In the dynamics of the state of the victims (without severe herbs), 6 successive stages can be identified:

1. "Vital reactions" - lasting from a few seconds to 5 - 15 minutes, when the behavior is almost completely aimed at preserving one's own life, with impaired perception of time intervals and the strength of external and internal stimuli.

2. "The stage of acute psycho-emotional shock with the phenomena of overmobilization." This stage, as a rule, developed after a short-term state of stupor, lasted from 3 to 5 hours and was characterized by general mental stress, extreme mobilization of psychophysiological reserves, aggravation of perception and an increase in the speed of thought processes, manifestations of reckless courage (especially when saving loved ones) with a simultaneous decrease in critical assessment of the situation, but maintaining the ability to expedient activities.

3. "Stage of psychophysiological demobilization" - its duration is up to three days. In the absolute majority of cases, the onset of this stage was associated with an understanding of the scale of the tragedy (“stress of awareness”) and contacts with the seriously injured and the bodies of the dead, as well as the arrival of rescue and medical teams. The most characteristic for this period was a sharp deterioration in well-being and psycho-emotional state with a predominance of a sense of confusion (up to a state of a kind of prostration).

4. "Permission stages" (from 3 to 12 days). During this period, according to the subjective assessment, the mood and well-being gradually stabilized. The absolute majority of the surveyed retained a reduced emotional background, limited contacts with others, hypomimia (masculine face), decreased intonational coloring of speech, slowness of movement, sleep and appetite disturbances, as well as various psychosomatic reactions (mainly from the cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract and hormonal sphere). By the end of this period, most of the victims had a desire to “speak out”, which was implemented selectively, directed mainly at persons who were not eyewitnesses of the tragic events, and was accompanied by some agitation.

5. The “recovery stage” of the psychophysiological state (5th) began mainly at the end of the second week after exposure to the extreme factor and initially manifested itself most clearly in behavioral reactions: interpersonal communication became more active, the emotional coloring of speech and facial reactions began to normalize, for the first time jokes appeared that caused emotional response from others, dreams were restored in the majority of those examined. 6. At a later date (in a month), 12% - 22% of the victims were found to have persistent sleep disturbances, unmotivated fears, recurring nightmares, and obsessions. At the same time, internal and external conflictogenicity was growing, requiring special approaches. The influence of an extreme situation on the mental and psychophysiological state of a person The following factors also influence a person’s perception of the situation and assessment of the degree of its difficulty, extremeness: the degree of positivity of self-esteem, self-confidence, the level of subjective control, the presence of positive thinking, the severity of motivation to achieve success, and others. The behavior of a person in a situation is determined by the characteristics of a person's temperament (anxiety, response rate, etc.) and his character (the severity of certain accentuations).

Styles of behavior in extreme situations

It has been proven that human behavioral reactions in extreme conditions depend on the characteristics of the nervous system, life experience, professional knowledge, skills, motivation, and style of activity. In general, an extreme situation is a set of obligations and conditions that have a strong psychological impact on a person. The following styles of behavior in extreme situations can be distinguished: behavior extreme situation threat

1) Behavior in affect. It is characterized by a high degree of emotional experiences, which leads to the mobilization of the physical and psychological resources of a person. In practice, quite often there are cases when physically weak people in a state of strong emotional excitement perform actions that they could not perform in a calm environment. The affect is accompanied by the excitation of all mental activity. As a result, the person has a decrease in control over their behavior. Thinking loses its flexibility, the quality of thought processes decreases, which causes a person to realize only the immediate goals of his actions, and not the final ones.

2. Human behavior under stress. This is an emotional state that suddenly arises in a person under the influence of an extreme situation associated with a danger to life or an activity that requires great stress. Stress, like affect, is the same strong and short-term emotional experience. Some psychologists consider stress as one of the types of affect. Stress, first of all, occurs only in the presence of an extreme situation, while affect can arise for any reason. Stress conditions affect people's behavior in different ways. Some, under the influence of stress, show complete helplessness and are unable to withstand stressful influences, while others, on the contrary, are stress-resistant individuals and show themselves best in moments of danger and in activities that require the exertion of all forces.

3. Behavior during frustration. A special place in the consideration of stress is occupied by a psychological state that arises as a result of a real or imagined obstacle that prevents the achievement of a goal, called frustration. Defensive reactions during frustration are associated with the appearance of aggressiveness or avoiding a difficult situation (transferring actions to an imaginary plan), and it is also possible to reduce the complexity of behavior. It can lead to a number of characterological changes associated with self-doubt or fixation of rigid forms of behavior. Thus, extreme situations can manifest themselves in various styles of behavior and it is necessary to be prepared for the occurrence of such situations.

Rules of conduct in extreme situations.

In extreme situations, a person is subject to stress, and some people experience severe shock. People in extreme situations are advised to breathe evenly and calmly, so the muscles relax and the person quickly calms down. To do this, you need to look up, taking a full deep breath and lower your eyes to the horizon, exhale the air smoothly, while relaxing all the muscles. In extreme situations, you need to look at something blue. In ancient India and China, this color was not without reason considered the color of peace and relaxation. Extreme situation (from Latin extremus - extreme, critical) - a sudden situation that threatens (well-being, threatening life, health, personal integrity of a person. In extreme situations, self-monitoring will be useful. It is the ability of a person to understand and correctly assess the environment to develop a course of action.

It is necessary to mentally walk through the whole body, asking yourself questions:

How are my muscles? Are you tense? - what is your facial expression at the moment? -

If negative signs are identified, it is necessary to deal with their elimination, that is, relax the muscles, normalize breathing, etc.

Then, we can normalize our breathing.

Deep breathing technique:

1 - take a deep breath, lasting at least 2 seconds (to count the time, you can mentally say "one thousand, two thousand" - this will just take approximately 2 seconds);

2 - we hold our breath for 1-2 seconds, that is, we will pause;

3 - exhale slowly and smoothly for 3 seconds, at least (the exhalation must be longer than the inhalation);

4 - then, again a deep breath, without a pause, that is, repeat the cycle.

We repeat 2-3 similar cycles (limit - up to 3, maximum up to 5 in one approach). During the day - up to 15 - 20 times.

In addition to the normalization of breathing, the implementation of the deep breathing technique leads to the restoration of the normal parameters of the cardiovascular system: the normalization of the heart rate and, in turn, partly the pressure. This occurs as a result of an increase in the natural physiological effect: on inspiration, the heartbeat of any person accelerates, and on exhalation it slows down (it is impossible to notice such changes by simply probing the pulse, this is detected only by sensitive devices).

What is the benefit of doing these techniques? It has long been known about the relationship and mutual influence of the physical and psychological, "soul and body". A relaxed state of the muscles, calm breathing and a normal heartbeat will provide similar sensations in the psychological sphere: we will be more calm emotionally. This means that it will be possible to act with a “clear mind and a cold heart”, without additionally stressing yourself with your own experiences. The founder of the world-famous school of survival in extreme situations, the Polish traveler Jacek Palkiewicz identified 6 survival factors. But the decisive factor, in his opinion, is the order in which they are arranged by a person. According to Palkevich's observations, the chances of survival and salvation are higher for those who, being in an extreme situation, and therefore a stressful situation, orient their thoughts and actions in this order: a person who does not try to maintain or restore calmness in an extreme situation has less chance of painless way out. The reason lies in the fact that excessive excitement interferes with making the right decision. And if anxiety does not decrease, but, on the contrary, increases, then the risk of exhaustion, the development of depressive conditions and physical illnesses is very high. The desire to maintain calmness, the attitude to overcome, to get out of an extreme situation contribute to the mobilization of internal resources and provide a way out of unpleasant circumstances with the least losses.

The relevance of the psychological training of military personnel is confirmed by the analysis of modern wars and military conflicts, indicating a trend towards an increase in the requirements for the psychological training of military personnel.

With an equal balance of forces and means, the same technical equipment of the troops, only that army can count on success, the personnel of which is morally and psychologically superior to the enemy, is able to maintain psychological stability and the will to win in any situation.

It's no secret that the professional activities of military personnel include various psychogenic factors: fatigue, mental tension, anxiety, unexpectedness of upcoming actions. The success of the task will depend primarily on how successfully the military will cope with the impact of these negative factors.

What is hidden under the concept of psychological training of military personnel? According to Karajani, psychological training is a system of purposeful influences aimed at forming and consolidating psychological readiness and stability in soldiers, mainly on the basis of self-improvement of personal and development of professionally important qualities, acquiring experience of successful actions in simulated extreme conditions of a combat situation.

