cause and effect, the presence of certain functional relationships, etc.).
By the end of elementary school, the child should have formed such operations of logical thinking as generalization, classification, analysis and synthesis.
The most important mental operations are analysis and synthesis.
Analysis is associated with the selection of the elements of a given object, its features or properties. Synthesis is a combination of various elements, sides of an object into a single whole.
In human mental activity, analysis and synthesis complement each other, since analysis is carried out through synthesis, synthesis through analysis.
The development of theoretical thinking, that is, thinking in concepts, contributes to the emergence of reflection by the end of primary school age, which, being a neoplasm of adolescence, transforms cognitive activity and the nature of their relationship to other people and to themselves.
"Memory becomes thinking" (D.B. Elkonin)
In connection with the relative predominance of the activity of the first signal system, visual-figurative memory is more developed in younger students. Children better remember specific information, faces, objects, facts than definitions and explanations. They often memorize verbatim. This is explained by the fact that their mechanical memory is well developed and the younger student is not yet able to differentiate the tasks of memorization (what needs to be remembered verbatim and what in general terms), the child still has a poor command of speech, it is easier for him to memorize everything than to reproduce in his own words. Children still do not know how to organize semantic memorization: they do not know how to break the material into semantic groups, highlight strong points for memorization, and draw up a logical plan of the text.
Under the influence of learning, memory in children at primary school age develops in two directions:
The role and share of verbal-logical memorization is increasing (in comparison with visual-figurative memorization);
The ability to consciously control one's memory and regulate its manifestations (memorization, reproduction, recall) is formed. The development of verbal-logical memory occurs as a result of the development of logical thinking.
By the transition to the middle link, the student must develop the ability to memorize and reproduce the meaning, the essence of the material, evidence, argumentation, logical schemes, and reasoning. It is very important to teach the student to correctly set goals for memorizing the material. The productivity of memorization depends on motivation. If the student memorizes the material with the installation that this material will be needed soon, then the material will be remembered faster, remembered longer, and reproduced more accurately.
Perception becomes thinking
In the process of learning in the primary school, the perception of the child becomes:
a) more analytical;
b) more differentiating;
c) takes on the character of organized observation;
d) the role of the word in perception changes (if for first-graders the word primarily has the function of a name, i.e. it is a verbal designation after recognizing an object, for students of older grades the word-name is already the most general designation of an object, preceding its deeper analysis) .
The development of perception does not happen by itself, but goes in parallel with the development of thinking.
One of the most effective methods of organizing perception and nurturing observation is comparison. By developing in a child such a mental operation as a comparison, we make his perception deeper. At the same time, the number of perceptual errors decreases.
Attention becomes arbitrary
The possibilities of volitional regulation of attention in students in grades 1-2 are very limited. At this age, involuntary attention predominates in children. If an older student can force himself to focus on uninteresting, difficult work for the sake of a result that is expected in the future, then a younger student can usually force himself to concentrate, work hard only if there is a “close” motivation (the prospect of getting an A, earning the praise of a teacher).
The upbringing of the “distant” motivation of voluntary attention in younger schoolchildren should take place in accordance with age characteristics, by linking close and increasingly distant goals with each other. Involuntary attention becomes especially concentrated and stable when the educational material is clear, bright, and causes emotional perception in younger students. Since involuntary attention is supported by interest, then, naturally, lessons and activities with children should be exciting and entertaining.
Builds the ability to self-regulate
At this stage, such qualities as arbitrariness and the ability to self-regulate, reflection, go through only the initial stage of formation. Then they become more complex and fixed. At first, these qualities apply only to situations that are related to learning, and then to other areas of the child's activity.
An interest is formed in the content of educational activities, the acquisition of knowledge
By the time of the transition from elementary school to secondary school, the attitude towards learning changes. First, first-graders develop an interest in the very process of educational activity (they can diligently do what they will never need in life, for example, copy Japanese characters).
Then an interest in the result of his work is formed: the boy on the street read the sign on his own, he was very happy.
After the emergence of interest in the results of their educational work, first-graders develop an interest in the content of educational activities, the need to acquire knowledge. This is due to the experience of schoolchildren a sense of satisfaction from their achievements. And this feeling is stimulated by the approval of a teacher, an adult, emphasizing even the smallest success, moving forward.
