The reference book contains data on the mechanical, thermodynamic and molecular-kinetic properties of substances, electrical properties of metals, dielectrics and semiconductors, magnetic properties of dia-, para- and ferromagnets, optical properties of substances, including laser, optical, X-ray and Mössbauer spectra, neutron physics, thermonuclear reactions, as well as geophysics and astronomy.
The material is presented in the form of tables and graphs, accompanied by brief explanations and definitions of the relevant quantities. For ease of use, units of measurement of physical quantities in various systems and conversion factors are given.
The development of the physical sciences in recent decades has been characterized by an irresistible increase in the flow of information. This information needs systematic generalization and concentration. Tables of physical quantities naturally concentrate that part of the information flow that can be expressed numerically.
Specialized handbooks and tables have been published and continue to be published for certain narrow sections of physics. Specialists usually turn to such publications.
The proposed tables are intended for a wide range of readers who need to obtain information from areas of physics that lie outside their more or less narrow specialty. Therefore, in the proposed tables, the reader will not find, for example, detailed data either on the spectra of elements or on the properties of solutions, etc. etc. For everyday use, a widely available reference book of moderate length is usually required. The tables offered to the reader are intended to satisfy this need.
The compilers understand that the tables are far from perfect, and hope that readers will contribute to the improvement of this book in subsequent editions with their critical comments.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
From the editor
I. GENERAL SECTION
Chapter 1
Chapter 2. Fundamental physical constants
Chapter 3
II. MECHANICS AND THERMODYNAMICS
Chapter 4. Mechanical properties of materials
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7. Acoustics
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
III. KINETIC PHENOMENA
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
Chapter 17
Chapter 18
IV. ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Chapter 19
Gland 20. Electrical properties of dielectrics
Chapter 21
Chapter 22
Chapter 23
Chapter 24
Chapter 25
Chapter 27
Chapter 28
Chapter 29
Chapter 30
v. OPTICS AND X-RAY
Chapter 31
Chapter 32
Chapter 33
Chapter 34
Chapter 35
VI. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
Chapter 36
Chapter 37
Chapter 38
Chapter 39
Chapter 40
Chapter 41
Chapter 42
Chapter 43
Chapter 44
Chapter 45
VII. ASTRONOMY AND GEOPHYSICS
Chapter 46
Chapter 47. Geophysics
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In science and technology, units of measurement of physical quantities are used, forming certain systems. The set of units established by the standard for mandatory use is based on the units of the International System (SI). In the theoretical branches of physics, units of the CGS systems are widely used: CGSE, CGSM and the symmetric Gaussian CGS system. Units of the technical system of the ICSC and some off-system units also find some use.
The international system (SI) is built on 6 basic units (meter, kilogram, second, kelvin, ampere, candela) and 2 additional ones (radian, steradian). In the final version of the draft standard "Units of Physical Quantities" are given: units of the SI system; units allowed for use on a par with SI units, for example: ton, minute, hour, degree Celsius, degree, minute, second, liter, kilowatt-hour, revolution per second, revolution per minute; units of the CGS system and other units used in theoretical sections of physics and astronomy: light year, parsec, barn, electron volt; units temporarily allowed for use such as: angstrom, kilogram-force, kilogram-force-meter, kilogram-force per square centimeter, millimeter of mercury, horsepower, calorie, kilocalorie, roentgen, curie. The most important of these units and the ratios between them are given in Table P1.
The abbreviations of units given in the tables are used only after the numerical value of the quantity or in the headings of the columns of the tables. You cannot use abbreviations instead of the full names of units in the text without the numerical value of the quantities. When using both Russian and international unit designations, a roman font is used; designations (abbreviated) of units whose names are given by the names of scientists (newton, pascal, watt, etc.) should be written with a capital letter (N, Pa, W); in the notation of units, the dot as a sign of reduction is not used. The designations of the units included in the product are separated by dots as multiplication signs; a slash is usually used as a division sign; if the denominator includes a product of units, then it is enclosed in brackets.