The main tasks of the psychological preparation of military personnel for action in extreme situations are: the formation of scientifically based knowledge of military operations, ideas about a future war, behavior skills in a combat situation, readiness for a feat, and selfless deeds in the name of victory over the enemy:

Military experts, analyzing the military operations of the armed forces of Great Britain in the Falkland Islands, Soviet troops in Afghanistan, the United States in Vietnam, Afghanistan and the Persian Gulf, were firmly convinced of the need for purposeful tempering of the psyche of soldiers and officers in an environment as close as possible to combat, therefore, the psychological training of personnel in the process of everyday combat training, it is carried out by working out certain elements of the psychological hardening of soldiers at each lesson.

Military psychologist A. Maklakov notes that the effectiveness of the psychological work carried out in the troops will largely depend on how punctually the principles of psychological modeling of confrontation with the enemy are observed; professional-tactical conditionality, the content of psychological training, the tasks to be solved in various types of the Armed Forces and branches of the armed forces, ensuring the safety of actions during exercises and training. In addition, it is very important to observe the psychological conformity of training and combat tasks, to create combat training situations that simulate the adequacy of mental states in combat. .

In the process of everyday combat training, the psychological training of personnel is carried out by working out certain elements of the psychological hardening of soldiers at each lesson. Best practice shows that the psychological model of modern combat is created through the use of various means:

1. Means of imitation: training explosives, nuclear explosion simulators, training formulations of explosives, imitation grenades and land mines, explosive packs, smoke bombs, fire mixture signal rockets, blank cartridges.

2. Broadcast recordings of the sound effects of the battle: shots of tanks, guns, explosions of shells, mines, sounds of low-flying aircraft.

3. Creation of fires, models of damaged equipment, all kinds of engineering barriers and obstacles: imitation minefields, wire and hardly noticeable fences, ditches, traps, blockages, barricades, destroyed sections of roads and bridges.

4. Organization of real opposition to the enemy: a trained group of personnel, a two-sided game with the forces of two platoons, etc.

By implementing various compositions of the above means, depending on the tasks being solved, the type of weaponry and the type of troops, the psychologist, together with officers of the combat training bodies, commanders and headquarters, can consciously introduce various psychological factors into the process of combat training activity that can cause both positive activity of a soldier, as well as negative mental phenomena.

Extreme situations are accompanied by the impact on servicemen of a number of factors: thus, the creation of a threat to life is accompanied by the action of a danger factor, the real fire impact is a factor of surprise, the lack of information is a factor of uncertainty, the implementation of unplanned actions is a novelty of the situation. A skillful thoughtful introduction of these factors into the educational process makes it possible to realistically model individual elements of modern combat, and, consequently, to solve the problems of psychological preparation.

When cultivating psychological stability in the face of factors caused by an extreme situation, the main efforts should be directed to ensuring that any surprises become habitual for a serviceman. So that surprise becomes the rule, surprise becomes a pattern, and a sudden change in the situation becomes a common thing.

Systematic exercise leads to the automation of certain modes of action, i.e. to skill building. Skill refers to the techniques and methods of performing actions. It provides a soldier with the opportunity to demonstrate the acquired knowledge in a highly efficient and high-quality manner and to put his skills into practice. A skill, according to behaviorists, is a system of reactions acquired on the basis of a few innate simple reactions. The main way a person develops skills in a certain field of activity is, according to them, upbringing, education.

The formation of behavioral skills in combat conditions is achieved by systematic exercises in the application of knowledge and skills, which lead to the automation of certain methods of action. Skill refers to the techniques and methods of performing actions. It provides an opportunity to demonstrate the acquired knowledge in a highly efficient and high-quality manner and to put the skills into practice. According to the candidate of psychological sciences V. Khoziev, an experienced specialist in the field of psychological support for the combat training of soldiers for professional activities, the skill lies in the fact that the consciousness of a soldier is freed from the need to control the technical components of activity under the influence of various stress factors on the psyche of a soldier, allowing him to focus on objectives, goals and conditions of the assignment.

In the course of repeated repetition of exercises in increasingly difficult conditions, the control of a soldier over his mental states and actions improves.

The psychological mechanism of stable suppression of uncertainty and fear is gradually formed. With the improvement of emotional and volitional control, the personnel increase their confidence in their abilities to overcome difficulties and achieve their goals.

Confidence in oneself, one's weapons, commanders and comrades helps to more accurately assess the combat situation, more effectively use one's knowledge, skills and abilities in practice. If a soldier possesses such skills, this indicates psychological readiness to perform a combat mission in any situation.

The development of certain skills among military personnel is an important tool for countering an extreme situation. The skill allows you to partially automate the execution and regulation of appropriate movements and actions, frees, as mentioned above, the human mind from control over the "rough work", allowing you to focus on the main thing. So, when firing from a gun, the gunner's consciousness is concentrated on the target, and the actions to aim the gun at the target are carried out automatically. This ensures the stability of actions in an unfavorable environment, their efficiency and rationality, because only one knowledge of how to act in an extreme situation and confidence that the actions are correct help to reduce the stressful impact of an extreme situation on a person.

One cannot but agree with the German military psychologist Schoenau, who argued that a person is a living organism that reacts to stimuli. Irritations that affect the behavior, character and personality of a person come from the landscape, climate and environment. A person adapts to the environment, guided by the instinct of self-preservation, and the task of psychological preparation is to adapt the soldier as best as possible to all kinds of stimuli that affect the psyche of a soldier during a combat mission.

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Introduction

1. Psychology of human behavior in extreme situations

1.1 Extreme situations in human life

1.2 Mental states and human behavior characteristic of extreme situations

2. Dependences of personality behavior in extreme situations

2.1 Dependence of behavior in an extreme situation on the type of nervous system and the nature of a person

2.2 Development of human tolerance to extreme situations

3. Experimental part

Conclusion

References

Applications

Introduction

Extreme situations go beyond the normal events of human life and occur in all its areas: every person from time to time finds himself in a number of situations that are extreme for him.

The psychology of extreme situations is a fairly new but rapidly developing branch of applied psychological science that studies the characteristics of human behavior during severe stressful situations and their psychological consequences, as well as helping to assess, anticipate and optimize mental states and human behavior.

The frequency of the impact of extreme situations on a person is only increasing every year. In addition to various natural disasters that threaten people's lives, modern man is waiting for new severe tests caused by the activities of human civilization: man-made disasters, accidents, wars, terrorism, crime, difficult working conditions. It is especially important that many complex types of human activity are capable of causing tense situations that require precise, quick and error-free actions from a person.

The relevance of the topic of this course work is due to the fact that with all the demand for studying the psychology of human behavior in emergency situations, it is still in a poorly understood state and therefore requires increased attention.

The purpose of the course work is to analyze the materials accumulated by psychological science containing information about the behavioral styles of the individual in the first minutes and hours of the occurrence of the incident, and to determine the general psychological patterns of the impact of extreme situations on a person, to develop advice on developing tolerance to the effects of extreme factors.

Research hypothesis: the style of human behavior in an extreme situation depends both on the type of the situation itself and on the characteristics of the human personality.

Objectives of the course work:

Define the clear content of the concept of "extreme situation";

To identify the main features of the impact of extreme situations on the human psyche and behavior;

Establish the dependence of behavior in an extreme situation on the type of human character;

The object of the study are the features of human behavior.

The subject of the study is the behavioral styles of a person in extreme situations. The material for the study was the theoretical and practical literature on the psychology of extreme situations, articles in specialized publications, publications of research on this topic.

The main method of research term paper - theoretical and bibliographic analysis.

This work consists of three chapters: two theoretical and one practical. The first chapter studies and analyzes theoretical materials on the impact of extreme situations on human behavior. In the second chapter, a comparative analysis of the dependence of behavior on the characteristics of the human personality is made and recommendations are given for the development of resistance to extreme situations. In the practical part of the work, an analysis of testing to identify coping mechanisms was carried out according to the method of E. Heim. In the final part of the work, the general result of the study is summed up.