Younger students experience a sense of pride, a special upsurge of strength, when the teacher, encouraging them and stimulating their desire to work better, says: "Now you are working not like little children, but like real students!"
Even relative failures
It is useful to comment something like this: "You already write much better. Compare how you wrote today and how you wrote a week ago. Well done! A little more effort and you will write the way you need to."
There is an awareness of a personal relationship to the world
At first, this factor affects the educational sphere as more familiar to children. The transition to middle school stimulates this process of forming a personal attitude to learning, but not all children are ready for it. As a result, a "motivational vacuum" may form, which is characterized by the fact that the old ideas no longer suit the children, and the new ones have not yet been realized, have not taken shape.
Character is taking shape
The character of a younger student has the following features: impulsiveness, a tendency to act immediately, without thinking, without weighing all the circumstances (the reason is the age-related weakness of volitional regulation of behavior); general insufficiency of will (a schoolchild of 7-8 years old is not yet able to pursue the intended goal for a long time, stubbornly overcome difficulties); capriciousness, stubbornness (explained by the shortcomings of family education). The child is accustomed to having all his desires and requirements satisfied. Capriciousness and stubbornness are a peculiar form of a child's protest against the firm demands that the school makes on him, against the need to sacrifice what he "wants" in the name of what he "needs".
By the end of elementary school, the child develops industriousness, accuracy, diligence, discipline.
Gradually, the ability to volitional regulation of one's behavior develops, the ability to restrain and control one's actions is formed, not to succumb to direct impulses, and perseverance grows. A student of grades 3-4 is able, as a result of the struggle of motives, to give preference to the motive of duty.
In general, during the child's education in the primary school, he should develop the following qualities: arbitrariness, reflection, thinking in concepts; successful completion of the program; main components of educational activity; a qualitatively new, more "adult" type of relationship with teachers and classmates.
2.2 Methods aimed at developing and determining the degree of mastery of the logical operations of thinking
The ability to highlight the essential
The teacher suggests a series of words: five words are given in brackets, and one is in front of them. In 20 seconds, students must exclude from the brackets (that is, highlight) the two words that are most significant for the word in front of the brackets. It is enough to offer from this list of 5 tasks.
Garden (plant, gardener, dog, fence, earth);
Plant, earth.
River (shore, fish, mud, fisherman, water);
Beach, water.
Cube (corners, drawing, side, stone, tree);
Corners, side.
Reading (eyes, book, picture, print, word);
Eyes, print.
Game (chess, players, fines, rules, punishments);
Players, rules.
Forest (leaf, apple tree, hunter, tree, shrub);
Tree, shrub.
City (car, building, crowd, street, bicycle);
Building, street.
Ring (diameter, hallmark, roundness, seal, diamond);
Hospital (garden, doctor, room, radio, patients);
Room, patients.
Love (roses, feeling, person, city, nature);
Feeling, man.
War (airplane, guns, battles, soldiers, guns);
Battles, soldiers.
Sports (medal, orchestra, match, victory, stadium);
Stadium, competition.
Processing of the received data: students who correctly completed the task, obviously, have the ability to highlight the essential, i.e. capable of abstraction. Those who made mistakes do not know how to distinguish between essential and non-essential features.
Ability to abstract = number of correct answers: 5 tasks.
Comparison
Comparison plays a special role in organizing the productive activity of younger schoolchildren in the learning process. The formation of the ability to use this technique should be carried out in stages, in close connection with the study of specific content. It is advisable, for example, to focus on the following stages:
Identification of features or properties of one object;
Establishing similarities and differences between the features of two objects;
Identification of similarities between the features of three, four or more objects.
Since it is better to start working on the formation of a logical method of comparison in children from the first lessons, then as objects you can use objects or drawings depicting objects that are well known, in which they can highlight certain features, based on their ideas,
(for example, in math classes).
To organize the activities of students aimed at highlighting the features of an object, you can first ask the following question:
What can you tell about the subject? (an apple is round, large, red; a pumpkin is yellow, large, with stripes, with a tail; a circle is large, green; a square is small, yellow).