For the formation of multiples and submultiples, decimal prefixes are used (see Table P2). The use of prefixes, which are a power of 10 with an indicator that is a multiple of three, is especially recommended. It is advisable to use submultiples and multiples of units derived from SI units and resulting in numerical values between 0.1 and 1000 (for example: 17,000 Pa should be written as 17 kPa).
It is not allowed to attach two or more prefixes to one unit (for example: 10 -9 m should be written as 1 nm). To form mass units, a prefix is attached to the main name “gram” (for example: 10 -6 kg = = 10 -3 g = 1 mg). If the complex name of the original unit is a product or a fraction, then the prefix is \u200b\u200battached to the name of the first unit (for example, kN∙m). In necessary cases, it is allowed to use submultiple units of length, area and volume (for example, V / cm) in the denominator.
Table P3 shows the main physical and astronomical constants.
Table P1
UNITS OF PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS IN THE SI SYSTEM
AND THEIR RELATION WITH OTHER UNITS
| Name of quantities | Units | Abbreviation | The size | Coefficient for conversion to SI units | ||
| GHS | ICSU and non-systemic units | |||||
| Basic units | ||||||
| Length | meter | m | 1 cm=10 -2 m | 1 Å \u003d 10 -10 m 1 light year \u003d 9.46 × 10 15 m | ||
| Weight | kg | kg | 1g=10 -3 kg | |||
| Time | second | with | 1 h=3600 s 1 min=60 s | |||
| Temperature | kelvin | To | 1 0 C=1 K | |||
| Current strength | ampere | BUT | 1 SGSE I \u003d \u003d 1 / 3 × 10 -9 A 1 SGSM I \u003d 10 A | |||
| The power of light | candela | cd | ||||
| Additional units | ||||||
| flat corner | radian | glad | 1 0 \u003d p / 180 rad 1¢ \u003d p / 108 × 10 -2 rad 1² \u003d p / 648 × 10 -3 rad | |||
| Solid angle | steradian | Wed | Full solid angle=4p sr | |||
| Derived units | ||||||
| Frequency | hertz | Hz | s -1 | |||
Continuation of Table P1
| Angular velocity | radians per second | rad/s | s -1 | 1 rpm=2p rad/s 1 rpm==0.105 rad/s | |
| Volume | cubic meter | m 3 | m 3 | 1cm 2 \u003d 10 -6 m 3 | 1 l \u003d 10 -3 m 3 |
| Speed | meters per second | m/s | m×s –1 | 1cm/s=10 -2 m/s | 1km/h=0.278m/s |
| Density | kilogram per cubic meter | kg / m 3 | kg×m -3 | 1g / cm 3 \u003d \u003d 10 3 kg / m 3 | |
| Force | newton | H | kg×m×s –2 | 1 dyne = 10 -5 N | 1 kg=9.81N |
| Work, energy, amount of heat | joule | J (N×m) | kg × m 2 × s -2 | 1 erg \u003d 10 -7 J | 1 kgf×m=9.81 J 1 eV=1.6×10 –19 J 1 kW×h=3.6×10 6 J 1 cal=4.19 J 1 kcal=4.19×10 3 J |
| Power | watt | W (J/s) | kg × m 2 × s -3 | 1erg/s=10 -7 W | 1hp=735W |
| Pressure | pascal | Pa (N / m 2) | kg∙m –1 ∙s –2 | 1 din / cm 2 \u003d 0.1 Pa | 1 atm \u003d 1 kgf / cm 2 \u003d \u003d \u003d 0.981 ∙ 10 5 Pa 1 mm Hg \u003d 133 Pa 1 atm \u003d \u003d 760 mm Hg \u003d \u003d 1.013 10 5 Pa |
| Moment of power | newton meter | N∙m | kgm 2 ×s -2 | 1 dyne cm = = 10 –7 N × m | 1 kgf×m=9.81 N×m |
| Moment of inertia | kilogram square meter | kg × m 2 | kg × m 2 | 1 g × cm 2 \u003d \u003d 10 -7 kg × m 2 | |
| Dynamic viscosity | pascal second | Pa×s | kg×m –1 ×s –1 | 1P / poise / \u003d \u003d 0.1 Pa × s |