1. Psychology of human behavior in extreme situations

1.1 Extreme situations in human life

The word "extreme" comes from the Latin word "extremum", which means "extreme", and is used to refer to the concepts of maximum and minimum. The concept of "extreme" is used when one speaks not about the usual, normal and habitual conditions of activity, but about circumstances that are significantly different from them. Extremeness points to the limiting, extreme states in the existence of things. At the same time, extreme conditions are created not only by maximization (over-influence, overloads), but also by minimization (underloads: lack of movement, information, etc.) of acting factors. The effects of the impact on the activity and state of a person in both cases can be the same. The need to study the influence of extreme factors on the human psyche has led to the emergence and active development of a new area of ​​psychological science and practice - extreme psychology.

The term "extreme situation" in most cases means a sudden situation that threatens or is subjectively perceived by a person as threatening his life, health, well-being, personal values ​​and its integrity. It is this threat that makes the situation difficult, stressful and extreme.

It is in extreme situations that a person experiences severe stress. Let's touch on this term. The word "stress" is translated from English as "pressure", "tension" and is used to refer to a wide range of states and actions of a person that are a response to a variety of extreme effects, which are called "stressors". Stressors are usually divided into physiological (pain, hunger, thirst, excessive physical exertion, high or low temperatures) and psychological (factors that act by their signal value, such as danger, threat, deceit, resentment, information overload, etc.) .

The level of individual stressfulness of each situation depends on the subjective value of the object, the loss of which is threatened by this situation. A sign of extremeness is also the absence in the social experience of the individual of ready-made stereotypes of response to the circumstances that have arisen. Such situations most often go beyond the boundaries of ordinary human experience, a person is not adapted to them and is not ready to fully act. The degree of extremeness of the situation depends on the strength, duration, novelty, unusual manifestation of the factors of each specific situation. Often, an extreme situation has an important event status on the life path of a person.

The range of problems associated with the concept of an extreme situation is constantly expanding. In addition to natural disasters, armed conflicts, man-made disasters, accidents, extreme situations caused by a certain profession, psychologists in recent years have noted family crises and conflicts, emotional crises, extreme leisure activities, alcoholism and diseases of loved ones, business emergencies and much more.

Extreme situations dangerous for a person are caused by the influence of various factors of the physical or social environment.

The physical environment is the external conditions of human life. It includes such factors as the area of ​​residence, climate, living and working conditions, regime and much more. The physical environment itself can pose a threat to human health and life. For example, a person can live in regions where earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, tsunamis, etc. occur. As a rule, people living in regions with an increased risk of natural disasters develop higher alertness and readiness to act in extreme situations.

The social environment includes the environment of a person, those people with whom he interacts. It is divided into macro environment and micro environment.

The macro environment combines factors such as:

Demographic (with a high population density, especially in a metropolis, the level of danger increases: a higher pace of life, crime, etc.)

Economic (with a bad economic situation, social tension increases).

Sociocultural (characterized by the presence and number of informal movements and groupings in society).

Religious (defined by the dominant religious teachings in the region and their coexistence).

National (characterized by interethnic relations in the region).

The macro environment is also greatly influenced by mass psychological phenomena inherent in large groups of people (crowd psychology).

The microenvironment is determined by the socio-psychological characteristics of the individual, the interaction of a person with other people, the characteristics of education, traditions, the orientation of the reference group, and the strategy of behavior.

Extreme situations cause significant nervous tension and stress in a person. Sometimes nervous overload reaches the limit, followed by nervous exhaustion, affective reactions, pathological conditions (psychogeny).

People, as subjects of extreme situations, are divided into the following groups:

Specialists (they work in extreme conditions of their own free will or at the call of duty).

Victims (people who find themselves in an extreme situation against their will).

Victims (those people who suffered visible losses in the course of events).

Witnesses and eyewitnesses (usually located in close proximity to the scene).

Observers (specially arrived at the scene).

The sixth group - TV viewers, radio listeners and all those who are aware of the emergency situation and are worried about its consequences.

Some psychologists specifically divide extreme situations into types, depending on their degree of force of influence on a person. For example, the famous Russian psychologist A. M. Stolyarenko divided such situations into 3 types:

Paraextreme (cause significant nervous tension, can lead a person to failure);

Extreme (cause extreme stress and overvoltage, significantly increase risks and reduce the likelihood of success);

Hyper-extreme (dramatically change the behavior of a person, making demands on her that significantly exceed her usual abilities).

However, the situation becomes extreme not only because of a real, objectively existing threat, but also because of the attitude of the individual to what is happening. Each individual perceives the same situation individually, so the criterion of "extreme" may be in the inner, psychological plane of the individual.

Extreme situations can significantly disrupt a person's basic sense of security, his belief that there is a certain order in life, and it can be controlled. In this regard, anthropogenic (caused by human activity) extreme situations are especially difficult for the psyche of the individual.

The result of the impact of extreme situations on a person can be the development of various painful conditions - neurotic and mental disorders, traumatic and post-traumatic stress. In any case, they do not pass without a trace and are able to sharply divide human life into “before” and “after”. The most extreme situations can damage even the basic structures of the entire personal organization and destroy the image of the world familiar to a person, and with it the entire system of life coordinates.

Summing up, we note the most important factors that determine the extremeness of the situation:

1) the impact of adverse environmental conditions;

2) emotional effects associated with the suddenness, novelty, danger, difficulty, responsibility of the situation;

3) extreme mental, emotional and physical stress;

4) the presence of unsatisfied physical needs (hunger, thirst, lack of sleep);

5) lack or apparent excess of conflicting information.

In the experience of a person in an extreme situation, researchers distinguish three main stages:

1) The pre-exposure phase, which includes feelings of anxiety, threat immediately before a dangerous event.

2) The phase of influence, which is characterized by the predominance of the emotion of fear and sensations derived from it. It includes directly the time of intense impact of an emergency on a person. This phase is most important in considering personal behavioral styles and is the least studied, since researchers are not often eyewitnesses or participants in many extreme incidents, and if they are, they are not able to conduct accurate research at this time.

3) The after-effect phase, which begins some time after the end of the extreme situation. This phase is already fairly well understood, as it is what most psychologists deal with when working with disaster victims.

Above, we will consider the least studied phase of exposure, since it is interesting for us to study the characteristic features of human behavior at the immediate moment of extreme exposure. As extreme situations, we will consider the most acute variants of events that carry a direct threat to human life and health.

extreme psyche behavior character

1.2 Mental states and human behavior characteristic of extreme situations

The impact phase of an extreme situation is usually quite short and may consist of several stages, which are characterized by their own mental states. These stages are well described by domestic researchers. We note the stages related directly to the phase of exposure:

1. The stage of vital reactions lasts up to 15 minutes from the moment of occurrence of an extreme situation that carries a real vital threat. At this time, a person's behavioral reactions are completely due to the instinct to preserve one's own life and may be accompanied by psychological regression. Psychic maladaptation occurs, manifested in a violation of the perception of space and time, unusual mental states, pronounced vegetative reactions. Characteristic states - stupor, agitation, affective fear, hysteria, apathy, panic.

2. Stage of acute psycho-emotional shock It lasts for 2-5 hours. At this time, the body adapts to a new extreme environment. It is characterized by general mental stress, extreme mobilization of the body's mental and physical reserves, sharpening of perception, an increase in the speed of thinking, reckless courage, an increase in working capacity, and an increase in physical strength. Emotionally, at this stage, there may be a feeling of despair.

Let us consider in more detail the mental states characteristic of the stage of vital reactions. So, the sudden occurrence of an extreme situation that threatens the very existence of a person causes mental maladaptation, which is characterized by three main types of behavior:

1. negative-aggressive;

2. anxious-depressive;

3. a combination of the first two types.

Disadaptation causes regression, expressed in a return to the forms of response and behavior inherent in a person at an earlier stage of life. In other words, the protective mechanisms inherited from our ancestors and the animal world are turned on. In this case, affective states often arise.

To begin with, let's consider the very concept of "affect" (from Latin affectus - emotional excitement, passion). It is a strong and relatively short-term emotional state, which is accompanied by pronounced vegetative and motor manifestations. Affect is often an "emergency" way of responding to unexpected stressful situations. In a state of affect, consciousness narrows, as attention is focused on affectively colored experiences and ideas associated with a traumatic situation. At the same time, the completeness of the reflection of the situation decreases, self-control decreases, actions become stereotyped and obey emotions, and not logical thinking. Especially dangerous is the pathological affect, which is the extreme degree of this state, in which the narrowing of consciousness can reach its complete shutdown.

