If you suddenly realized that you have forgotten the basics and postulates of quantum mechanics or do not know what kind of mechanics it is, then it's time to refresh this information in your memory. After all, no one knows when quantum mechanics can come in handy in life.

In vain you grin and sneer, thinking that you will never have to deal with this subject in your life at all. After all, quantum mechanics can be useful to almost every person, even those who are infinitely far from it. For example, you have insomnia. For quantum mechanics, this is not a problem! Read a textbook before going to bed - and you sleep soundly on the third page already. Or you can name your cool rock band that way. Why not?

Joking aside, let's start a serious quantum conversation.

Where to begin? Of course, from what a quantum is.

Quantum

A quantum (from the Latin quantum - “how much”) is an indivisible portion of some physical quantity. For example, they say - a quantum of light, a quantum of energy or a field quantum.

What does it mean? This means that it simply cannot be less. When they say that some value is quantized, they understand that this value takes on a number of specific, discrete values. So, the energy of an electron in an atom is quantized, light propagates in "portions", that is, quanta.

The term "quantum" itself has many uses. A quantum of light (electromagnetic field) is a photon. By analogy, particles or quasi-particles corresponding to other fields of interaction are called quanta. Here we can recall the famous Higgs boson, which is a quantum of the Higgs field. But we do not climb into these jungles yet.

Quantum mechanics for dummies

How can mechanics be quantum?

As you have already noticed, in our conversation we have mentioned particles many times. Perhaps you are used to the fact that light is a wave that simply propagates at a speed With . But if you look at everything from the point of view of the quantum world, that is, the world of particles, everything changes beyond recognition.

Quantum mechanics is a branch of theoretical physics, a component of quantum theory that describes physical phenomena at the most elementary level - the level of particles.

The effect of such phenomena is comparable in magnitude to Planck's constant, and Newton's classical mechanics and electrodynamics turned out to be completely unsuitable for their description. For example, according to the classical theory, an electron, rotating at high speed around the nucleus, must radiate energy and eventually fall onto the nucleus. This, as you know, does not happen. That is why they came up with quantum mechanics - the discovered phenomena needed to be explained somehow, and it turned out to be exactly the theory in which the explanation was the most acceptable, and all the experimental data "converged".

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A bit of history

The birth of quantum theory took place in 1900, when Max Planck spoke at a meeting of the German Physical Society. What did Planck say then? And the fact that the radiation of atoms is discrete, and the smallest portion of the energy of this radiation is equal to

Where h is Planck's constant, nu is the frequency.

Then Albert Einstein, introducing the concept of “light quantum”, used Planck's hypothesis to explain the photoelectric effect. Niels Bohr postulated the existence of stationary energy levels in an atom, and Louis de Broglie developed the idea of ​​wave-particle duality, that is, that a particle (corpuscle) also has wave properties. Schrödinger and Heisenberg joined the cause, and so, in 1925, the first formulation of quantum mechanics was published. Actually, quantum mechanics is far from a complete theory; it is actively developing at the present time. It should also be recognized that quantum mechanics, with its assumptions, is unable to explain all the questions it faces. It is quite possible that a more perfect theory will come to replace it.

In the transition from the quantum world to the world of familiar things, the laws of quantum mechanics are naturally transformed into the laws of classical mechanics. We can say that classical mechanics is a special case of quantum mechanics, when the action takes place in our familiar and familiar macrocosm. Here, the bodies move quietly in non-inertial frames of reference at a speed much lower than the speed of light, and in general - everything around is calm and understandable. If you want to know the position of the body in the coordinate system - no problem, if you want to measure the momentum - you are always welcome.

Quantum mechanics has a completely different approach to the question. In it, the results of measurements of physical quantities are of a probabilistic nature. This means that when a value changes, several outcomes are possible, each of which corresponds to a certain probability. Let's give an example: a coin is spinning on a table. While it is spinning, it is not in any particular state (heads-tails), but only has the probability of being in one of these states.

Here we are slowly approaching Schrödinger equation and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.

According to legend, Erwin Schrödinger, speaking at a scientific seminar in 1926 with a report on wave-particle duality, was criticized by a certain senior scientist. Refusing to listen to the elders, after this incident, Schrödinger actively engaged in the development of the wave equation for describing particles in the framework of quantum mechanics. And he did brilliantly! The Schrödinger equation (the basic equation of quantum mechanics) has the form:

This type of equation, the one-dimensional stationary Schrödinger equation, is the simplest.

Here x is the distance or coordinate of the particle, m is the mass of the particle, E and U are its total and potential energies, respectively. The solution to this equation is the wave function (psi)

The wave function is another fundamental concept in quantum mechanics. So, any quantum system that is in some state has a wave function that describes this state.

For example, when solving the one-dimensional stationary Schrödinger equation, the wave function describes the position of the particle in space. More precisely, the probability of finding a particle at a certain point in space. In other words, Schrödinger showed that probability can be described by a wave equation! Agree, this should have been thought of!

But why? Why do we have to deal with these incomprehensible probabilities and wave functions, when, it would seem, there is nothing easier than just taking and measuring the distance to a particle or its speed.

Everything is very simple! Indeed, in the macrocosm this is true - we measure the distance with a tape measure with a certain accuracy, and the measurement error is determined by the characteristics of the device. On the other hand, we can almost accurately determine the distance to an object, for example, to a table, by eye. In any case, we accurately differentiate its position in the room relative to us and other objects. In the world of particles, the situation is fundamentally different - we simply do not physically have measurement tools to measure the required quantities with accuracy. After all, the measurement tool comes into direct contact with the measured object, and in our case both the object and the tool are particles. It is this imperfection, the fundamental impossibility to take into account all the factors acting on a particle, as well as the very fact of a change in the state of the system under the influence of measurement, that underlie the Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

Let us present its simplest formulation. Imagine that there is some particle, and we want to know its speed and coordinate.

In this context, the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that it is impossible to accurately measure the position and velocity of a particle at the same time. . Mathematically, this is written like this:

Here delta x is the error in determining the coordinate, delta v is the error in determining the speed. We emphasize that this principle says that the more accurately we determine the coordinate, the less accurately we will know the speed. And if we define the speed, we will not have the slightest idea about where the particle is.

There are many jokes and anecdotes about the uncertainty principle. Here is one of them:

A policeman stops a quantum physicist.
- Sir, do you know how fast you were moving?
- No, but I know exactly where I am.

And, of course, we remind you! If suddenly, for some reason, the solution of the Schrödinger equation for a particle in a potential well does not allow you to fall asleep, please contact our authors– professionals who were brought up with quantum mechanics on their lips!

No one in this world understands what quantum mechanics is. This is perhaps the most important thing to know about her. Of course, many physicists have learned to use the laws and even predict phenomena based on quantum computing. But it is still unclear why the observer of the experiment determines the behavior of the system and forces it to take one of two states.

Here are some examples of experiments with results that will inevitably change under the influence of the observer. They show that quantum mechanics practically deals with the intervention of conscious thought in material reality.

There are many interpretations of quantum mechanics today, but the Copenhagen interpretation is perhaps the best known. In the 1920s, its general postulates were formulated by Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg.

The basis of the Copenhagen interpretation was the wave function. This is a mathematical function containing information about all possible states of a quantum system in which it exists simultaneously. According to the Copenhagen Interpretation, the state of a system and its position relative to other states can only be determined by observation (the wave function is only used to mathematically calculate the probability of the system being in one state or another).

It can be said that after observation, a quantum system becomes classical and immediately ceases to exist in states other than the one in which it was observed. Such a conclusion found its opponents (remember the famous Einstein's "God does not play dice"), but the accuracy of calculations and predictions still had their own.

Nevertheless, the number of supporters of the Copenhagen interpretation is declining, and the main reason for this is the mysterious instantaneous collapse of the wave function during the experiment. Erwin Schrödinger's famous thought experiment with a poor cat should demonstrate the absurdity of this phenomenon. Let's remember the details.

Inside the black box sits a black cat and with it a vial of poison and a mechanism that can release the poison randomly. For example, a radioactive atom during decay can break a bubble. The exact time of the decay of the atom is unknown. Only the half-life is known, during which decay occurs with a probability of 50%.

Obviously, for an external observer, the cat inside the box is in two states: it is either alive, if everything went well, or dead, if the decay has occurred and the vial has broken. Both of these states are described by the cat's wave function, which changes over time.

The more time has passed, the more likely it is that radioactive decay has occurred. But as soon as we open the box, the wave function collapses and we immediately see the results of this inhumane experiment.

In fact, until the observer opens the box, the cat will endlessly balance between life and death, or be both alive and dead. Its fate can only be determined as a result of the observer's actions. This absurdity was pointed out by Schrödinger.

According to a survey of famous physicists by The New York Times, the electron diffraction experiment is one of the most amazing studies in the history of science. What is its nature? There is a source that emits a beam of electrons onto a photosensitive screen. And there is an obstacle in the way of these electrons, a copper plate with two slots.

What picture can we expect on the screen if electrons are usually represented to us as small charged balls? Two stripes opposite the slots in the copper plate. But in fact, a much more complex pattern of alternating white and black stripes appears on the screen. This is due to the fact that when passing through the slit, electrons begin to behave not only as particles, but also as waves (photons or other light particles that can be a wave at the same time behave in the same way).

These waves interact in space, colliding and reinforcing each other, and as a result, a complex pattern of alternating light and dark stripes is displayed on the screen. At the same time, the result of this experiment does not change, even if the electrons pass one by one - even one particle can be a wave and pass through two slits at the same time. This postulate was one of the main ones in the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics, when particles can simultaneously demonstrate their "ordinary" physical properties and exotic properties like a wave.

But what about the observer? It is he who makes this confusing story even more confusing. When physicists in experiments like this tried to use instruments to determine which slit an electron was actually going through, the picture on the screen changed dramatically and became “classical”: with two illuminated sections directly opposite the slits, without any alternating stripes.

The electrons seemed reluctant to reveal their wave nature to the watchful eye of onlookers. It looks like a mystery shrouded in darkness. But there is a simpler explanation: the observation of the system cannot be carried out without physical influence on it. We will discuss this later.

2. Heated fullerenes

Experiments on particle diffraction were carried out not only with electrons, but also with other, much larger objects. For example, fullerenes were used, large and closed molecules consisting of several tens of carbon atoms. Recently, a group of scientists from the University of Vienna, led by Professor Zeilinger, tried to include an element of observation in these experiments. To do this, they irradiated moving fullerene molecules with laser beams. Then, heated by an external source, the molecules began to glow and inevitably reflect their presence to the observer.

Along with this innovation, the behavior of molecules has also changed. Prior to such a comprehensive observation, fullerenes avoided an obstacle quite successfully (exhibiting wave properties), similar to the previous example with electrons hitting a screen. But with the presence of an observer, fullerenes began to behave like perfectly law-abiding physical particles.

3. Cooling measurement

One of the most famous laws in the world of quantum physics is the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, according to which it is impossible to determine the speed and position of a quantum object at the same time. The more accurately we measure the momentum of a particle, the less accurately we can measure its position. However, in our macroscopic real world, the validity of quantum laws acting on tiny particles usually goes unnoticed.

Recent experiments by Prof. Schwab from the USA make a very valuable contribution to this area. Quantum effects in these experiments were demonstrated not at the level of electrons or fullerene molecules (which have an approximate diameter of 1 nm), but on larger objects, a tiny aluminum ribbon. This tape was fixed on both sides so that its middle was in a suspended state and could vibrate under external influence. In addition, a device capable of accurately recording the position of the tape was placed nearby. As a result of the experiment, several interesting things were discovered. Firstly, any measurement related to the position of the object and observation of the tape affected it, after each measurement the position of the tape changed.

The experimenters determined the coordinates of the tape with high accuracy, and thus, in accordance with the Heisenberg principle, changed its speed, and hence the subsequent position. Secondly, and quite unexpectedly, some measurements led to a cooling of the tape. Thus, an observer can change the physical characteristics of objects by their mere presence.

4. Freezing particles

As you know, unstable radioactive particles decay not only in experiments with cats, but also on their own. Each particle has an average lifetime, which, as it turns out, can increase under the watchful eye of an observer. This quantum effect was predicted back in the 60s, and its brilliant experimental proof appeared in a paper published by a group led by Nobel laureate in physics Wolfgang Ketterle of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

In this work, the decay of unstable excited rubidium atoms was studied. Immediately after the preparation of the system, the atoms were excited using a laser beam. The observation took place in two modes: continuous (the system was constantly exposed to small light pulses) and pulsed (the system was irradiated from time to time with more powerful pulses).

The results obtained were in full agreement with the theoretical predictions. External light effects slow down the decay of particles, returning them to their original state, which is far from the state of decay. The magnitude of this effect also coincided with the predictions. The maximum lifetime of unstable excited rubidium atoms increased by a factor of 30.

5. Quantum mechanics and consciousness

Electrons and fullerenes cease to show their wave properties, aluminum plates cool down, and unstable particles slow down their decay. The watchful eye of the beholder literally changes the world. Why can't this be evidence of the involvement of our minds in the work of the world? Perhaps Carl Jung and Wolfgang Pauli (Austrian physicist, Nobel laureate, pioneer of quantum mechanics) were right, after all, when they said that the laws of physics and consciousness should be considered as complementary to each other?

We are one step away from recognizing that the world around us is simply an illusory product of our mind. The idea is scary and tempting. Let's try to turn to physicists again. Especially in recent years, when fewer and fewer people believe the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics with its mysterious wavefunction collapses, turning to a more mundane and reliable decoherence.

The fact is that in all these experiments with observations, the experimenters inevitably influenced the system. They lit it with a laser and installed measuring instruments. They were united by an important principle: you cannot observe a system or measure its properties without interacting with it. Any interaction is a process of modifying properties. Especially when a tiny quantum system is exposed to colossal quantum objects. Some eternally neutral Buddhist observer is impossible in principle. And here the term “decoherence” comes into play, which is irreversible from the point of view of thermodynamics: the quantum properties of a system change when interacting with another large system.

During this interaction, the quantum system loses its original properties and becomes classical, as if "obeying" a large system. This also explains the paradox of Schrödinger's cat: the cat is too big a system, so it cannot be isolated from the rest of the world. The very design of this thought experiment is not entirely correct.

In any case, if we assume the reality of the act of creation by consciousness, decoherence seems to be a much more convenient approach. Perhaps even too convenient. With this approach, the entire classical world becomes one big consequence of decoherence. And as the author of one of the most famous books in the field stated, this approach logically leads to statements like "there are no particles in the world" or "there is no time at a fundamental level."

What is the truth: in the creator-observer or powerful decoherence? We need to choose between two evils. Nevertheless, scientists are increasingly convinced that quantum effects are a manifestation of our mental processes. And where observation ends and reality begins depends on each of us.

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PHYSICS. 1. The subject and structure of physics F. the science that studies the simplest and at the same time the most. general properties and laws of motion of the objects of the material world surrounding us. As a result of this generality, there are no natural phenomena that do not have physical. properties... Physical Encyclopedia

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By definition, Quantum physics is a branch of theoretical physics that studies quantum-mechanical and quantum-field systems and the laws of their motion. The basic laws of quantum physics are studied within the framework of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory and are applied in other branches of physics. Quantum physics and its main theories - quantum mechanics, quantum field theory - were created in the first half of the 20th century by many scientists, including Max Planck, Albert Einstein, Arthur Compton, Louis de Broglie, Niels Bohr, Erwin Schrödinger, Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli .Quantum physics combines several branches of physics, in which the phenomena of quantum mechanics and quantum field theory play a fundamental role, manifesting themselves at the level of the microcosm, but also having (importantly) consequences at the level of the macrocosm.

These include:

quantum mechanics;

quantum field theory - and its applications: nuclear physics, elementary particle physics, high energy physics;

quantum statistical physics;

quantum theory of condensed matter;

quantum theory of a solid body;

quantum optics.

The very term Quantum (from Latin quantum - “how much”) is an indivisible portion of any quantity in physics. The concept is based on the idea of ​​quantum mechanics that some physical quantities can only take on certain values ​​(they say that a physical quantity is quantized). In some important special cases, this value or the step of its change can only be integer multiples of some fundamental value - and the latter is called a quantum.

The quanta of some fields have special names:

photon - electromagnetic field quantum;

gluon - a quantum of a vector (gluon) field in quantum chromodynamics (provides strong interaction);

graviton - a hypothetical quantum of the gravitational field;

phonon - quantum of vibrational motion of crystal atoms.

In general, Quantization is a procedure for constructing something using a discrete set of quantities, for example, integers,

as opposed to constructing using a continuous set of quantities, such as real numbers.

In physics:

Quantization - construction of a quantum version of some non-quantum (classical) theory or physical model

according to the facts of quantum physics.

Feynman quantization - quantization in terms of functional integrals.

Second quantization is a method for describing multiparticle quantum mechanical systems.

Dirac quantization

Geometric quantization

In computer science and electronics:

Quantization is the division of a range of values ​​of a certain quantity into a finite number of intervals.

Quantization noise - errors that occur when digitizing an analog signal.

In music:

Note quantization - moving notes to the nearest beats in the sequencer.

It should be noted that, despite a number of certain successes in describing the nature of many phenomena and processes occurring in the world around us, today quantum physics, together with the entire complex of its subdisciplines, is not an integral, complete concept, and although it was initially understood that it was within the framework of quantum physics, a single integral, consistent and explaining all known phenomena discipline will be built, today it is not such, for example, quantum physics is not able to explain the principles and present a working model of gravity, although no one doubts that gravity is one of the fundamental basic laws of the universe, and the impossibility of explaining it from the point of view of quantum approaches only says that they are imperfect, and are not a complete and final truth in the last resort.

Moreover, within quantum physics itself there are different currents and directions, representatives of each of which offer their own explanations for phenomenological experiments that do not have an unambiguous interpretation. Within quantum physics itself, the scientists representing it do not have a common opinion and common understanding, often their interpretations and explanations of the same phenomena are even opposite to each other. And the reader should understand that quantum physics itself is only an intermediate concept, a set of methods, approaches and algorithms that make it up, and it may well turn out that after a while a much more complete, perfect and consistent concept will be developed, with other approaches and other methods. Nevertheless, the reader will certainly be interested in the main phenomena that are the subject of study of quantum physics, and which, when the models explaining them are combined into a single system, may well become the basis for a completely new scientific paradigm. So here are the events:

1. Corpuscular-wave dualism.

Initially, it was assumed that wave-particle duality is characteristic only for photons of light, which in some cases

behave like a stream of particles, and in others like waves. But many experiments of quantum physics have shown that this behavior is characteristic not only for photons, but also for any particles, including those that make up physically dense matter. One of the most famous experiments in this area is the experiment with two slits, when a stream of electrons was directed onto a plate in which there were two parallel narrow slits, behind the plate there was an electron-impervious screen on which it was possible to see exactly what patterns appeared on it. from electrons. And in some cases, this picture consisted of two parallel strips, the same as two slots on the plate in front of the screen, which characterized the behavior of the electron beam, sort of like a stream of small balls, but in other cases, a pattern was formed on the screen that is characteristic of wave interference (many parallel stripes, with the thickest in the center, and thinner at the edges). When trying to investigate the process in more detail, it turned out that one electron can both pass through only one slit, and through two slits at the same time, which is completely excluded if the electron were only a solid particle. In fact, at present there is already a point of view, although not proven, but apparently very close to the truth, and of tremendous importance from the point of view of the worldview, that the electron is in fact neither a wave nor a particle, but is interweaving of primary energies, or matters, twisted together and circulating in a certain orbit, and in some cases demonstrating the properties of a wave. and in some, the properties of the particle.

Many ordinary people understand very poorly, but what is the electron cloud surrounding the atom, which was described in

school, well, what is it, a cloud of electrons, that is, that there are a lot of them, these electrons, no, not like that, the cloud is the same electron,

it’s just that it’s sort of smeared in orbit, like a drop, and when trying to determine its exact location, you always have to use

probabilistic approaches, since, although a huge number of experiments have been carried out, it has never been possible to establish exactly where the electron is in orbit at a given moment in time, it can only be determined with a certain probability. And this is all for the same reason that the electron is not a solid particle, and depicting it, as in school textbooks, as a solid ball circling in orbit, is fundamentally wrong and forms in children an erroneous idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhow things actually happen in nature. processes at the micro level, everywhere around us, including in ourselves.

2. The relationship between the observed and the observer, the influence of the observer on the observed.

In the same experiments with a plate with two slits and a screen, and in similar ones, it was unexpectedly found that the behavior of electrons as a wave and as a particle was in a completely measurable dependence on whether a direct scientist-observer was present in the experiment or not, and if was present, what expectations did he have from the results of the experiment!

When the observing scientist expected the electrons to behave like particles, they behaved like particles, but when the scientist who expected to behave like waves took his place, the electrons behaved like a stream of waves! The expectation of the observer directly affects the result of the experiment, although not in all cases, but in a completely measurable percentage of experiments! It is important, very important to understand that the observed experiment and the observer himself are not something separated from each other, but are part of one single system, no matter what walls stand between them. It is extremely important to realize that the whole process of our life is a continuous and unceasing observation,

for other people, phenomena and objects, and for oneself. And although the expectation of the observable does not always accurately determine the result of the action,

besides this, there are many other factors, however, the influence of this is very noticeable.

Let's remember how many times in our lives there have been situations when a person does some business, another approaches him and begins to carefully observe him, and at that moment this person either makes a mistake or some involuntary action. And many are familiar with this elusive feeling, when you do some action, they begin to carefully observe you, and as a result, you stop being able to do this action, although you did it quite successfully before the appearance of the observer.

And now let's remember that most people are educated and raised, both in schools and in institutes, that everything around, and physically dense matter, and all objects, and ourselves, consist of atoms, and atoms consist of nuclei and revolving around them. electrons, and the nuclei are protons and neutrons, and all these are such hard balls that are interconnected by different types of chemical bonds, and it is the types of these bonds that determine the nature and properties of matter. And about the possible behavior of particles from the point of view of waves, and hence all the objects of which these particles are composed, and ourselves,

nobody speaks! Most do not know this, do not believe in it and do not use it! That is, it expects behavior from the surrounding objects precisely as a set of solid particles. Well, they behave and behave like a set of particles in different combinations. Almost no one expects the behavior of an object made of physically dense matter, like a stream of waves, it seems impossible to common sense, although there are no fundamental obstacles to this, and all because incorrect and erroneous models and understanding of the surrounding world are laid in people from childhood, as a result When a person grows up, he does not use these opportunities, he does not even know that they exist. How can you use what you don't know. And since there are billions of such unbelieving and ignorant people on the planet, it is quite possible that the totality of the social consciousness of all the people of the earth, as a kind of average for a hospital, defines the default arrangement of the world around as a set of particles, building blocks, and nothing more (after all according to one of the models, the whole of humanity is a huge collection of observers).

3. Quantum nonlocality and quantum entanglement.

One of the cornerstone and defining concepts of quantum physics is quantum nonlocality and quantum entanglement directly related to it, or quantum entanglement, which is basically the same thing. Striking examples of quantum entanglement are, for example, the experiments carried out by Alain Aspect, in which the polarization of photons emitted by the same source and received by two different receivers was carried out. And it turned out that if you change the polarization (spin orientation) of one photon, the polarization of the second photon changes at the same time, and vice versa, and this change in polarization occurs instantly, regardless of the distance at which these photons are from each other. It looks as if two photons emitted by one source are interconnected, although there is no obvious spatial connection between them, and a change in the parameters of one photon instantly leads to a change in the parameters of another photon. It is important to understand that the phenomenon of quantum entanglement, or entanglement, is true not only for the micro, but also for the macro level.

One of the first demonstrative experiments in this area was the experiment of Russian (then still Soviet) torsion physicists.

The scheme of the experiment was as follows: they took a piece of the most ordinary brown coal mined in mines for burning in boiler houses, and sawed it into 2 parts. Since mankind has been familiar with coal for a very long time, it is a very well-studied object, both in terms of its physical and chemical properties, molecular bonds, heat released during combustion per unit volume, and so on. So, one piece of this coal remained in the laboratory in Kyiv, the second piece of coal was taken to the laboratory in Krakow. Each of these pieces, in turn, was cut into 2 identical parts, the result was - 2 identical pieces of the same coal were in Kyiv, and 2 identical pieces were in Krakow. Then they took one piece each in Kyiv and Krakow, and simultaneously burned both of them, and measured the amount of heat released during combustion. It turned out to be about the same, as expected. Then, a piece of coal in Kyiv was irradiated with a torsion generator (the one in Krakow was not irradiated with anything), and again both of these pieces were burned. And this time both of these pieces gave the effect of about 15% more heat when burned than when burning the first two pieces. The increase in heat release during the combustion of coal in Kyiv was understandable, because it was affected by radiation, as a result, its physical structure changed, which caused an increase in heat release during combustion by about 15%. But that piece, which was in Krakow, also increased heat release by 15%, although it was not irradiated with anything! This piece of coal also changed its physical properties, although it was not it that was irradiated, but another piece (with which they were once part of one whole, which is a fundamentally important point for understanding the essence), and the distance of 2000 km between these pieces was absolutely not obstacle, changes in the structure of both pieces of coal occurred instantly, which was established by repeated repetition of the experiment. But you need to understand that this process is not necessarily true only for coal, you can use any other material, and the effect, quite expectedly, will be exactly the same!

That is, quantum entanglement and quantum non-locality are also valid in the macroscopic world, and not only in the microcosm of elementary particles - in general, this is quite true, because all macro-objects consist of these very elementary particles!

In fairness, it should be noted that torsion physicists considered many quantum phenomena to be a manifestation of torsion fields, and some quantum physicists, on the contrary, considered torsion fields to be a special case of manifestation of quantum effects. Which, in general, is not surprising, because both of them study and explore the same world around, with the same universal laws, both at the micro and at the macro level,

and let them use different approaches and different terminology when explaining phenomena, the essence is still the same.

But is this phenomenon valid only for inanimate objects, what is the situation with living organisms, is it possible to detect similar effects there?

It turned out that yes, and one of those who proved it was the American doctor Cleve Baxter. Initially, this scientist specialized in testing a polygraph, that is, a device, a lie detector, used to interrogate subjects in the CIA laboratories. A number of successful experiments were carried out to register and establish different emotional states among the interrogated, depending on the polygraph readings, and effective techniques were developed, which are still used today for interrogations through a lie detector. Over time, the doctor's interests expanded, and he began experiments with plants and animals. Among a number of very interesting results, one should be singled out, which is directly related to quantum entanglement and quantum nonlocality, namely the following - living cells were taken from the participant of the experiment from the mouth and placed in a test tube (it is known that the cells taken for the sample

people live for a few more hours), this test tube was connected to a polygraph. Then the person from whom this sample was taken traveled several tens or even hundreds of kilometers, and experienced various stressful situations there. Over the years of research, Cleve Baxter has studied well which polygraph readings corresponded to certain stressful human conditions. A strict protocol was kept, where the time of getting into stressful situations was clearly recorded, and a protocol was also kept for recording the readings of a polygraph connected to a test tube with still living cells. synchrony between a person entering a stressful situation and an almost simultaneous reaction of cells in the form of corresponding polygraph graphs! That is, although the cells taken from a person for testing and the person himself were separated in space, there was still a connection between them, and a change in emotional and a person's mental state was almost immediately reflected in the reaction of the cells in the test tube.

The result was repeated many times, there were attempts to install lead screens in order to isolate the test tube with a polygraph, but this did not help,

all the same, even behind the lead screen there was an almost synchronous registration of changes in states.

That is, quantum entanglement and quantum non-locality are true for both inanimate and living nature, moreover, this is a completely natural natural phenomenon that occurs all around us! I think that many readers are interested, and even more than that, is it possible to travel not only in space, but also in time, maybe there are some experiments confirming this, and probably quantum entanglement and quantum nonlocality can help here? It turned out that such experiments exist! One of them was carried out by the famous Soviet astrophysicist Nikolai Aleksandrovich Kozyrev, and it consisted in the following. Everyone knows that the position of the star that we see in the sky is not true, because over the thousands of years that the light flies from the star to us, she herself has already shifted during this time, to a completely measurable distance. Knowing the calculated trajectory of a star, one can guess where it should be now, and moreover, one can calculate where it should be in the future at the next time (in a time period equal to the time it takes for light to travel from us to this star), if we approximate the trajectory of its movement. And with the help of a telescope of a special design (reflex telescope), it was confirmed that not only there is a type of signals,

propagating through the universe almost instantly, regardless of the distance of thousands of light years (in fact, "smearing" in space, like an electron in orbit), but it is also possible to register a signal from the future position of the star, that is, the position in which it is not yet, She won't be there anytime soon! And it is at this calculated point of the trajectory. Here the assumption inevitably arises that, like an electron "smeared" along the orbit, and being essentially a quantum-non-local object, a star rotating around the center of the galaxy, like an electron around the nucleus of an atom, also has some similar properties. And also, this experiment proves the possibility of transmitting signals not only in space, but also in time. This experiment is quite actively discredited in the media,

with the attribution of mythical and mystical properties to it, but it should be noted that it was also repeated after the death of Kozyrev at two different laboratory bases, by two independent groups of scientists, one in Novosibirsk (led by Academician Lavrentiev), and the second in Ukraine, by the Kukoch research group , moreover, on different stars, and everywhere the same results were obtained, confirming Kozyrev's research! In fairness, it is worth noting that both in electrical engineering and in radio engineering there are cases when, under certain conditions, the signal is received by the receiver a few moments before it was emitted by the source. This fact, as a rule, was ignored and taken as a mistake, and unfortunately, often, it seems that scientists simply did not have the courage to call black black and white white, just because it is allegedly impossible and cannot be.

Have there been other similar experiments that would confirm this conclusion? It turns out that they were Doctor of Medical Sciences, Academician Vlail Petrovich Kaznacheev. Operators were trained, one of which was located in Novosibirsk, and the second - in the north, on Dikson. A system of symbols was developed, well learned and assimilated by both operators. At the specified time, with the help of Kozyrev's mirrors, a signal was transmitted from one operator to another, and the receiving party did not know in advance which of the characters would be sent. A strict protocol was kept, which recorded the time of sending and receiving characters. And after checking the protocols, it turned out that some characters were received almost simultaneously with sending, some were received late, which seems to be possible and quite natural, but some characters were accepted by the operator BEFORE they were sent! That is, in fact, they were sent from the future to the past. These experiments still do not have a strictly official scientific explanation, but it is obvious that they are of the same nature. Based on them, it can be assumed with a sufficient degree of accuracy that quantum entanglement and quantum nonlocality are not only possible, but also exist not only in space, but also in time!

Physics is the most mysterious of all sciences. Physics gives us an understanding of the world around us. The laws of physics are absolute and apply to everyone without exception, regardless of person and social status.

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Fundamental discoveries in quantum physics

Isaac Newton, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein and many others are the great guides of mankind in the wonderful world of physics, who, like prophets, revealed to mankind the greatest secrets of the universe and the ability to control physical phenomena. Their bright heads cut through the darkness of ignorance of the unreasonable majority and, like a guiding star, showed the way to humanity in the darkness of the night. One of these conductors in the world of physics was Max Planck, the father of quantum physics.

Max Planck is not only the founder of quantum physics, but also the author of the world famous quantum theory. Quantum theory is the most important component of quantum physics. In simple terms, this theory describes the movement, behavior and interaction of microparticles. The founder of quantum physics also brought us many other scientific works that have become the cornerstones of modern physics:

• theory of thermal radiation;
• special theory of relativity;
• research in the field of thermodynamics;
• research in the field of optics.

The theory of quantum physics about the behavior and interaction of microparticles became the basis for condensed matter physics, elementary particle physics and high energy physics. Quantum theory explains to us the essence of many phenomena of our world - from the functioning of electronic computers to the structure and behavior of celestial bodies. Max Planck, the creator of this theory, thanks to his discovery allowed us to comprehend the true essence of many things at the level of elementary particles. But the creation of this theory is far from the only merit of the scientist. He was the first to discover the fundamental law of the universe - the law of conservation of energy. The contribution to science of Max Planck is difficult to overestimate. In short, his discoveries are priceless for physics, chemistry, history, methodology and philosophy.

quantum field theory

In a nutshell, quantum field theory is a theory of the description of microparticles, as well as their behavior in space, interaction with each other and mutual transformations. This theory studies the behavior of quantum systems within the so-called degrees of freedom. This beautiful and romantic name says nothing to many of us. For dummies, degrees of freedom are the number of independent coordinates that are needed to indicate the motion of a mechanical system. In simple terms, degrees of freedom are characteristics of motion. Interesting discoveries in the field of interaction of elementary particles were made by Steven Weinberg. He discovered the so-called neutral current - the principle of interaction between quarks and leptons, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1979.

The Quantum Theory of Max Planck

In the nineties of the eighteenth century, the German physicist Max Planck took up the study of thermal radiation and eventually received a formula for the distribution of energy. The quantum hypothesis, which was born in the course of these studies, marked the beginning of quantum physics, as well as quantum field theory, discovered in the 1900th year. Planck's quantum theory is that during thermal radiation, the energy produced is emitted and absorbed not constantly, but episodically, quantumly. The year 1900, thanks to this discovery made by Max Planck, became the year of the birth of quantum mechanics. It is also worth mentioning Planck's formula. In short, its essence is as follows - it is based on the ratio of body temperature and its radiation.

Quantum-mechanical theory of the structure of the atom

The quantum mechanical theory of the structure of the atom is one of the basic theories of concepts in quantum physics, and indeed in physics in general. This theory allows us to understand the structure of everything material and opens the veil of secrecy over what things actually consist of. And the conclusions based on this theory are very unexpected. Consider the structure of the atom briefly. So what is an atom really made of? An atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons. The basis of the atom, its nucleus, contains almost the entire mass of the atom itself - more than 99 percent. The nucleus always has a positive charge, and it determines the chemical element of which the atom is a part. The most interesting thing about the nucleus of an atom is that it contains almost the entire mass of the atom, but at the same time it occupies only one ten-thousandth of its volume. What follows from this? And the conclusion is very unexpected. This means that the dense matter in the atom is only one ten-thousandth. And what about everything else? Everything else in the atom is an electron cloud.

The electron cloud is not a permanent and even, in fact, not a material substance. An electron cloud is just the probability of electrons appearing in an atom. That is, the nucleus occupies only one ten thousandth in the atom, and everything else is emptiness. And if we take into account that all the objects around us, from dust particles to celestial bodies, planets and stars, consist of atoms, it turns out that everything material is actually more than 99 percent of emptiness. This theory seems completely unbelievable, and its author, at least, a deluded person, because the things that exist around have a solid consistency, have weight and can be felt. How can it consist of emptiness? Has a mistake crept into this theory of the structure of matter? But there is no error here.

All material things appear dense only due to the interaction between atoms. Things have a solid and dense consistency only due to attraction or repulsion between atoms. This ensures the density and hardness of the crystal lattice of chemicals, of which everything material consists. But, an interesting point, when changing, for example, the temperature conditions of the environment, the bonds between atoms, that is, their attraction and repulsion, can weaken, which leads to a weakening of the crystal lattice and even to its destruction. This explains the change in the physical properties of substances when heated. For example, when iron is heated, it becomes liquid and can be shaped into any shape. And when ice melts, the destruction of the crystal lattice leads to a change in the state of matter, and it turns from solid to liquid. These are clear examples of the weakening of bonds between atoms and, as a result, the weakening or destruction of the crystal lattice, and allow the substance to become amorphous. And the reason for such mysterious metamorphoses is precisely that substances consist of dense matter only by one ten-thousandth, and everything else is emptiness.

And substances seem to be solid only because of the strong bonds between atoms, with the weakening of which, the substance changes. Thus, the quantum theory of the structure of the atom allows us to take a completely different look at the world around us.

The founder of the theory of the atom, Niels Bohr, put forward an interesting concept that the electrons in the atom do not radiate energy constantly, but only at the moment of transition between the trajectories of their movement. Bohr's theory helped explain many intra-atomic processes, and also made a breakthrough in the science of chemistry, explaining the boundary of the table created by Mendeleev. According to , the last element that can exist in time and space has the serial number one hundred thirty-seven, and elements starting from one hundred and thirty-eighth cannot exist, since their existence contradicts the theory of relativity. Also, Bohr's theory explained the nature of such a physical phenomenon as atomic spectra.

These are the interaction spectra of free atoms that arise when energy is emitted between them. Such phenomena are typical for gaseous, vaporous substances and substances in the plasma state. Thus, quantum theory made a revolution in the world of physics and allowed scientists to advance not only in the field of this science, but also in the field of many related sciences: chemistry, thermodynamics, optics and philosophy. And also allowed humanity to penetrate the secrets of the nature of things.

There is still a lot to be done by humanity in its consciousness in order to realize the nature of atoms, to understand the principles of their behavior and interaction. Having understood this, we will be able to understand the nature of the world around us, because everything that surrounds us, starting with dust particles and ending with the sun itself, and we ourselves - everything consists of atoms, the nature of which is mysterious and amazing and fraught with a lot of secrets.