Continuation of Table P1
| Kinematic viscosity | square meter per second | m 2 /s | m 2 × s -1 | 1St / stokes / \u003d \u003d 10 -4 m 2 / s | |
| Heat capacity of the system | joule per kelvin | J/K | kg×m 2 x x s –2 ×K –1 | 1 cal / 0 C = 4.19 J / K | |
| Specific heat | joule per kilogram kelvin | J/(kg×K) | m 2 × s -2 × K -1 | 1 kcal / (kg × 0 C) \u003d \u003d 4.19 × 10 3 J / (kg × K) | |
| Electric charge | pendant | cl | A×s | 1SGSE q = =1/3×10 –9 C 1SGSM q = =10 C | |
| Potential, electrical voltage | volt | V (W/A) | kg×m 2 x x s –3 ×A –1 | 1SGSE u = =300 V 1SGSM u = =10 –8 V | |
| Electric field strength | volt per meter | V/m | kg×m x x s –3 ×A –1 | 1 SGSE E \u003d \u003d 3 × 10 4 V / m | |
| Electrical displacement (electrical induction) | pendant per square meter | C/m 2 | m –2 ×s×A | 1SGSE D \u003d \u003d 1 / 12p x x 10 -5 C / m 2 | |
| Electrical resistance | ohm | Ohm (V/A) | kg × m 2 × s -3 x x A -2 | 1SGSE R = 9×10 11 Ohm 1SGSM R = 10 –9 Ohm | |
| Electrical capacitance | farad | F (C/V) | kg -1 ×m -2 x s 4 ×A 2 | 1SGSE C \u003d 1 cm \u003d \u003d 1 / 9 × 10 -11 F |
End of table P1
| magnetic flux | weber | Wb (W×s) | kg × m 2 × s -2 x x A -1 | 1SGSM f = =1 μs (maxwell) = =10 –8 Wb | |
| Magnetic induction | tesla | T (Wb / m 2) | kg×s –2 ×A –1 | 1SGSM B = =1 Gs (gauss) = =10 –4 T | |
| Magnetic field strength | ampere per meter | A/m | m –1 ×A | 1SGSM H \u003d \u003d 1E (oersted) \u003d \u003d 1 / 4p × 10 3 A / m | |
| Magnetomotive force | ampere | BUT | BUT | 1SGSM Fm | |
| Inductance | Henry | Hn (Wb/A) | kg×m 2 x x s –2 ×A –2 | 1SGSM L \u003d 1 cm \u003d \u003d 10 -9 H | |
| Light flow | lumen | lm | cd | ||
| Brightness | candela per square meter | cd/m2 | m–2 ×cd | ||
| illumination | luxury | OK | m–2 ×cd |
Physics, as a science that studies natural phenomena, uses a standard research methodology. The main stages can be called: observation, putting forward a hypothesis, conducting an experiment, substantiating a theory. In the course of observation, the distinctive features of the phenomenon, the course of its course, possible causes and consequences are established. The hypothesis allows you to explain the course of the phenomenon, to establish its patterns. The experiment confirms (or does not confirm) the validity of the hypothesis. Allows you to establish a quantitative ratio of values in the course of the experiment, which leads to an accurate establishment of dependencies. The hypothesis confirmed in the course of the experiment forms the basis of a scientific theory.
No theory can claim to be reliable if it has not received full and unconditional confirmation during the experiment. Carrying out the latter is associated with measurements of physical quantities characterizing the process. is the basis of measurements.
What it is
Measurement refers to those quantities that confirm the validity of the hypothesis of regularities. A physical quantity is a scientific characteristic of a physical body, the qualitative ratio of which is common to many similar bodies. For each body, such a quantitative characteristic is purely individual.