The basis of affect in extreme situations that are dangerous to human life is fear. It is a mental state that arises on the basis of the instinct of self-preservation and is a reaction to real or imagined danger. Fear manifests itself in many forms, such as fear, fear, fear, horror, etc. The strongest type of fear is affective fear associated with a vital threat.

Affective fear occurs when a person is unable to overcome an unexpected and extremely dangerous situation. This fear can take possession of a person's consciousness, suppress his mind and will, and completely paralyze his ability to act and fight. From such fear, a person becomes numb, passively awaits his fate, or runs "wherever his eyes look." After exposure to such fear, a person sometimes cannot remember certain moments of his behavior, feeling depressed and overwhelmed. In a state of fear, there is always an extremely negative emotional background, maladjustment. Strong fear can cause many negative consequences for the body and psyche. Fear limits perception, makes it difficult for a person to be receptive to most of the perceptual field, often slows down the process of thinking, makes it more inert and narrow in scope. Fear greatly reduces the possibilities of the individual and the freedom of action. The state of fear causes such forms of behavior as flight, demonstrative and defensive aggression, and numbness.

A common state of fear in an extreme situation is an individual panic. Panic is distinguished by its inadequacy to a real threat. Man seeks to save himself by any means. At the same time, the level of self-control decreases, a person feels helpless, loses the ability to think and reason sensibly, navigate in space, choose the right means to achieve a goal, interact effectively with other people, there is a tendency to imitate and increased suggestibility. Individual panic often leads to mass panic.

The unexpectedness of the situation, in the absence of readiness for action, often causes affective states, which include agitation and stupor.

Agitation is a very common reaction to a dangerous situation. This is a very excited, restless, anxious state in which a person runs away, hides, thereby eliminating the situation that frightens him. Excitation during agitation is expressed in the fussiness of actions, and basically only simple automated movements are carried out under the influence of random stimuli. Thought processes, in a state of agitation, are significantly slowed down, because under the influence of the hormone adrenaline, blood rushes to the limbs (mainly the legs), and the brain lacks it. That is why in this state a person is able to run quickly, but cannot figure out where. The ability to understand complex relationships between phenomena, to make judgments and conclusions is impaired. A person feels emptiness in the head, the absence of thoughts. Agitation is accompanied by vegetative disorders in the form of skin pallor, shallow breathing, palpitations, excessive sweating, hand tremors, etc.

Stupor is a short-term condition in life-threatening conditions, characterized by a sudden numbness, freezing in place in one position. This condition is characterized by a decrease in muscle tone (“numbness”). Even the strongest stimuli do not affect behavior. In some cases, there are phenomena of "wax flexibility", expressed in the fact that individual muscle groups or parts of the body for a long time retain the position that they are given. Stupor usually occurs in people with a weak nervous system. The increased level of adrenaline paralyzes their muscles, the body ceases to obey, but intellectual activity remains.

The stage of vital reactions and the states inherent in it fit well into the “stage of anxiety” described by G. Selye, which is the first stage of the “stress reaction”. According to G. Selye, the stage of anxiety is the initial response of the human body to danger. It occurs to help cope with a stressful situation. This is an adaptive mechanism that arose at an early stage of evolution, when in order to survive it was necessary to defeat the enemy or run away from him. The body reacts to danger with an explosion of energy that increases physical and mental abilities. Such a short-term "shake" of the body involves almost all organ systems, so most researchers call this stage "emergency".

Further, G. Selye singled out the stage of resistance (resistance), which occurs during a longer stressful situation. At this stage, a person adapts to changing environmental conditions. This stage also intersects well with the above-mentioned stage of supermobilization, when adaptation to an extreme situation occurs. Of course, such a stage cannot continue for a long time, since the resources of the human body are not infinite.

Some intermediate states that are observed between the "emergency" and "adaptive" stages deserve additional attention. These are peculiar states of "discharge" after the initial extreme states of the body. The vital reaction stage may end in brief states of uncontrollable trembling, crying, hysterical laughter, apathy and even deep sleep.

So, based on the mental states discussed above, the hallmark of a person's behavior in extreme conditions is the loss of his flexibility and freedom. In this case, complex and coordinated movements suffer greatly. At the same time, patterned and stereotyped movements proceed faster and often become automatic.

At the psychological level, at the first stage of the course of an extreme situation, the following processes occur:

Disorganized behavior;

Slow down the old skills;

The scope of attention narrows;

Difficulty dividing and switching attention

Inappropriate reactions to stimuli appear;

There are errors of perception, lapses in memory;

Unnecessary, unjustified and impulsive actions are performed;

There is a feeling of confusion;

It becomes impossible to concentrate;

Decreased mental stability

The performance of mental operations worsens.

In such conditions, the most important personal characteristic is high emotional stability, the ability to act without tension.

The behavioral response to a stressful extreme situation primarily includes actions to overcome it. In this case, two methods can be used: the flight reaction and the fight reaction.

The human body is not able to work in an “emergency” mode for a long time, so the stage of maladjustment ends quickly, and the human body restructures its work, allocating additional reserves to adapt to the increased requirements of the external environment. The stage of acute mental reactions of entering an extreme situation is replaced by the stage of mental adaptation, leading to the formation of new functional systems in the central nervous system, which allow adequately reflecting reality in unusual living conditions for the individual. There is an actualization of the necessary needs and the development of protective mechanisms that provide responses to the impact of extreme psychogenic factors.

2. Dependences of personality behavior in extreme situations

2.1 Dependence of behavior in an extreme situation on the type of nervous system and the nature of a person

Numerous studies of domestic and foreign experts have established the dependence of personality behavior styles in extreme situations on numerous individual and personal characteristics of a person. The main characteristics include:

Age;

Health status;

Type of nervous response and temperament;

Locus of control;

Psychological stability;

The level of self-esteem.

Let's consider each of them in more detail.

The least adapted to stressful extreme situations are the elderly and children. They are characterized by a high level of anxiety and mental stress. This does not allow them to effectively adapt to changing conditions. In their case, a prolonged emotional reaction to stress leads to a rapid depletion of the body's internal resources.

The state of health of the subjects of an extreme situation plays a very important role. Obviously, people with good health are better able to adapt to changing environmental conditions and better tolerate the negative physiological changes that occur in the body under the influence of a stressor, and also have a greater supply of internal resources. People weakened by diseases of the cardiovascular system, gastrointestinal tract, bronchial asthma, hypertension, neuropsychiatric disorders and other diseases, in extreme conditions, get an exacerbation of these diseases, which can lead to serious consequences.

Type of nervous response and temperament in many ways. determine an individual's response to stress. This is due to the fact that it is largely predetermined by the innate properties of the human nervous system: its strength and weakness, balance and imbalance, mobility or inertia. Temperament, as a combination of the corresponding dynamic properties of human behavior, is an innate biological foundation on which a holistic personality is formed. It reflects the energy of a person, the dynamic aspects of his behavior, such as mobility, rhythm and tempo of reactions, emotionality. The classical, proposed by Hippocrates, description of the four main types of temperament (choleric, phlegmatic, sanguine and melancholic) no longer reflects the totality of the dynamic properties of human behavior, since their combinations are very extensive and varied. However, even this typology allows us to see in general terms how temperament affects the development of a stress response in a person. Temperament indicates the energy reserves of the individual and the speed of metabolic processes. Thus, the ways of responding to an extreme situation depend on it. For example, temperament affects the stability and switchability of attention. It also affects memory, t determining the speed of memorization, the ease of recall and the strength of information retention. The influence of temperament on the thinking process is manifested in the speed of mental operations, while the high speed of mental operations is not a guarantee of successful problem solving, since sometimes careful consideration of actions is more important than hasty decisions.

In extreme situations, temperament even more strongly influences the way and efficiency of activity, since a person is controlled by innate programs of his temperament, which require a minimum energy level and regulation time. In other words, people's behavior styles in extreme situations will differ depending on their temperament. Cholerics are prone to the manifestation of negative emotions of rage and anger, therefore, the most violent emotional reaction to stress is characteristic of a choleric temperament. Sanguine people are not predisposed to negative emotions, their emotions quickly arise, having an average strength and a short duration. Phlegmatic people are not prone to violent emotional reactions, they do not need to make efforts on themselves to keep their cool, so it is easier to resist a hasty decision. Melancholic people quickly succumb to negative emotions of fear and anxiety, they endure stress the most difficult. However, in an extreme situation, they have the highest level of self-control.