In the process of work, the teacher introduces the children to the concepts of "size", "shape" and asks them the following questions:
What can you say about the size (shape) of these items? (Large, small, round, like a triangle, like a square, etc.) Purpose: to establish the level of development of students' ability to compare objects, concepts.
Students are presented or called any two objects or concepts, for example:
Book - notebook sun - moon
Horse - cow sleigh - cart
Lake - river rain - snow
Ruler - triangle bus - trolleybus
Each student on a piece of paper should write on the left the similarities, and on the right - the differences between the named objects, concepts.
4 minutes are given to complete the task for one pair of words. After that, the sheets are collected.
Generalization
Isolation of the essential features of objects, their properties and relationships is the main characteristic of such a method of mental actions as generalization.
It is necessary to distinguish between the result and the process of generalization. The result is fixed in concepts, judgments, rules. The process of generalization can be organized in different ways. Depending on this, one speaks of two types of generalization - theoretical and empirical.
In the course of elementary mathematics, the empirical type is most often used, in which the generalization of knowledge is the result of inductive reasoning (inference).
Two words are suggested. The student needs to determine what is common between them:
Rain - hail liquid - gas
Nose - eye betrayal-cowardice
Sum - product reservoir - channel
Fairy tale - epic school - teacher
History - natural history kindness - justice
You can offer 5 pairs of words. Time 3-4 minutes. Processing of received data:
Level of communication skills = number of correct answers: 5 tasks.
Classification
The ability to highlight the features of objects and establish similarities and differences between them is the basis of the classification technique. The ability to perform classification is formed in schoolchildren in close connection with the study of specific content.
This technique also reveals the ability to generalize, to build a generalization on abstract material.
Instructions: five words are given. Four of them are united by a common feature. The fifth word does not fit them. We need to find this word.
1) Prefix, preposition, suffix, ending, root.
2) Triangle, segment, length, square, circle.
4) Addition, multiplication, division, summand, subtraction.
5) Oak, tree, alder, poplar, ash.
6) Vasily, Fedor, Ivan, Petrov, Semyon.
7) Milk, cheese, sour cream, meat, curdled milk.
8) Second, hour, year, evening, week.
9) Bitter, hot, sour, salty, sweet.
10) Football, volleyball, hockey, swimming, basketball.
11) Dark, light, blue, bright, dull.
12) Airplane, ship, equipment, train, airship.
13) Circle, square, triangle, trapezoid, rectangle.
14) Bold, brave, resolute, angry, courageous.
Students can be given 5 tasks. Time - 3 minutes.
Processing of received data:
The level of formation of the mental operation = the number of correct answers: 5 tasks.
Anagram
Purpose: to identify the presence or absence of theoretical analysis in schoolchildren.
Progress of work: students are offered anagrams (words transformed by rearranging their constituent letters).
Students must use the given anagrams to find the original words.
LBKO, RAYAI, ERAVSHN, RKDETI, ASHNRRI, UPKS, OKORAV
As a result of completing the assignment, students can be divided into 2 groups: group 1 - they lack theoretical analysis (the ability to mentally highlight the properties of objects, in this case, the structure of a word), group 2 students quickly find answers by finding a general rule.
Processing of the received data: the level of formation of operations = the number of correct answers: 5 tasks.
Analysis of relations of concepts (analogy)
The concept of "similar" in translation from Greek means "similar", "corresponding", the concept of analogy is the similarity in any respect between objects, phenomena, concepts, methods of action.
Forming in younger students the ability to perform inferences by analogy, it is necessary to keep in mind the following:
Analogy is based on comparison, so the success of its application depends on how students are able to highlight the features of objects and establish similarities and differences between them.
To use the analogy, it is necessary to have two objects, one of which is known, the second is compared with it according to some criteria. Hence, the use of the analogy technique contributes to the repetition of what has been studied and the systematization of knowledge and skills.
In order to orient schoolchildren to use analogy, it is necessary to explain to them in an accessible form the essence of this technique, drawing their attention to the fact that in mathematics it is often possible to discover a new method of action by guessing, remembering and analyzing a known method of action and a given new task.
For correct actions, by analogy, the features of objects that are significant in a given situation are compared. Otherwise, the output may be incorrect.