If we turn to the special literature, then in the reference book by M. Yudin et al. (1989 edition) we read that a physical quantity is: “a characteristic of one of the properties of a physical object (physical system, phenomenon or process), which is qualitatively common for many physical objects, but quantitatively individual for each object.
Ozhegov's Dictionary (1990 edition) claims that a physical quantity is "the size, volume, length of an object."
For example, length is a physical quantity. Mechanics interprets the length as the distance traveled, electrodynamics uses the length of the wire, in thermodynamics a similar value determines the thickness of the walls of the vessels. The essence of the concept does not change: the units of quantities can be the same, but the value can be different.
A distinctive feature of a physical quantity, say, from a mathematical one, is the presence of a unit of measurement. Meter, foot, arshin are examples of length units.
Units
To measure a physical quantity, it should be compared with a quantity taken as a unit. Remember the wonderful cartoon "Forty-Eight Parrots". To determine the length of the boa constrictor, the heroes measured its length either in parrots, or in elephants, or in monkeys. In this case, the length of the boa constrictor was compared with the height of other cartoon characters. The result quantitatively depended on the standard.
Values - a measure of its measurement in a certain system of units. The confusion in these measures arises not only because of the imperfection and heterogeneity of the measures, but sometimes also because of the relativity of the units.
Russian measure of length - arshin - the distance between the index and thumb fingers. However, the hands of all people are different, and the arshin measured by the hand of an adult man differs from the arshin on the hand of a child or a woman. The same discrepancy between measures of length applies to the fathom (the distance between the tips of the fingers of the arms spread apart) and the elbow (the distance from the middle finger to the elbow of the hand).
It is interesting that men of small stature were taken into the shops as clerks. Cunning merchants saved fabric with the help of several smaller measures: arshin, cubit, fathom.
Systems of measures
Such a variety of measures existed not only in Russia, but also in other countries. The introduction of units of measurement was often arbitrary, sometimes these units were introduced only because of the convenience of their measurement. For example, to measure atmospheric pressure, mm Hg was entered. The famous one, which used a tube filled with mercury, allowed such an unusual value to be introduced.
Engine power was compared with (which is practiced in our time).
Various physical quantities made the measurement of physical quantities not only difficult and unreliable, but also complicating the development of science.
Unified system of measures
A unified system of physical quantities, convenient and optimized in every industrialized country, has become an urgent need. The idea of choosing as few units as possible was adopted as a basis, with the help of which other quantities could be expressed in mathematical relations. Such basic quantities should not be related to each other, their meaning is determined unambiguously and clearly in any economic system.
Various countries have tried to solve this problem. The creation of a unified GHS, ISS and others) was undertaken repeatedly, but these systems were inconvenient either from a scientific point of view, or in domestic, industrial use.
The task, set at the end of the 19th century, was solved only in 1958. A unified system was presented at the meeting of the International Committee of Legal Metrology.
Unified system of measures
The year 1960 was marked by the historic meeting of the General Conference on Weights and Measures. A unique system called "Systeme internationale d" units "(abbreviated as SI) was adopted by the decision of this honorary meeting. In the Russian version, this system is called System International (abbreviation SI).
7 basic units and 2 additional units are taken as a basis. Their numerical value is determined in the form of a standard
Table of physical quantities SI
Name of the main unit | Measured value | Designation |
|
international | Russian |
||
Basic units |
|||
kilogram | |||
Current strength | |||
Temperature | |||
Amount of substance | |||
The power of light | |||
Additional units |
|||
flat corner | |||
Steradian | Solid angle | ||
The system itself cannot consist of only seven units, since the variety of physical processes in nature requires the introduction of more and more new quantities. The structure itself provides for not only the introduction of new units, but also their relationship in the form of mathematical relationships (they are often called dimension formulas).
The unit of a physical quantity is obtained by multiplying and dividing the basic units in the dimension formula. The absence of numerical coefficients in such equations makes the system not only convenient in all respects, but also coherent (consistent).