In general, people with a strong type of higher nervous activity tolerate the impact of extreme situations more easily and more often use active ways to overcome the situation. In turn, people with a weak type of nervous system tend to avoid stress.

As already noted, it should be borne in mind that the indicated typology of temperament is a simplified scheme, far from exhausting the possible features of the temperament of each individual person.

Locus of control determines how effectively a person is able to control the environment and influence its change. There are external (external) and internal (internal) loci of control. Externals perceive ongoing events as the result of chance and the action of external forces beyond human control. Internals, on the other hand, believe that almost all events are in the sphere of human influence. From their point of view, even catastrophic situations can be prevented by thoughtful human actions. They spend their energy on obtaining information that will allow them to influence the course of events, develop specific action plans. Internals can be more self-controlled and more successful in dealing with extreme situations.

Psychological endurance (resilience) shows how strongly a person is resistant to the effects of stressful and extreme situations. It includes a number of factors, among which is the locus of control, self-esteem of the individual, the level of criticality, optimism, the presence or absence of internal conflicts. The best psychological endurance is also served by beliefs and moral values ​​that make it possible to give personal meaning to an extreme situation.

Personality is formed under the influence of the social environment. Therefore, the indicator of a person's security or his propensity for danger is not only an innate quality, but also the result of development. Insufficient formation of individual characteristics of a person manifests itself in extreme situations (and these are usually the situations preceding and accompanying accidents). Significantly increases a person's susceptibility to danger emotional imbalance, inability to quickly distribute attention and highlight the main object among a large set of other objects, insufficient endurance and immoderate (excessively large or excessively small) risk appetite.

The individual qualities inherent in people with a high degree of protection from danger also affect their position in a social group. Indeed, such qualities as good coordination, attention, emotional balance and others contribute not only to better security of a person, but also increase his status. As a rule, people who possess them are leaders, enjoy respect and authority in the team. They are better than others at handling extreme situations and can afford to take risks when necessary.

So, the degree of awareness of the situation and the adequacy of behavior in the event of an unexpected threat to life are largely determined by the innate characteristics of the personality, its attitudes, the type of nervous system, and a number of other psychobiological indicators. It is not always possible to teach a person to behave correctly in unforeseen life-threatening situations, therefore people often turn out to be unprepared for action in them.

2.2 Development of human tolerance to extreme situations

An important practical part of the study of personality behavior in extreme situations is the task of forming and developing tolerance to extreme situations. The term tolerantia (lat.) Expresses several intersecting meanings: stability, endurance, tolerance, acceptable value, resistance to uncertainty, stress, conflict, and behavioral deviations.

The psychological portrait of a person with tolerance to extreme situations includes the following features: strength, mobility, balance of nervous processes; activity, sensitivity. Choleric and sanguine people often underestimate the difficulties and show excessive self-confidence.

The psychological qualities of a person necessary for developing tolerance to extreme situations include:

High level of development of analytical thinking;

Criticality, independence, flexibility of thinking;

Developed social intelligence;

Reflective and intuitive qualities;

Stability of emotions;

Dominance of positive emotions;

Developed volitional regulation;

An adequate assessment of the magnitude of the load and own resources;

High ability to self-regulation;

Lack of anxiety.

The following behaviors should be developed:

Organization and externally oriented behavioral activity;

situational courage;

Calm, confident, unhurried, not tense behavior;

High performance;

A large number of options for overcoming behavior in the individual behavioral repertoire;

Experience in overcoming difficult situations;

Prosociality and flexibility of behavior;

The predominance of coping strategies of behavior over defensive ones.

Necessary socio-psychological properties of a person:

Development of the social-perceptual sphere of personality;

Active attitude to life;

Self-confidence and trust in others;

Lack of defensive reactions;

Developed social identity, the presence of social support and public recognition, satisfies the status in the group and in society.

The necessary characteristics of the image of I should include a stable, positive, adequate self-esteem, consistency of the I-perceived and I-desired, self-esteem, self-esteem, self-efficacy.

Valuable qualities:

High spirituality;

Ability for personal growth

Postconventional level of development of moral consciousness,

Faith, a sense of meaningfulness of life;

Successful self-realization, internal type of control;

Having ideal and highly valued goals;

Acceptance of debt, responsibility;

Ability to respond to the challenges of fate;

Patriotism, existential tone;

Ability for existential effort;

Trust in yourself and in the world.

Communicative qualities: sociability, openness, democracy, justice, honesty, altruism, open tolerant communication.

The opposite qualities mentioned above do not contribute to the formation of tolerance to extreme situations, such as tension, hypervigilance, the existence of false stereotypes, “irrational” behavior based on spontaneous manifestation, situational conservatism; numbness and inaction, a high level of partiality of the image of the Self and the availability of its subjective distortions; overdependence on the impact of emotional attitudes and assessments of others; experiencing the insignificance, meaninglessness of the world; poorly developed self-consciousness, a weak structure of ideas about oneself. They do not respond to the "challenges" of fate, are pessimistic, have low achievement motivation, which they themselves often interpret as a lack of ability. This includes people with "learned" helplessness.

3. experimental part

The first part of the study is devoted to the study of coping mechanisms, or coping mechanisms (from the English coping - coping), which determine successful or unsuccessful adaptation to a stressful situation. The study used the Heim E. coping mechanisms diagnostic technique (Appendix 1) - a screening technique that allows you to explore 26 situation-specific coping options distributed over three main areas of mental activity into cognitive, emotional, behavioral coping mechanisms.

The second part analyzes emergency preparedness (ES) using the Nick Rowe and Evan Pill questionnaire (Appendix 2).

The study involved 30 employees of the rescue service of the Ministry of Emergency Situations.

Research hypothesis: employees of the rescue service of the Ministry of Emergency Situations, due to the specifics of their work, special selection and psychological training, are able to adapt well to stressful situations and have an increased readiness for extreme situations (ES).

Research stages:

Selection of methodological literature on the topic under study;

Questioning on coping behavior in a stressful situation;

Questioning to identify readiness for survival in the ES;

Data processing, analysis of the results.

Research Procedure:

The study participants were given forms with tests and instructions for filling them out. The procedure time was not limited. The results of the study were included in tables 1 - 5 and final diagrams 1 - 2.

Table 1 - Diagnosis of coping mechanisms, answers in questionnaires

Questionnaire No.

Table 2 - Diagnosis of coping mechanisms, summary table of results

Variants of coping behavior	Number of answers	Option group summary
Adaptive coping behaviors
Cognitive coping strategies
Non-adaptive coping behaviors
Cognitive coping strategies
Emotional coping strategies
Behavioral coping strategies
Relatively adaptive coping behaviors
Cognitive coping strategies
Emotional coping strategies
Behavioral coping strategies

Diagram 1 - Final results by variants of coping behavior

Table 3 - Results of a survey on readiness for survival in the ES

Questionnaire No.	Amount Survival	Amount Defeat	Final result

Survey results:

from 15 to 20 - You can survive almost anywhere - 12 profiles

10 to 14 - You have good chances. - 14 profiles

5 to 9 - Your chances are low - 4 profiles

from 0 to 4 - Do not take unnecessary risks - 0 profiles

from -10 to -1 - Look for a guardian - 0 profiles

from -20 to -11 - Most likely you already have a guardian - 0 profiles

Diagram 2 - Final results of the survey on readiness for survival in the EU

Based on the results of the study using two methods, it can be concluded that the research hypothesis turned out to be correct: the employees of the Ministry of Emergency Situations are characterized by the predominance of adaptive variants of coping behavior and increased readiness for survival in extreme situations.

Conclusion

Faced with difficult extreme situations, a person daily adapts to his physical and social environment. Psychological stress is a concept used to refer to a wide range of emotional states and human actions that occur as a response to a variety of extreme exposures.

Numerous factors influence the development of psychological stress, among which are the characteristics of a stressful event, the interpretation of an event by a person, the influence of a person’s past experience, awareness of the situation, individual and personal characteristics of a person. In turn, stress has an impact on the mental processes of a person, in particular on higher mental functions.

A person reacts to stress on a physiological, emotional and behavioral level. The type of response, in particular the choice of coping strategy, largely determines what the consequences of each specific stress will be.

The degree of awareness of the situation and the adequacy of behavior in the event of an unexpected threat to life are largely determined by the innate characteristics of the personality, its attitudes, the type of nervous system and a number of other psychobiological indicators. It is not always possible to teach a person to behave correctly in unforeseen life-threatening situations, therefore people often turn out to be unprepared for action in them.