For example, given three words, the first two are in a certain connection. The same relationship exists between the third and one of the proposed five words. We need to find this fourth word:
Song: composer = plane:?
a) an airport b) fuel; c) designer d) pilot; d) fighter.
Functional relationship: the song was composed by the composer.
The answer is the designer (the designer made the plane).
1) school: teaching = hospital:?
a) a doctor; b) a student; c) treatment; d) institution; d) sick.
2) song: deaf = picture:?
a) blind b) an artist; c) drawing; d) sick; d) lame.
3) knife: steel = table:?
a) a fork; b) a tree; c) chair; d) dining room; d) long.
4) locomotive: wagons = horse:?
a) a train b) a horse; c) oats; d) cart; d) a stable.
5) forest: trees = library:?
what about the town; b) a building; c) books; d) librarian; d) theater.
6) run: stand = shout 6?
a) crawl b) be silent; c) make noise d) call d) cry.
7) morning: night = winter:?
a) frost b) day; c) January; d) autumn; d) sled.
8) wolf: mouth = bird:?
a) air; b) beak; c) nightingale; d) egg; d) singing.
9) cold: hot = movement:?
a) rest; b) interaction; c) inertia; d) a molecule; d) run.
10) term: sum = multipliers:?
a) difference; b) divider; c) a work; d) multiplication; e) division.
11) circle: circumference = ball:?
a) space b) sphere; c) radius; d) diameter; e) half.
12) light:dark = attraction:?
a) metal; b) a magnet; c) repulsion; d) movement; e) interaction.
This technique allows students to identify the ability to determine relationships between concepts or connections between concepts:
a) cause - effect; d) part - whole;
b) genus - species; e) functional relationships.
c) opposite;
The level of formation of operations = the number of correct answers: the number of tasks.
To study the speed of the thought processes of students, you can use the method, the essence of which is to fill in the missing letters in the proposed words.
P - RO Z - R - O Z - O - OK
K - SA D - R - VO T - A - A
R - KA K -M - Nb K - N - A
G - RA X - L - D K - S - A
P -LE K - V - R P - E - A
The teacher pays attention to how much time the student took to think about each individual word and fill in the missing letters.
Variants of tasks for the development of logical thinking of younger students
The proposed methods have been tested. The tasks will take one hour (45 minutes) to complete. Students are given tasks according to options (for the study of thinking). It is necessary to give 5 minutes to complete the 1st - 5th tasks; 6th - 15 minutes.
Option 1
1) well; 2) paradises; 3) evolution; 4) rkchildren; 5) rbkadol.
Task 2. There is a word before the brackets, and 5 more words in brackets. Find 2 words from those written in brackets that are most significant for the word in front of the brackets. Write down these words.
1) Reading (book, glasses, eyes, letter, moon).
2) Garden (plant, gardener, land, water, fence).
3) River (shore, mud, water, fisherman, fish).
4) Game (chess, players, rules, football, penalty).
5) Cube (corners, wood, stone, blueprint, side).
Task 3. Compare the concepts: book - notebook. Write down common and distinctive features on a sheet in 2 columns.
1) Oak, tree, alder, ash.
2) Bitter, hot, sour, salty, sweet.
3) Rain, snow, precipitation, frost, hail.
4) Comma, period, colon, union, dash.
5) Addition, multiplication, division, summand, subtraction.
Task 5. You are offered 5 pairs of words. It is necessary to determine what is common between them (very briefly, the sentence should contain no more than 3 - 4 words).
1) Rain - hail.
2) Nose - eye.
3) The sum is the product.
4) Reservoir - channel.
5) Betrayal is cowardice.
Task 6. 3 words are given. The first two are in a certain connection. The third and one of the five words below are in the same relationship. Find and write down this fourth word on the sheet.
1) wolf: mouth = bird:?
a) a sparrow b) nest; c) beak; d) nightingale; d) sing.
2) library: book = forest:?
a) birch; b) a tree; c) branch; d) log; e) maple.
3) bird: nest = human:?
a) people; b) worker; c) a chick; d) house; d) smart.
4) term: sum = multipliers:?
a) difference; b) divider; c) a work; d) multiplication; e) subtraction.
5) cold: hot = movement:?
a) interaction; b) peace; into the ball; d) trams; d) go.
6) west: east = shallowing:?
a) drought; b) south; c) flood; d) a river; e) rain.
7) war: death = heat:?
a) breathing b) vital activity; c) substance; d) temperature; e) death.
8) lightning: light = heat:?
a) the sun b) grass; c) thirst; d) rain; d) a river.
9) rose: flower = gas:?
a) oxygen; b) breathing; c) burning; d) state of matter; e) transparent.
10) birch: tree = poem:?
a) a fairy tale b) hero; c) poetry; d) lyrics; d) drama.
Option 2
Task 1. In the given words, the letters are rearranged. Write down these words.
1) UPKS; 2) ASHNRRI; 3) VTSTEKO; 4) OKAMNDRY; 5) LKBUINAC.
Task 2. There is a word before the brackets, and 5 more words in brackets. Find 2 of them that are the most significant for the word before the brackets.
1) division (class, dividend, pencil, divider, paper).
2) Lake (shore, fish, water, angler, mud).
3) Garden (fence, earth, plant, dog, shovel).
4) Reading (eyes, glasses, book, print, picture).
5) Game (chess, tennis, players, penalty, rules).
Task 3. Compare the concepts: lake - river. Write down common and distinctive features in 2 columns.
Task 4. Which concept in each of the lists is superfluous? Write it out.
1) Cold, hot, warm, sour, icy.
2) Rose, tulip, daffodil, flower, gladiolus.
3) Justice, kindness, sincerity, envy, honesty.
4) Triangle, segment, square, circle, rectangle.
5) Proverb, saying, fable, fairy tale, epic.
Task 5. 5 pairs of words are offered. It is necessary to determine what is common between them (very briefly, the phrase should contain up to 3 words).
1) Russian language - mathematics.
2) Nose - eye.
3) An earthquake is a tornado.
4) Gas - liquid. Envy is cowardice.
Task 6. 3 words are given. The first two are in a certain connection. The third and one of the 4 below are in the same relationship. Find and write down the fourth word.
1) Song: composer = plane:?
a) fuel; b) a pilot; c) constructor; d) airfield.
2) rectangle: plane = cube:?
a) space b) rib; c) height; d) triangle.
3) school: teaching = hospital:?
a) a doctor; b) sick; c) treatment; d) institution.
4) ear: hear = teeth:?
a) see; b) treat; c) chew; d) mouth.
5) verb: hide - noun:?
a) concept; b) incline; c) name; d) form.
6) light:dark = attraction:?
a) metal; b) a molecule; c) repulsion; d) movement.
7) heat: drought = rain:?
a) a flood b) flood; c) autumn; d) summer.
8) birch: tree = poem:?
a) a fairy tale b) lyrics; c) poetry; d) drama.
9) rose: flower = oxygen:?
a) state of matter b) gas; c) subject; d) cloves.
10) north: south = night:?
a) morning b) light; in a day; d) evening.
Assessment methodology
High level
Above average
Middle level
Below the average
1. Anagram.
2. Essential.
3. Comparison.
4. Classification
5. Generalization.
6. Analogy.
1 point is assigned for each correct answer.
General level of development of thinking
The proposed tasks, exercises, games will allow elementary school teachers and parents to prepare students for secondary education.
Diagnostic techniques will be necessary in order to identify weaknesses, those mental operations that are not sufficiently formed, but which can be developed when conducting targeted classes with children, as well as when teaching at the middle level.
Exercises for every day
Task 1: Find signs of objects. Tell us about the shape, color, taste of apple, watermelon, plum, lemon, etc.
Recognize objects by given signs.
There is one such flower
Do not weave it into a wreath
Blow on it a little
There was a flower - and there is no flower.
At snow-covered bumps,
Under a white snow cap,
We found a small flower
Half frozen, a little alive.
Who loves me
He is happy to bow
And gave me a name
Native land.
I fly in the summer
I collect honey
But when you touch
Then I bite
I will lay down the matting
I will sow peas
I'll put a kalach -
No one to take.
In a black field, a white hare
Jumped, ran, made loops.
The trail behind him was also white.
Who is this white hare?
Come on guys
Who can guess:
For ten brothers
Two coats are missing.
hairy, green,
She hides in the leaves
Even though there are many legs
And he can't run.
The river roars furiously
And breaks the ice.
The starling returned to his house,
And in the forest the bear woke up.
Task 2: Name the signs of the seasons. (The world).
response plan.
1. How does the length of the day change?
2. How does the air temperature change?
3. What is the precipitation?
4. How does the state of plants change?
5. How does the condition of the soil change?
6. How does the state of water bodies change?
Task 3. "Logical problem" (mathematics).
1. My name is Lena. My brother has only one sister. What is the name of my brother's sister?
2. The thermometer shows 10 degrees of heat. How many degrees do two of these thermometers show?
3. Ivan Fedorovich is the father of Marina Ivanovna, and Kolya is the son of Marina Ivanovna. Who is Kolya related to Ivan Fedorovich?
4. Mom, dad and I were sitting on the bench. In what order did we sit if it is known that I was sitting to the left of my father, and my mother was to my left?
5. Tolya caught perch, ruff and pike. He caught a pike earlier than a perch, and a ruff later than a pike. What fish did Tolya catch before the others? Can you tell which fish was caught last?
6. Kolya is taller than Vasya, but lower than Seryozha. Who is taller, Vasya or Seryozha? etc.
Task 4. "Anagram" (hidden word).
SOLO - _ _ _ _
A GAME - _ _ _ _
WILL - _ _ _ _
WIND - _ _ _ _ _ etc.
Task 5. Find the essential.
Purpose: to teach the child to find the essential features of objects.
Task: select 2 words that are most significant for the word in front of the brackets.
WAR (guns, soldiers, battles, airplane, guns).
HOSPITAL (garden, doctor, radio, patients, room).
SPORT (stadium, orchestra, award, competition, spectators).
CITY (car, building, crowd, bike, streets).
RIVER (coast, fish, mud, water, angler), etc.
Task 6. "Classification".
Purpose: to teach the child to classify. Task 6.1. Large and small, black and white circles are divided into 2 groups. On what basis are the circles divided? Choose the correct answer:
1) by color;
2) by size;
3) by color and size.
Task 6.2. A list of words (2 columns) is given. Choose a label for each of the columns:
1) words are distributed according to the number of syllables;
2) words are distributed according to the number of letters;
3) words are distributed by gender.
WORD CAT VASE MOUTH
FEATHER CHALK ROSE TOOTH
BOOK MOUSE HAND CURRENT
KINO MUSHROOM FEATHER FIR etc.
Task 7. "Comparison".
Purpose: to teach the child to compare objects.
Task: what is common and how are they different: 1) ALBUM, NOTEBOOK? 2) TABLE, CHAIR? 3) WINDOW, BLOOD, CLOUD? 4) WHITE MUSHROOM, Amanita?
5) deciduous tree, coniferous tree? 6) WOOD, SHRUBS?
Task 8. "Genus - species".
Purpose: to teach the child to attribute objects to a common generic concept.
Task 8.1. From the list of words, select the names of trees (flowers, vegetables).
Cabbage, maple, birch, bluebell, chamomile, onion, cucumber, ash, aspen, cloves, cornflower, garlic.
Task 8.2. The classification of words by gender was carried out. Choose the correct option from the four proposed: TOWELS, FLOOR, SOAP, CEILING, WALL, FRAME, KNIFE, PORCH, PORCH.
Task 9. "Search for common properties."
Purpose: to teach the child to find connections between objects; introduce him to the essential and non-essential features of objects.
Task: given two words little related to each other. In 10 minutes, you must write as many common features of these items as possible.
DISH, BOAT.
CHALK, FLOUR,
MATRYOSHKA, DESIGNER, etc.
Task 10. "Composing proposals". (Russian language, the world around).
Task: make as many sentences as possible, including these words: BALL, ROCKET, BOOK.
Task 11. "Echo".
Purpose: to develop the child's mental operations of analysis and synthesis.
Task: make new words from these words; questions will help you.
CHAMPION 1) What flower was given to the champion?
COOKING 2) What dish did the cook prepare?
BUCKWHEAT 3) What is the name of the water stream?
CLAMP 4) Where did you throw the clamp?
SEAL 5) Why was the seal caught?
Task 12. "Composing proposals."
Purpose: to develop the child's ability to establish connections between objects and phenomena, to think creatively.
Task: make up as many sentences as possible, including the following words: BICYCLE, FLOWER, SKY.
TABLE, APRON, BOOTS
List of sources used
Anufriev A.F., Kostromina S.N. How to overcome difficulties in teaching children. Psychodiagnostic tables. Psychodiagnostic methods. corrective exercises. - 3rd ed., revised. And additional - M .: Publishing house "Os-89", 2003.
Zhadko E.G., Shirokova G.A. Workshop for a child psychologist - Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 2004.
Zaika E.V. A complex of intellectual games for the development of students' thinking. // Issues of psychology, 1990, No. 6.
Zyablitseva M.A. The development of memory and imagination in children. Games and exercises - Rostov n / a: "Phoenix", 2013
Karabanova O.A. A game in the correction of the mental development of the child. - M., 1997.
Sapogova E.E. Psychology of Human Development: Textbook. Moscow: Aspect Press Publishing House, 2012
Yakovleva N.Ya. Psychological assistance to preschoolers. - St. Petersburg; "Valery SPD", 2012
"Collection of game lessons on the development of memory, attention, thinking and imagination in younger students." T.P. Zavyalova, I.V. Starodubtseva. Moscow. Publishing house "Arkti".
Education and upbringing of children in an auxiliary school: A manual for teachers and students of defectological faculties of pedagogical institutes / edited by V.V. Voronkova - M.: School-Press, 2013
Strebeleva E.A. Formation of thinking in mentally retarded preschoolers. // Defectology. - 1994. No. 5
Lebedinsky V.V. Disorders of mental development in children: Textbook. - M .: Publishing house of Moscow University, 1985
Experimental work was carried out on the basis of MDOU No. 7, which consisted of three stages:
Sh ascertaining
Sh forming
Ш control
For experimental work, children of senior preschool age were selected in the amount of 7 people, approximately the same level of development, on the recommendation of a psychologist and educator of the group:
List of children in the experimental group.
The purpose of the ascertaining stage was to establish the level of formation of the operations of logical thinking of children of senior preschool age.
The main tasks of the ascertaining stage were:
1. Select criteria for assessing the level of formation of operations of logical thinking in children of senior preschool age.
2. To select methods for determining the level of formation of operations of logical thinking in children of senior preschool age.
3. Reveal the level of formation of operations of logical thinking.
N. N. Poddyakov pointed out that the criteria for the formation of operations of logical thinking are the operations themselves: analysis, synthesis, comparison, classification and generalization.
Indicators:
Ш analysis - is the ability to isolate parts from the whole;
Ш synthesis - the ability to combine parts, properties and actions into a single whole;
Ш comparison - the ability to establish similarities and differences between objects, phenomena, signs;
Ш generalization - the ability to combine objects and phenomena according to their essential properties;
III classification - the ability to distribute objects into groups.
Examination of the level of formation of operations of logical thinking was carried out individually with each child.
Methodology "NON-BELIEVERS"
Purpose: to determine the level of formation of analysis as an operation of logical thinking. With the help of the same technique, the child's ability to reason logically and grammatically correctly express his thoughts is determined.
Carrying out the technique:
First, the child is shown a picture (see Appendix No. 1). There are several ridiculous situations with animals in it. While looking at the picture, the child receives instructions with the following content: “Look carefully at this picture and say if everything here is in its place and drawn correctly. If something seems wrong to you, out of place or incorrectly drawn. Then point it out and explain why this one is wrong. Then you will have to say how it really should be.
Note. Both parts of the instruction are executed sequentially. At first, the child simply names all the absurdities and points them out in the picture, and then explains how it really should be. The exposure time of the picture and the execution of the task is limited to three minutes. During this time, the child should notice as many ridiculous situations as possible and explain what is wrong, why it is wrong and how it should really be.
Methodology "SEASONS"
Purpose: to determine the level of formation of synthesis as an operation of logical thinking.
Carrying out the technique:
The child is shown a picture (see Appendix No. 2) and is asked to carefully look at this picture, to say what season is shown on each part of this picture. For the time allotted for this task - 2 minutes - the child will have to not only name the corresponding season, but also justify his opinion about it, that is, explain why he thinks so, indicate those signs that, in his opinion, indicate that that this part of the picture shows it, and not some other time of the year.
Method "FIND THE DIFFERENCE"
Purpose: To determine the level of formation of comparison as an operation of logical thinking.
The child is shown 2 pictures (see Appendix No. 3), which at first glance are the same, but in which there are significant differences (15 differences). During 3 minutes, the child must find as many differences as possible, name and show them.
Methodology "WHAT IS EXTRA HERE?"
Purpose: to determine the level of formation of generalization as an operation of logical thinking.
Carrying out the technique:
In this technique, a series of pictures (see Appendix No. 4) is proposed, in which various objects are presented, accompanied by the following instruction: “In each of these pictures, one of the four objects depicted on it is superfluous. Look carefully at the pictures and determine which item and why is superfluous. You have 3 minutes to solve the problem.
Method "DIVIDE INTO GROUPS"
The child is shown a picture (Appendix No. 5) and is offered the following task: “Look carefully at the picture and divide the figures presented on it into as many groups as possible. Each such group should include figures distinguished by one feature common to them. Name all the figures included in each of the distinguished groups, and the sign by which they are distinguished. You have 3 minutes to complete the entire task.
The children's performance of the proposed tasks was assessed on a ten-point system, where
8-10 - high level
5-7 - average level
0-4 - low level
Table No. 1
Levels and criteria for the formation of operations of logical thinking in children
|
Criteria |
||||||
|
Comparison |
Generalization |
Classification |
||||
|
In the allotted time (3 min), the child noticed all 7 absurdities and managed to explain 5-7 absurdities, as it should be in reality |
In the allotted time, the child correctly named and connected all the pictures with the season, naming 6-10 signs |
In the allotted time (3 minutes) I found 12-15 differences, named and showed |
The child solved the task in time from 1 to 1.5 minutes, naming an extra object in all the pictures and correctly explaining why they are superfluous |
The child identified all groups of figures in up to 2.5 minutes |
||
|
The child noticed and noted all the existing absurdities, but did not have time to explain 4-6 absurdities and say how it should really be |
The child correctly identified the seasons in all the pictures, but indicated only 1-5 signs confirming his opinion |
In the allotted time I found 8-10 differences |
The child coped with the task from 1.5 to 2.5 minutes |
The child identified 7-9 groups of figures in 2.5 to 3 minutes |
||
|
During the allotted time, the child managed to discover less than 4 absurdities, without explaining a single one. |
The child correctly identified the seasons in less than 3 pictures and did not name a single sign |
Found less than 8 differences in the allotted time |
The child solved the problem in more than 3 minutes, or did not cope at all |
Selected less than 5 groups of shapes in 3 minutes |
During the survey, it was important to arouse the interest of each child in this activity, to attract and concentrate attention on a specific task. For this, game techniques were used, an individual approach to each child. The children willingly completed the proposed tasks, but not all the tasks were performed by the children with the same interest. For example, most of the children reacted with great pleasure to the task "Nonsense". Perhaps the increased interest in the task was reflected in the results of the ascertaining stage of the survey, this task gave the highest score. Some children reacted with great interest to the Find the Differences task, which made it possible to complete it quite quickly. With the task of determining the level of formation of the operation of generalization and classification, the children experienced difficulties, as a rule, this was due to the fact that the children were not familiar with some of the presented subjects. Danila K. coped with the proposed tasks more successfully than the others, this was due to the fact that he was more proactive and attentive. The lowest result, in almost all types of tasks, was shown by Angelina O., a very shy and shy child.
The conducted studies showed the levels of formation of logical thinking operations in children, which are displayed in table No. 2.
Table number 2
Levels of formation of operations of logical thinking
|
comparison |
generalization |
classification |
GPA |
||||
|
Nikita I. |
|||||||
|
Angelina O. |
|||||||
Studies have shown that at a high level there is 1 child, at an average level - 2 children, at a low level - 4 children.
The results of the ascertaining stage show differences in the levels of formation of each operation. Generalization and classification operations are at a lower level in relation to other operations. The results of the ascertaining stage indicate the need for a formative stage of experimental work.