Derived units
Units of measurement, which are formed from the seven basic ones, are called derivatives. In addition to the basic and derived units, it became necessary to introduce additional ones (radians and steradians). Their dimension is considered to be zero. The lack of measuring instruments for their determination makes it impossible to measure them. Their introduction is due to the use in theoretical studies. For example, the physical quantity "force" in this system is measured in newtons. Since force is a measure of the mutual action of bodies on each other, which is the cause of varying the speed of a body of a certain mass, it can be defined as the product of a unit of mass per unit of speed divided by a unit of time:
F = k٠M٠v/T, where k is the proportionality factor, M is the unit of mass, v is the unit of speed, T is the unit of time.
The SI gives the following formula for dimensions: H = kg * m / s 2, where three units are used. And the kilogram, and the meter, and the second are classified as basic. The proportionality factor is 1.
It is possible to introduce dimensionless quantities, which are defined as a ratio of homogeneous quantities. These include, as is known, equal to the ratio of the friction force to the force of normal pressure.
Table of physical quantities derived from the main ones
Unit name | Measured value | Dimensions formula |
kg٠m 2 ٠s -2 |
||
pressure | kg٠ m -1 ٠s -2 |
|
magnetic induction | kg ٠А -1 ٠с -2 |
|
electrical voltage | kg ٠m 2 ٠s -3 ٠A -1 |
|
Electrical resistance | kg ٠m 2 ٠s -3 ٠А -2 |
|
Electric charge | ||
power | kg ٠m 2 ٠s -3 |
|
Electrical capacitance | m -2 ٠kg -1 ٠c 4 ٠A 2 |
|
Joule per Kelvin | Heat capacity | kg ٠m 2 ٠s -2 ٠K -1 |
becquerel | The activity of a radioactive substance | |
magnetic flux | m 2 ٠kg ٠s -2 ٠А -1 |
|
Inductance | m 2 ٠kg ٠s -2 ٠А -2 |
|
Absorbed dose | ||
Equivalent radiation dose | ||
illumination | m -2 ٠cd ٠sr -2 |
|
Light flow | ||
Strength, weight | m ٠kg ٠s -2 |
|
electrical conductivity | m -2 ٠kg -1 ٠s 3 ٠А 2 |
|
Electrical capacitance | m -2 ٠kg -1 ٠c 4 ٠A 2 |
Off-system units
The use of historically established values that are not included in the SI or differ only by a numerical coefficient is allowed when measuring values. These are non-systemic units. For example, mmHg, X-ray and others.
Numeric coefficients are used to introduce submultiples and multiples. Prefixes correspond to a certain number. An example is centi-, kilo-, deca-, mega- and many others.
1 kilometer = 1000 meters,
1 centimeter = 0.01 meters.
Typology of values
Let's try to point out a few basic features that allow you to set the type of value.
1. Direction. If the action of a physical quantity is directly related to the direction, it is called vector, others are called scalar.
2. The presence of dimension. The existence of a formula for physical quantities makes it possible to call them dimensional. If in the formula all units have a zero degree, then they are called dimensionless. It would be more correct to call them quantities with a dimension equal to 1. After all, the concept of a dimensionless quantity is illogical. The main property - dimension - has not been canceled!
3. If possible, addition. An additive quantity whose value can be added, subtracted, multiplied by a coefficient, etc. (for example, mass) is a physical quantity that is summable.
4. In relation to the physical system. Extensive - if its value can be composed of the values of the subsystem. An example is the area measured in square meters. Intensive - a quantity whose value does not depend on the system. These include temperature.
Each measurement is a comparison of the measured value with another value, homogeneous with it, which is considered to be unity. Theoretically, the units for all quantities in physics can be chosen to be independent of each other. But this is extremely inconvenient, since each value should have its own standard. In addition, in all physical equations that display the relationship between different quantities, there would be numerical coefficients.