Tolerance to extreme situations is a socio-psychological characteristic of a person, which consists in the ability to endure the extraordinary situation without any damage to oneself, to be tolerant of various manifestations of the world, other people, oneself, to overcome these situations with the help of methods that “develop ”, improving the personality, increasing the level of adaptation and social maturity of the subject. In fact, this property means the presence of an adaptive potential of the individual, which determines its ability to overcome difficult situations. To prevent the adverse effects of extreme situations in any person, it is necessary to develop tolerance in the form of a complex of the above properties and qualities.

References

1. Bandurka A.M., Bocharova S.P., Zemlyanskaya E.V. Fundamentals of management psychology: Textbook. - X.: Univ. cases, 1999. - 528 p.

2. B.A. Smirnov, E.V. Dolgopolov. Psychology of activity in extreme situations. X .: Publishing House of the Humanitarian Center, 2007. - 276 p.

3. Big psychological dictionary / Ed. B.G. Meshcheryakova, acad. V.P. Zinchenko. - M.: Prime-EVROZNAK, 2003. - 632 p.

4. Korolenko Ts.P. Psychophysiology of a person in extreme conditions. - L., 1978. - 272 p.

5. Lebedev V. I. Personality in extreme conditions. - M.: Politizdat, 1989. - 304 p.

6. Nabiullina R.R., Tukhtarova I.V. Mechanisms of psychological defense and coping with stress. Tutorial. - Kazan, 2003

7. Psychology of activity in extreme situations. X .: Publishing House of the Humanitarian Center, 2007, 276 p.

8. Psychology of extreme situations for rescuers and firefighters /Under the general editorship. Yu.S. Shoigu. M.: Meaning, 2007. - 319 p.

9. Psychology of personality. Textbook / ed. prof. P. N. Ermakova, prof. V. A. Labunskaya. - M.: Eksmo, 2007 - 653 p.

10. Psychological magazine. No. 1. 1990. V. 11. S. 95-101

11. Reshetnikov M.M., Baranov Yu.A., Mukhin A.P., Chermyanin S.V. Ufa catastrophe: features of the state, behavior and activities of people Psychological magazine, M., 1990.

12. Stolyarenko A.M. General and professional psychology - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2003. - 382 p.

13. Social psychology. Mokshantsev R.I., Mokshantseva A.V. M., Novosibirsk: Infra-M, 2001. - 408 p.

14. Taras A.E., Selchenok K.V. Psychology of extreme situations. Other. Mn. : Harvest, M.: AST, 2000. - 480 p.

15. Information portal [Electronic resource]. Access mode: http://extreme-survival.io.ua/s191364/test_na_sposobnost_k_vyjivaniyu - Access date: 03/15/2012.

Appendix 1. Methodology for diagnosing coping mechanisms by E. Heim

Adaptive coping behaviors

Adaptive cognitive coping strategies:

A5 - problem analysis (analysis of the difficulties encountered and possible ways out of them);

A10 - setting one's own value (deep awareness of one's own value as a person);

A4 - maintaining self-control (the presence of faith in one's own resources in overcoming difficult situations).

Adaptive emotional coping strategies:

B1 - protest (active indignation in relation to difficulties);

B4 - optimism (confidence that there is a way out in any difficult situation).

Adaptive behavioral coping strategies:

B7 - cooperation (cooperation with significant and more experienced people;

В8 - appeal (search for support in the immediate social environment);

В2 - altruism (a person himself supports his relatives in overcoming difficulties).

Non-adaptive coping behaviors

Non-adaptive cognitive coping strategies, including passive forms of behavior with a refusal to overcome difficulties due to disbelief in one's own strengths and intellectual resources, with deliberate underestimation of troubles:

A2 - humility;

A8 - confusion;

A3 - dissimulation;

A1 - ignoring.

Maladaptive emotional coping strategies:

Behaviors characterized by a depressed emotional state, a state of hopelessness, submissiveness and avoidance of other feelings, experiencing anger and blaming oneself and others.

B3 - suppression of emotions;

B6 - humility;

B7 - self-accusation;

B8 - aggressiveness.

Non-adaptive behavioral coping strategies:

Behavior that involves avoiding thoughts of trouble, passivity, solitude, peace, isolation, the desire to get away from active interpersonal contacts, refusal to solve problems.

В3 - active avoidance;

В6 - retreat.

Relatively adaptive coping behaviors, the constructiveness of which depends on the significance and severity of the situation of overcoming:

Relatively adaptive cognitive coping strategies:

A6 - relativity (assessment of difficulties in comparison with others);

A9 - giving meaning (giving special meaning to overcoming difficulties);

A7 - religiosity (faith in God and steadfastness in faith when faced with complex problems).

Relatively adaptive emotional coping strategies:

B2 - emotional discharge (relieving tension associated with problems, emotional response);

· B5 - passive cooperation (transfer of responsibility for resolving difficulties to other persons).

Relatively adaptive behavioral coping strategies, characterized by the desire for a temporary retreat from solving problems with the help of alcohol, drugs, immersion in your favorite business, travel, fulfillment of your cherished desires:

В4 - compensation;

В1 - distraction;

В5 - constructive activity.

Methodology"Coping behavior in stressful situations"

Surname, First Name, Patronymic ____________ Date___________

Date of birth: Day _____ Month ______ Year_________

Occupation___________

Education______________

Marital status: married _______ not married _________

(including civil)

Widowed/Widower__________ Divorced (a)___________

(including unofficially)

You will be presented with a series of statements regarding your behavior. Try to remember how you most often resolve difficult and stressful situations and situations of high emotional tension. Please circle the number that suits you. In each section of statements, you need to choose only one option, with the help of which you resolve your difficulties.

Please answer according to how you have dealt with difficult situations lately. Do not hesitate for a long time - your first reaction is important. Be careful!

	I tell myself: at the moment there is something more important than difficulties
	I tell myself: this is fate, you need to come to terms with it
	These are minor difficulties, not everything is so bad, basically everything is fine
	I do not lose self-control and self-control in difficult times and try not to show my condition to anyone
	I try to analyze, weigh everything and explain to myself what is happening
	I tell myself: compared to other people's problems, mine are nothing.
	If something happened, then it is so pleasing to God
	I don't know what to do and at times it seems to me that I can't get out of these difficulties.
	I give my difficulties a special meaning, overcoming them, I improve myself
	At the moment I am completely unable to cope with these difficulties, but in time I will be able to cope with them, and with more complex ones.
	I am always deeply indignant at the injustice of fate to me and protest
	I fall into despair, I sob and cry
	I suppress my emotions
	I am always sure that there is a way out of a difficult situation.
	I trust overcoming my difficulties to other people who are ready to help me
	I fall into a state of hopelessness
	I feel guilty and I get what I deserve
	I get mad, I get aggressive
	I immerse myself in my favorite business, trying to forget about the difficulties
	I try to help people and in caring for them I forget about my sorrows.
	I try not to think, in every possible way I avoid focusing on my troubles
	I try to distract myself and relax (with the help of alcohol, sedatives, delicious food, etc.)
	In order to survive the difficulties, I undertake the realization of an old dream (I go to travel, enroll in foreign language courses, etc.)
	I isolate myself, try to be alone with myself
	I use collaboration with significant people to overcome difficulties
	I usually look for people who can help me with advice.

Annex 2. Questionnaire for readiness to survive in an extreme situation

How to fill out the form

In column A, tick off the statement that matches what you have. If it does not match, leave this field blank.

After you have checked the boxes in column "A" - check the answers below. There are two groups of them - "S" (Survival) and "D" (Defeat) In column "B" opposite the cells that you marked, put "S" or "D" - in accordance with which group your answer belongs to . There is no need to bet against empty cells - "S" or "D" is placed in column "B" ONLY opposite the marked cell.

Count how many "S" you have and write the answer (number) in front of the position Amount Survival (see below). Do the same with the result "D" (position Sum Defeat).

To find out your survival potential, subtract the second number ("D") from the first ("S"). Look for the resulting figure in the section "Your rating"

Survival Group ("S"):

1, 3, 5, 8, 9, 12, 15, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 30, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39.

Group Defeat ("D"):

2, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14, 17, 18, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 31, 35, 36, 37, 40.

Survival Amount:_____

Defeat Amount:_____

15 to 20 - You can survive almost anywhere

10 to 14 - You have good chances.

5 to 9 - Your chances are slim

0 to 4 - Don't take unnecessary risks

-10 to -1 - Look for a guardian

-20 to -11 - Most likely you already have a guardian

Check the boxes that match your personality.
		1. I have a goal in mind that I should strive for.
		2. I take action without any clear purpose.
		3. I know what is important to me, I have certain priorities.
		4. I live only in the present moment, not thinking about the long term.
		5. I strive for what I want, despite the obstacles.
		6. I try to exist without much effort.
		7. I try to avoid difficult positions.
		8. My best qualities come out in stressful situations.
		9. I can usually find moments to laugh at.
		10. Mostly I notice the negative side.
		12. I try to make the most of a difficult situation.
		13. I believe that the outcome mostly depends on luck or fate.
		14. I think that my condition depends on surrounding events or people.
		15. I control my life, no matter what happens around.
		16. I know that my efforts can make a difference.
		17. I make decisions instantly, not analyze.
		18. I act without thinking about the consequences.
		19. I try to see things as they are, even if I don't like them.
		20. To achieve something, I plan my actions.
		21. I find new or unusual methods to solve problems.
		22. I am capable of improvisation.
		23. I won't do what I don't like.

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The concept of temperament as individually peculiar properties of the psyche that determine the dynamics of human mental activity. Characteristics and features of temperament types. The behavior of people with different types of temperament in extreme situations.

Extreme situations are different: flood, earthquake, betrayal of one of the spouses, etc. People stay for a long time in an environment that is very different from the usual, caused by low or high temperatures, avalanches, floods on rivers, heavy rainfall, etc. For example, in the practice of tourism (including sports), emergency situations associated with loss of orientation are most likely; loss of group or individual equipment as a result of fire, avalanche, blizzard, ill-conceived crossings through water barriers and similar reasons; unintentional separation of the group or the loss of one or more participants in the campaign; a sharp deterioration in weather conditions and, as a result, the insufficient effectiveness of the equipment taken, the impossibility of its operation; loss, overspending or spoilage of food that threatens the group with hunger; loss of a vehicle (raft, motonart, etc.).

Statistics show that the occurrence of an emergency situation in a campaign in most cases is a consequence of the wrong actions of the people themselves. Only an insignificant part of accidents occurs due to objective reasons that do not depend on people, for example, when a group falls into a natural disaster zone - fire, flood, hurricane, earthquake. An emergency situation differs from an accident in that not one or two victims, but the whole group, are in a critical situation that threatens life itself.

During the preparation of the trip, tourists carefully analyze the route in terms of ensuring safety. To do this, with the help of special literature, they get acquainted with the geographical, climatic, relief features of the travel area, ask tourists who have previously been to the area and know the specific dangers of the route, if necessary, contact the local travel club.

Such physical, theoretical, psychological preparation and a serious attitude to business disciplines a person. In the head of a person who systematically engages in physical culture, possible difficulties and consequences of incorrect actions are predicted.

For each expected emergency, the best course of action is determined. When "playing" possible accidents during a campaign, one must proceed from the worst. They hope for luck, but maybe they are not prepared, and this means deliberately putting their lives and the lives of their comrades at unjustified risk.

In emergency circumstances, it is very important to maintain maximum composure, move away from “personal” fear, assess the situation as a whole, and outline the safest course of action. This is achieved by learning how to act in an accident. It is desirable to develop a kind of conditioned reflex to danger.

Such reflexes are more or less developed during sports. Athletes consciously prepare themselves for sports activities, but in practice, in certain situations, they transfer their physical abilities (strength, endurance, speed), skills to other activities. People who are not involved in physical culture and sports do not know how to transfer physical abilities and skills to another area of ​​activity and deliberately expose themselves to danger in emergency situations. Such people, as a rule, are prepared as a burden and are a “brake” to saving themselves and others.

Very often, experienced tourists, recalling the accident, say that they acted “unconsciously”. But this is apparent unconsciousness. It is based on knowledge, experience of numerous trips, trainings, analysis of emergency situations, personal participation in minor incidents. The correct actions are “recorded” in the subconscious of an experienced tourist and athlete. And vice versa, indecision, confusion are explained, as a rule, by elementary illiteracy. Not knowing what to do to save himself, a person falls into a stupor or panic, subsequently giving way to despair, a sense of doom. For example, an experienced tourist shouting “Stone!” will instantly press against the rock, and the beginner will freeze or begin to lift his head, trying to see where the threat comes from.

With a short-term external threat, a person acts on a sensual level, obeying the instinct of self-preservation, easily orients himself in space: bounces off a falling tree, clings to stationary objects when falling, tries to stay on the surface of the water with the threat of drowning. A person who is not engaged in physical culture, sports will not have the strength to save himself, not to mention helping others.

Another thing is long-term survival. In an emergency, sooner or later, a critical moment comes when exorbitant physical and mental stress, the seeming senselessness of further resistance suppress the will. A person is seized by passivity, indifference. He is no longer afraid of the possible tragic consequences of ill-conceived overnight stays, risky crossings, etc. He does not believe in the possibility of salvation and therefore perishes without exhausting his reserves of strength to the end. Only athletes have a high level of body recovery. They are less tired compared to people who do not play sports.

Survival, based only on the biological laws of self-preservation, is short-lived. It is characterized by rapidly developing mental disorders and hysterical behavioral reactions. The desire to survive (to win) must be conscious and purposeful. You can call it the will to live. Long-term survival is ensured not by the spontaneous desire “I don’t want to die!”, but by the goal “I must survive!”. Only trained people can do this.

The desire to survive should be dictated not by instinct, but by conscious necessity. Unfortunately, there are many cases when, after an accident, people, due to their weakness, passively expected help from outside, without taking any action to protect themselves from adverse climatic factors, to facilitate their search. Willlessness took the form of inaction, and this, in turn, exacerbated the developing depression. We must strive to provide feasible work for each person. Inaction, especially forced waiting, oppresses people. It is very important not to be led by your own fatigue, not to put things off “for tomorrow”, “for later”. You should show maximum willpower to do what you don’t want to do. Only athletes, people who are systematically engaged in physical culture, are capable of this.

The basis of survival is solid knowledge in various fields, from astronomy and medicine to the recipe for cooking dishes from caterpillars. The lack of necessary knowledge cannot replace either enthusiasm, or physical endurance, or even the availability of stocks of food and emergency equipment. A box of matches will not save you from freezing if a person does not know how to properly make a fire in the rain. The risk of getting into an avalanche increases many times if you do not know the rules for overcoming avalanche areas. Incorrectly rendered first aid will only aggravate the condition of the victim.

It is desirable not only to know how to behave in a given situation, but also to be able to do it. In order to do this, elementary physical qualities are necessary: ​​strength, endurance, dexterity, flexibility, appropriate thinking. When the situation becomes threatening, it is too late to start learning.

The psychology of extreme situations is one of the areas of applied psychology. It exploresproblems associated with the assessment, prediction and optimization of mental states and human behavior in stressful situations.

An emergency situation is a situation in a certain territory that has developed in a dangerous situation, a catastrophe, a natural or other disaster that can lead to damage to health or the environment, significant material losses and disruption of people's living conditions.

An emergency situation (ES) is a situation that goes beyond the usual, associated with particularly unfavorable or threatening factors for human life.

The difference between an extreme situation and an emergency is that an extreme situation is a direct interaction of a person with an extremely complex environment that occurs over a short period of time and leads a person to a personal threshold of adaptation when a danger to his life and health is created. An extreme situation is not just an emergency, but an exceptionally dangerous event or a set of dangerous events.

In an extreme situation, psychological shock may be accompanied by muscle numbness, disruption of the process of normal thinking, loss of consciousness control over feelings and will. Psychological shock can manifest itself in respiratory failure, pupils dilate, heart palpitations open, peripheral spasm. blood vessels, the principle of supplying oxygen to the brain is violated. The state of psychological shock can last from several minutes to several days.

In particular, psychodiagnostics in extreme situations has its own distinctive features. Under these conditions, due to lack of time, it is not possible to use standard diagnostic procedures. Actions, including those of a practical psychologist, are determined by the contingency plan.

Emergencies can be classified according to the following criteria:

in terms of suddenness: sudden (unpredictable) and expected (predictable). It is easier to predict social, political, economic situations, more difficult - natural disasters. Timely forecasting of emergencies and the right actions can avoid significant losses and, in some cases, prevent emergencies;

by propagation speed: An emergency can be explosive, rapid, rapidly spreading or moderate, smooth. The majority of military conflicts, man-made accidents, and natural disasters often belong to the rapid ones. Ecological situations develop relatively smoothly;

in terms of distribution: local, local, territorial, regional, federal, cross-border. Local, local and territorial include emergencies that do not go beyond the limits of one functional unit, production, settlement. Regional, federal and transboundary emergencies cover entire regions, states or several states;

by duration: may be short-term or have a protracted course. All emergencies resulting in environmental pollution are protracted;

the nature: intentional (intentional) and unintentional (unintentional). The former include most national, social and military conflicts, terrorist acts and others. Natural disasters, by the nature of their origin, are unintentional; this group also includes the majority of man-made accidents and disasters.

According to the source of origin, emergency (extreme) situations are divided into:

– Technogenic emergencies;

– emergency situations of natural origin;

– Emergencies of a biological and social nature.

Types of man-made emergencies: transport accidents and disasters, fires and explosions, accidents with the release of emergency chemical poisonous substances (AHOV) and toxic substances (OS), accidents and disasters with the release of radioactive substances (RS) or highly toxic substances (SDN), sudden collapse of structures, accidents in electrical and energy systems (EPS ) or utility life support systems, accidents at industrial wastewater treatment plants, hydrodynamic accidents.

Types of emergencies of natural origin: geophysical, geological, meteorological, agrometeorological, dangerous marine hydrological phenomena, natural fires.

Types of emergencies of a biological and social nature: famine, terrorism, public unrest, alcoholism, drug addiction, substance abuse, various acts of violence.

Emergencies associated with a change in the state of the lithosphere - land (soil, subsoil, landscape); composition and properties of the atmosphere (air environment); the state of the hydrosphere (aquatic environment); state of the biosphere; infectious diseases of humans, animals and plants.

For practical purposes and to establish a unified approach to the assessment of natural and man-made emergencies, to determine the boundaries of emergency zones and to adequately respond to them, a classification of emergencies has been introduced:

– depending on the number of people affected in these emergencies;

– people whose living conditions are violated;

–the amount of material damage, as well as the boundaries of the zone of distribution of damaging factors of emergency situations.

The source of an emergency is defined as a dangerous natural phenomenon, an accident or a man-made incident, an infectious disease of people, animals and plants, as well as the use of modern means of destruction (SSP), as a result of which an emergency may occur.

The damaging factor of an emergency source is defined as a component of a hazardous phenomenon or process caused by an emergency source and characterized by physical, chemical and biological actions or phenomena that are determined by the relevant parameters

An emergency zone is defined as a territory or water area where an emergency situation has arisen as a result of the emergence of a source of emergency situations or the spread of its consequences from other areas.

A contamination zone is an area within which dangerous chemicals or biological agents are distributed.ie (bacteriological) means, in quantities that pose a danger to people, animals and plants and the natural environment.

The lesion focus is a limited area within which, as a result of the impact of the SSP, mass death or injury of people, agricultural animals and plants occurred, buildings and structures were destroyed and damaged, as well as elements of the natural environment (EA).

Damage assessment due to emergencies is carried out according to 5 main parameters:

– direct losses due to emergencies;

–expenses for rescue and other urgent works;

– the volume of evacuation measures and the costs of their implementation;

– expenses for liquidation of emergencies;

– indirect losses.

Inapplicable in many extreme situations and the usual methods of psychological influence. It all depends on the goals of psychological impact in extreme situations: in one case, you need to support, help; in another, one should stop, for example, rumors, panic; the third is to negotiate.

The main principles of providing assistance to those who have suffered psychological trauma as a result of the influence of extreme situations are:

urgency;

proximity to the place of events;

expectation that the normal state will be restored;

unity and simplicity of psychological impact.

Urgency means that help should be provided as soon as possible: the more time passes since the injury, the greater the likelihood of chronic disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder.

The meaning of the principle of proximity is to provide assistance in the familiar environment and social environment, as well as to minimize the negative consequences of "hospitalism".

Expectation that the normal state will be restored: a person who has undergone a stressful situation should not be treated as a patient, but as a normal person. It is necessary to maintain confidence in the imminent return of a normal state.

The unity of psychological impact implies that either one person should act as its source, or the procedure for providing psychological assistance should be unified.

Simplicity of psychological impact - it is necessary to take the victim away from the source of injury, provide food, rest, a safe environment and the opportunity to be heard.

In general, the emergency psychological assistance service performs the following basic functions:

– practical: direct provision of emergency psychological and (if necessary) pre-hospital medical care to the population;

–coordination: ensuring links and interaction with specialized psychological services.

The purpose and objectives of emergency psychological care include the prevention of acute panic reactions, psychogenic neuropsychiatric disorders; increasing the adaptive capacity of the individual; psychotherapy of emerging borderline neuropsychiatric disorders.

Conducting psychotherapy and psychoprophylaxis is carried out in two directions. The first - with the healthy part of the population - in the form of prevention:

a) acute panic reactions;

b) delayed, "delayed" neuropsychiatric disorders.

The second direction is psychotherapy and psychoprophylaxis of persons with developed neuropsychiatric disorders. The technical difficulties of conducting rescue operations in areas of catastrophes, natural disasters can lead to the fact that the victims for a sufficiently long time will find themselves in conditions of complete isolation from the outside world. In this case, psychotherapeutic assistance is recommended in the form of emergency "information therapy", the purpose of which is the psychological maintenance of the viability of those who are alive, but are in complete isolation from the outside world (earthquakes, destruction of homes as a result of accidents, explosions, etc.). "Information therapy" is implemented through a system of sound amplifiers and consists of broadcasting the following recommendations that victims should hear:

1) information that the outside world is coming to their aid and everything is being done to help them come to them as quickly as possible;

2) those in isolation must remain completely calm, because. it is one of the main means to their salvation;

3) it is necessary to provide self-help;

4) in case of blockages, the victims should not take any physical efforts to self-evacuate, which can lead to a dangerous displacement of debris;

5) you should save your strength as much as possible;

6) be with your eyes closed, which will bring you closer to a state of light drowsiness and greater savings in physical strength;

7) breathe slowly, shallowly and through the nose, which will save moisture and oxygen in the body and oxygen in the surrounding air;

8) mentally repeat the phrase: “I am completely calm” 5–6 times, alternating these autosuggestions with counting periods up to 15–20, which will relieve internal tension and achieve normalization of the pulse and blood pressure, as well as self-discipline;

9) release from "captivity" may take longer than the victims want. “Be courageous and patient. Help is coming to you."

The purpose of "information therapy" is also to reduce the feeling of fear in victims, because. it is known that in crisis situations more people die from fear than from the impact of a real destructive factor. After the release of the victims from under the rubble of buildings, it is necessary to continue psychotherapy (and, above all, amnestic therapy) in stationary conditions.

First aid rules for psychologists:

1. In a crisis situation, the victim is always in a state of mental excitement. This is fine. Optimal is the average level of excitation. Tell the patient right away what you expect from the therapy and how long it will take to work on the problem. The hope of success is better than the fear of failure.

2. Don't take action right away. Look around and decide what kind of help (besides psychological) is required, which of the victims is most in need of help. Give it about 30 seconds with one victim, about five minutes with several victims.

3. Be specific about who you are and what you do. Find out the names of those in need of help. Tell the victims that help will arrive soon, that you took care of it.

4. Carefully establish bodily contact with the victim. Take the victim by the hand or pat on the shoulder. Touching the head or other parts of the body is not recommended. Take a position at the same level as the victim. Do not turn your back on the victim.

5. Never blame the victim. Tell us what steps need to be taken to help in his case.

6. Professional competence is reassuring. Tell us about your qualifications and experience.

7. Let the victim believe in his own competence. Give him a task that he can handle. Use this to convince him of his own abilities, so that the victim has a sense of self-control.

8. Let the victim talk. Listen actively to him, be attentive to his feelings and thoughts. Retell the positive.

9. Tell the victim that you will stay with him. When parting, find a substitute for yourself and instruct him on what to do with the victim.

10. Involve people from the immediate environment of the victim to provide assistance. Instruct them and give them simple tasks. Avoid any words that may make someone feel guilty.

11. Try to protect the victim from excessive attention and questions. Give curious specific tasks.

12. Stress can also have a negative impact on a psychologist. It makes sense to remove the tension that arises during such work with the help of relaxation exercises and professional supervision.