The main feature of the currently used systems of units is that there are certain relationships between units of different quantities. These ratios are established by those physical laws (definitions) by which the measured values are interconnected. Thus, the unit of speed is chosen in such a way that it is expressed in terms of units of distance and time. The speed units are used when selecting speed units. The unit of force, for example, is determined using Newton's second law.
When constructing a certain system of units, several physical quantities are chosen, the units of which are set independently of each other. Units of such quantities are called basic. The units of other quantities are expressed in terms of the basic ones, they are called derivatives.
The number of basic units and the principle of their choice may be different for different systems of units. The main physical quantities in the International System of Units (SI) are: length ($l$); mass ($m$); time($t$); electric current strength ($I$); Kelvin temperature (thermodynamic temperature) ($T$); amount of substance ($\nu $); light intensity ($I_v$).
Unit tables
The basic units in the SI system are the units of the above quantities:
\[\left=m;;\ \left=kg;;\ \left=c;;\ \left=A;;\ \left=K;;\ \ \left[\nu \right]=mol;;; \ \left=cd\ (candela).\]
For basic and derived units of measurement in the SI system, submultiple and multiple prefixes are used in table 1, some of them are shown
Table 2 summarizes the main information about the basic units of the SI system.
Table 3 lists some derived units of the SI system.
and many others.
In the SI system, there are derived units of measurement that have their own names, which are actually compact forms of combinations of base quantities. Table 4 shows examples of such SI units.
There is only one SI unit for each physical quantity, but the same unit can be used for several quantities. For example, work and energy are measured in joules. There are dimensionless quantities.
There are some quantities that are not included in the SI, but are widely used. Thus, units of time such as minutes, hours, days are part of the culture. Some units are used for historical reasons. When using units that do not belong to the SI system, it is necessary to indicate how they are converted to SI units. An example of units is shown in Table 5.
Examples of problems with a solution
Example 1
Exercise. The unit of force in the CGS system (centimeter, gram, second) is taken as a dyne. Dyna is a force that imparts an acceleration of 1 $\frac(cm)(s^2)$ to a body of mass 1 g. Express the dyne in newtons.
Decision. The unit of force is determined using Newton's second law:
\[\overline(F)=m\overline(a)\left(1.1\right).\]
This means that force units are obtained using mass and acceleration units:
\[\left=\left\left\ \left(1.2\right).\]
In the SI system, the newton is equal to:
\[H=kg\cdot \frac(m)(s^2)\ \left(1.3\right).\]
In the CGS system, the unit of force (dyne) is:
\[dyne=r\cdot \frac(cm)(c^2)\ \left(1.4\right).\]
Let's translate meters into centimeters, and kilograms into grams in expression (1.3):
Answer.$1H=(10)^5dyn.$
Example 2
Exercise. The car was moving with the speed $v_0=72\ \frac(km)(h)$. Under emergency braking, he was able to stop after $t=5\ c.$ What is the stopping distance of the car ($s$)?
Decision.
To solve the problem, we write down the kinematic equations of motion, considering the acceleration with which the car reduced the speed as constant:
equation for speed:
\[\overline(v)=(\overline(v))_0+\overline(a)t\ \left(2.1\right)\]
displacement equation:
\[\overline(s)=(\overline(s))_0+(\overline(v))_0t+\frac(\overline(a)t^2)(2)\ \left(2.2\right).\]
In the projection onto the X-axis and taking into account the fact that the final speed of the car is zero, and braking, we consider the car started from the origin of expressions (2.1) and (2.2), we write as:
\ \
From formula (2.3) we express the acceleration and substitute it in (2.4), we get:
Before performing calculations, we should convert the speed $v_0=72\ \frac(km)(h)$ into SI units of speed:
\[\left=\frac(m)(s).\]
To do this, we will use Table 1, where we see that the prefix kilo means multiplying 1 meter by 1000, and since at 1h = 3600 s (Table 4), then in the SI system the initial speed will be equal to:
Let's calculate the stopping distance:
