Sigmund Freud (full name - Sigismund Shlomo Freud) was born on May 6, 1856 in the town of Freiberg. Today it is the Czech city of Příbor, and at that time Freiberg, like the whole of the Czech Republic, was part of the Austrian Empire. The ancestors of his father, Jacob Freud, lived in Germany, and his mother, Amalia Natanson, was from Odessa. She was thirty years younger than her husband and, in fact, played the role of leader in the family.
Jacob Freud had his own textile business. Soon after the birth of the future famous psychoanalyst, hard days came for his father's business. Having practically gone bankrupt, he and his whole family moved first to Leipzig, and then to Vienna. The first years in the Austrian capital were difficult for the Freuds, but after a couple of years, Jacob, Sigmund's father, got to his feet, and their lives more or less improved.
Getting an education
Sigmund graduated with honors from the gymnasium, but all universities were not opened before him. He was limited by the lack of funds in the family and anti-Semitic sentiments in high school. The impetus for making a decision about further education was a lecture he once heard about nature, built on the basis of Goethe's philosophical essay. Freud entered the medical faculty of the University of Vienna, but quickly realized that a career as a general practitioner was not for him. He was much more attracted to psychology, which he became interested in at the lectures of the famous psychologist Ernst von Brucke. In 1881, having received a medical degree, he continued to work in the Brücke laboratory, but this activity did not generate income and Freud got a job as a doctor in the Vienna Hospital. After working for several months in surgery, the young doctor switched to neurology. In the course of his medical practice, he studied methods of treating paralysis in children and even published several scientific articles on this topic. He was the first to use the term "infantile cerebral palsy", and his work in this area earned him a reputation as a good neuropathologist. Later, he published articles in which he created the first classification of cerebral palsy.
Gaining Medical Experience
In 1983, Freud moved to serve in the psychiatric department. Work in psychiatry inspired several scientific publications, including the article "Studies in Hysteria", written later (in 1895) with the physician Josef Breuer and considered the first scientific work in the history of psychoanalysis. In the next two years, Freud changed his specialization several times. He worked in the venereal department of the hospital, while studying the relationship of syphilis with diseases of the nervous system. Then he moved to the Department of Nervous Diseases.
During this period of his activity, Freud turned to the study of the psychostimulant properties of cocaine. He tested the effects of cocaine on himself. Freud was greatly impressed by the analgesic properties of this substance, used it in his medical practice and promoted it as an effective medicine in the treatment of depression, neuroses, alcoholism, certain types of drug addiction, syphilis and sexual disorders. Sigmund Freud published several scientific papers on the properties of cocaine and its use in medicine. The medical and scientific community lashed out at him for these articles. A few years later, cocaine was recognized by all doctors in Europe as a dangerous drug, the same as opium and alcohol. However, by that time Freud had already become addicted to cocaine and even hooked several of his acquaintances and patients on cocaine.
In 1985, the young doctor managed to get an internship at a psychiatric clinic in Paris. In the capital of France, he worked under the guidance of the famous psychiatrist Jean Charcot. Freud himself had very high hopes for an internship under the guidance of a venerable scientist. He wrote at that time to his fiancee: "... I will go to Paris, become a great scientist and return to Vienna with a big, just a huge halo over my head." Returning from France the following year, Freud actually opened his own neuropathological practice, where he treated neuroses with hypnosis.
Family life of Sigmund Freud
A year after returning from Paris, Freud married Martha Bernays. They had known each other for four years, but Freud, who did not have a good income, did not consider himself capable of providing for his wife, who was used to living in abundance. Private medical practice brought the best income, and in September 1886, Sigmund and Marta got married. Biographers of the great psychoanalyst note very strong and tender feelings that connected Freud and Bernays. In the four years that have passed from acquaintance to marriage, Sigmund wrote more than 900 letters to his bride. They lived in love for 53 years - until the death of Freud. Martha once said that in all these 53 years they had not said a single angry or offensive word to each other. The wife bore Freud six children. The youngest daughter of Sigmund Freud followed in her father's footsteps. Anna Freud was the founder of child psychoanalysis.
Creation of psychoanalysis and contribution to science
By the mid-1990s, Freud was firmly convinced that the cause of hysterical states was repressed memories of a sexual nature. In 1986, the father of Sigmund Freud died and the scientist fell into a severe depression. Freud decided to treat the neurosis that had developed on the basis of depression on his own - by studying his childhood memories by the method of free association. To enhance the effectiveness of self-treatment, Freud turned to the analysis of his dreams. This practice turned out to be very painful, but gave the expected result. In 1990, Sigmund Freud published what he considered to be the main work in psychoanalysis: The Interpretation of Dreams.
The release of the book did not make a splash in the scientific community, but gradually a group of followers and like-minded people began to form around Freud. The meeting of psychoanalysts in Freud's house was called the Wednesday Psychological Society. Within a few years, this society has grown significantly. Freud himself, meanwhile, published several more works significant for the theory of psychoanalysis, including: "Wit and its relation to the unconscious" and "Three essays on the theory of sexuality." At the same time, Freud's popularity as a practicing psychoanalyst grew steadily. Patients from other countries began to come to see him. In 1909, Freud received an invitation to lecture in the United States. The following year, his book Five Lectures on Psychoanalysis was published.
In 1913, Sigmund Freud published the book "Totem and Taboo", dedicated to the origin of morality and religion. In 1921, Mass Psychology and the Analysis of the Human Self was published, in which the scientist uses the tools of psychoanalysis to explain social phenomena.
The last years of Sigmund Freud's life
In 1923, Freud was diagnosed with a malignant tumor of the palate. The operation to remove it was unsuccessful and subsequently he had to undergo surgery three dozen more times. Stopping the spreading tumor required the removal of part of the jaw. After that, Sigmund Freud could not lecture. He was still actively invited to various events, but his daughter Anna spoke for him, reading out his works.
After Hitler came to power in Germany and the subsequent Anschluss of Austria, the position of the scientist in his native country became extremely difficult. His psychological association was banned, books were removed from libraries and shops and burned, along with books by Heine, Kafka and Einstein. After the Gestapo arrested his daughter, Freud decided to leave the country. It turned out to be not easy, the Nazi authorities demanded a significant amount of money for permission to emigrate. Ultimately, with the help of many influential people in the world, Freud managed to emigrate to England. The departure from the country coincided with the progress of the disease. Freud asked his friend and attending physician about euthanasia. On September 23, 1939, Sigmund Freud died as a result of an injection of morphine.
Sigmund Freud(full name - Sigismund Shlomo Freud) is an Austrian psychologist, neurologist and psychiatrist. He is credited with founding psychoanalysis - a theory about the characteristics of human behavior and the causes of this behavior.
In 1930 Sigmund Freud was awarded Goethe Prize, it was then that his theories were recognized by society, although they remained "revolutionary" for that period of time.
short biography
Sigmund Freud was born May 6, 1856 in the Austrian town of Freiberg (modern Czech Republic), whose population numbered about 4,500 people.
His father - Jacob Freud, was married a second time, from his first marriage he had two sons. He was a textile merchant. Sigmund's mother Natalie Natanson She was half her father's age.
In 1859 due to the forced closure of the business of the head of the family, the Freud family moved first to Leipzig and then to Vienna. Zygmund Shlomo was 4 years old at that time.
Study period
At first, Sigmund was raised by his mother, but soon his father took up this, who wanted a better future for him and in every possible way instilled in his son a love of literature. He succeeded and Freud Jr. kept this love until the end of his life.
Studying at the gymnasium
Diligence and ability to learn allowed Sigmund to enter the gymnasium at the age of 9 - a year earlier than usual. At that time he already had 7 siblings. Parents singled out Sigmund for his talent and desire to learn everything new. Up to the point that the rest of the children were forbidden to play music when he was studying in a separate room.
At the age of 17, the young talent graduated from the gymnasium with honors. By that time, he was fond of literature and philosophy, and also knew several languages: German perfectly, English, French, Italian, Spanish, studied Latin and Greek.
Needless to say, for the entire period of study, he was the student number 1 in his class.
Choice of profession
Further education for Sigmund Freud was limited due to his Jewish background. The choice was left to him commerce, industry, medicine or law. After some thought he chose medicine and entered the University of Vienna in 1873.
At the university, he began to study chemistry and anatomy. However, most of all he liked psychology and physiology. Partly due to the fact that at the university lectures on these subjects were given by the famous Ernst von Brucke.
Sigmund was also impressed by the popular zoologist Karl Claus with whom he subsequently carried out research work. During his time under Klaus "Freud quickly distinguished himself from other students, which enabled him twice, in 1875 and 1876, to become a fellow of the Institute of Zoological Research of Trieste."
After university
Being a rationally thinking person and setting himself the goal of achieving a position in society and material independence, Sigmund in 1881 opened a doctor's office and took up the treatment of psychoneuroses. Shortly thereafter, he began to use cocaine for medicinal purposes, first trying its effects on himself.
Colleagues looked askance at him, some called him an adventurer. Subsequently, it became clear to him that neuroses could not be cured from cocaine, but getting used to it was quite simple. It took a lot of work for Freud to give up the white powder and win for himself the authority of a pure doctor and scientist.
First successes
In 1899 Sigmund Freud published a book "The Interpretation of Dreams", which caused a negative reaction in society. She was ridiculed in the press, some of her colleagues did not want to have anything to do with Freud. But the book aroused great interest abroad: in France, England, America. Gradually, the attitude towards Dr. Freud changed, his stories won more and more supporters among doctors.
Getting acquainted with an increasing number of patients, mostly women, who complained of various ailments and disorders, using hypnosis methods, Freud built his theory about unconscious mental activity and determined that neurosis is a defensive reaction of the psyche to a traumatic idea.
Later, he put forward a hypothesis about the special role of unsatisfied sexuality in the development of neurosis. Observing the behavior of a person, his actions - especially bad ones, Freud came to the conclusion that unconscious motives lie at the heart of people's actions.
Theory of the Unconscious
Trying to find these very unconscious motives - the possible causes of neuroses, he drew attention to the unsatisfied desires of a person in the past, which lead to personality conflicts in the present. These alien emotions seem to cloud the mind. They were interpreted by him as the main evidence the existence of the unconscious.
In 1902, Sigmund was given the position of professor of neuropathology at the University of Vienna, and a year later he became the organizer "First International Psychoanalytic Congress". But international recognition of his merits came to him only in 1930, when the city of Frankfurt am Main awarded him Goethe Prize.
last years of life
Unfortunately, the subsequent life of Sigmund Freud was filled with tragic events. In 1933, the Nazis came to power in Germany, Jews began to be persecuted, Freud's books were burned in Berlin. Further worse - he himself ended up in the Vienna ghetto, and his sisters in a concentration camp. Nevertheless, they managed to rescue him, in 1938 he and his family left for London. But he had only a year to live: he suffered from oral cancer caused by smoking.
September 23, 1939 Sigmund Freud was injected with several cubes of morphine, a dose sufficient to end the life of a man weakened by disease. He died at 3 o'clock in the morning at the age of 83, his body was cremated, and the ashes were placed in a special Etruscan vase, which is stored in the mausoleum Golders Green.
Sigmund Freud, German Sigismund Schlomo Freud; May 6, 1856, Freiberg, Austria-Hungary (now Příbor, Czech Republic) - September 23, 1939, London) - Austrian psychologist, psychiatrist and neurologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school - a therapeutic trend in psychology, postulating the theory that human neurotic disorders are caused by a multi-complex relationship unconscious and conscious processes. In their theories Freud largely based on the ideas of evolutionary anthropology.Sigmund Freud was born into a family of Galician Jews. His father, Yakov, was 41 years old and had two children from a previous marriage. Sigmund's mother, Amalia Natanson, Yakov's third wife, was 21 years old. In 1860, the Freud family moved to Vienna due to financial difficulties. At the age of 9 Freud He entered Spurl Gymnasium (high school), where he was one of the best students, and graduated with honors at the age of 17.
After graduating from high school Freud wanted to make a military or political career, but due to anti-Semitic sentiments and financial difficulties, his ambitions were crossed out.
In the autumn of 1873, he entered the medical department of the University of Vienna. From 1876 to 1882 he worked in the psychology laboratory of Ernst Brücke, studying the histology of nerve cells. In 1881, he passed his final exams with honors and received the degree of doctor of medicine.
In March 1876 Freud under the guidance of Professor Karl Klaus, he investigated the sexual life of the eel. In particular, he studied the presence of testes in the male eel. This was his first scientific work.
In 1882 Freud started medical practice. Scientific interests brought him to Vienna's main hospital, where he began research at the Institute of Cerebral Anatomy. In the early 1880s. became close friends with Josef Breuer and Jean Martin Charcot, who had a huge impact on his scientific work.
In 1886 Freud married Martha Bernays. Subsequently, they had six children, the youngest, Anna Freud, became a follower of her father, founded child psychoanalysis, systematized and developed psychoanalytic theory, made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of psychoanalysis in her writings.
Published in 1891 Freud“On Aphasia”, in which he, in particular, for the first time made a reasoned criticism of the then generally accepted concept of localization of brain functions in its certain centers and proposed an alternative functional-genetic approach to the study of the psyche and its physiological mechanisms. In the article "Defensive neuropsychoses" (1894) and the work "Study of hysteria" (1895, together with I. Breuer), it was evidenced that there is an inverse effect of mental pathology on physiological processes and the dependence of somatic symptoms on the emotional state of the patient.
With the beginning of the 20th century, he began to publish his main scientific works:
- "" (1900)
- "Psychopathology of everyday life" (1901)
- "One early memory of Leonardo da Vinci" (1910)
- "" (1913)
- "Lectures on Introduction to Psychoanalysis" (1916-1917)
- "Beyond the Pleasure Principle" (1920)
- "Psychology of the masses and the analysis of the human "I"" (1921)
- "" (1923)
In 1923 at Freud palate cancer caused by smoking. The scientist underwent 33 operations, but continued to work until the last days of his life.
Painfully suffering from cancer, in 1939 he asked his doctor and friend Max Schur to help him perform euthanasia, the idea of which was quite popular at that time. He gave him a triple dose of morphine, which Freud died September 23 at the age of 83.
Biography of Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Shlomo Freud, the creator of the direction that became known as depth psychology and psychoanalysis, was born on May 6, 1856 in the small Moravian town of Freiburg (now Příbor) into the family of a poor wool merchant. He was the firstborn of a young mother. After Sigmund, the Freuds had five daughters and another son between 1858 and 1866. In 1859, when the wool trade declined, the family moved to Leipzig, and in 1860 the family moved to Vienna, where the future famous scientist lived for about 80 years. "Poverty and poverty, poverty and extreme squalor," Freud recalled his childhood. AT big family there were 8 children, but only Sigmund stood out for his exceptional abilities, surprisingly sharp mind and passion for reading. Therefore, the parents sought to create the best conditions for him. If other children were taught lessons by candlelight, then Sigmund was given a kerosene lamp. So that the children would not interfere with him, they were not allowed to play music with him. All eight years in the gymnasium, Freud sat on the first bench and was the best student. Freud felt his vocation very early. “I want to know all the acts of nature that have taken place over the millennia. Perhaps I will be able to listen to its endless process, and then I will share what I have acquired with everyone who is thirsty for knowledge,” the 17-year-old high school student wrote to a friend. He impressed with erudition, spoke Greek and Latin, read Hebrew, French and English, knew Italian and Spanish.
He graduated from the gymnasium with honors at the age of 17 and entered the famous University of Vienna at the Faculty of Medicine in 1873.
Vienna was then the capital of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, its cultural and intellectual center. Outstanding professors taught at the university. While studying at the university, Freud joined the student union for the study of history, politics, philosophy (this later affected his concepts of cultural development). But the natural sciences were of particular interest to him, the achievements of which in the middle of the last century made a real revolution in the minds, laying the foundation for modern knowledge about the body, about living nature. From the great discoveries of this era - the law of conservation of energy and the law of evolution of the organic world established by Darwin - Freud drew the conviction that scientific knowledge is knowledge of the causes of phenomena under the strict control of experience. Freud relied on both laws when he later turned to the study of human behavior. He imagined the body as a kind of apparatus, charged with energy, which is discharged either in normal or pathological reactions. Unlike physical apparatuses, the organism is a product of the evolution of the entire human race and the life of an individual. These principles extended to the psyche. It was also considered, firstly, from the point of view of the energy resources of the individual, which serve as the "fuel" of his actions and experiences, and secondly, from the point of view of the development of this personality, which bears the memory of the childhood of all mankind, and of his own childhood. Freud, thus, was brought up on the principles and ideals of an exact, experimental natural science - physics and biology. He did not limit himself to describing phenomena, but looked for their causes and laws (this approach is known as determinism, and in all subsequent work Freud is a determinist). He followed these ideals even when he moved into the field of psychology. His teacher was the outstanding European physiologist Ernst Brücke. Under his leadership, the student Freud worked at the Vienna Physiological Institute, sitting for many hours at the microscope. In his old age, being an internationally recognized psychologist, he wrote to one of his friends that he had never been happier than during the years spent in the laboratory studying the structure of nerve cells in the spinal cord of animals. The ability to work with concentration, completely devoting oneself to scientific pursuits, developed during this period, Freud retained for subsequent decades.
In 1881 Freud graduated from the university. He intended to become a professional scientist. But Brücke did not have a vacancy at the Physiological Institute. Meanwhile, Freud's financial situation worsened. Difficulties were exacerbated in connection with the upcoming marriage to the same poor as he was, Martha Verneuil. Science had to leave and look for a livelihood. There was only one way out - to become a practicing doctor, although he did not feel any attraction to this profession. He decided to enter private practice as a neurologist. To do this, he had to first go to work in a clinic, since he had no medical experience. In the clinic, Freud thoroughly masters the methods of diagnosing and treating children with brain damage (infantile paralysis), as well as various speech disorders (aphasias). His publications about this are becoming known in scientific and medical circles. Freud gains a reputation as a highly qualified neuropathologist. He treated his patients with the methods of physiotherapy accepted at that time. It was believed that since the nervous system is a material organ, then the painful changes that occur in it must have material causes. Therefore, they should be eliminated through physical procedures, affecting the patient with heat, water, electricity, etc. Very soon, however, Freud began to experience dissatisfaction with these physiotherapeutic procedures. The effectiveness of the treatment left much to be desired, and he thought about the possibility of using other methods, in particular hypnosis, with which some doctors achieved good results. One of these successful practitioners was Joseph Breuer, who began to patronize the young Freud in everything (1884). Together they discussed the causes of their patients' diseases and the prospects for treatment. The patients who came to them were mostly women suffering from hysteria. The disease manifested itself in various symptoms - fears (phobias), loss of sensitivity, aversion to food, split personality, hallucinations, spasms, etc.
Using light hypnosis (a suggestive state similar to sleep), Breuer and Freud asked their patients to recount the events that once accompanied the onset of symptoms of illness. It turned out that when the patients managed to remember this and "talk out", the symptoms disappeared at least for a while. This effect Breuer called the ancient Greek word "catharsis" (purification). Ancient philosophers used this word to denote the experiences caused in a person by the perception of works of art (music, tragedy). It was assumed that these works cleanse the soul from the affects that darken it, thereby bringing "harmless joy." Breuer transferred this term from aesthetics to psychotherapy. Behind the concept of catharsis was a hypothesis according to which the symptoms of the disease arise due to the fact that the patient had previously experienced a tense, affectively colored attraction to some action. Symptoms (fears, spasms, etc.) symbolically replace this unrealized, but desired action. The energy of attraction is discharged in a perverted form, as if "getting stuck" in the organs, which begin to work abnormally. Therefore, it was assumed that the main task of the doctor is to make the patient relive the repressed desire and thereby give the energy (nerve-psychic energy) a different direction, namely, to transfer it into the channel of catharsis, to defuse the repressed desire in telling the doctor about him. This version of the affectively colored memories that traumatized the patient and therefore repressed from consciousness, the disposal of which has a therapeutic effect (movement disorders disappear, sensitivity is restored, etc.), contained the germ of Freud's future psychoanalysis. First of all, in these clinical studies, an idea "cut through" to which Freud invariably returned. Conflict relations between consciousness and unconscious, but disturbing the normal course of behavior, mental states clearly came to the fore. Philosophers and psychologists have long known that beyond the threshold of consciousness past impressions, memories, ideas that can influence its work are crowded. The new points on which the thought of Breuer and Freud lingered concerned, firstly, the resistance that consciousness renders to the unconscious, as a result of which diseases of the sense organs and movements arise (up to temporary paralysis), and secondly, the appeal to means that allow remove this resistance, first to hypnosis, and then to the so-called "free associations", which will be discussed later. Hypnosis weakened the control of consciousness, and sometimes completely removed it. This made it easier for the hypnotized patient to solve the problem that Breuer and Freud set - to "pour out the soul" in the story of the experiences repressed from consciousness.
In 1884 Freud, as an intern at the hospital, was sent a sample of cocaine for examination. He publishes an article in a medical journal that ends with the words: "The use of cocaine, based on its anesthetic properties, will find a place in other cases." This article was read by the surgeon Karl Koller, Freud's comrade, and conducted research at the Stricker Institute for Experimental Pathology on the anesthetic properties of cocaine in the eyes of a frog, rabbit, dog and his own. With the discovery of anesthesia by Koller, a new era began in ophthalmology - he became a benefactor of mankind. Freud indulged in painful reflections for a long time and could not reconcile himself that the discovery did not belong to him.
In 1885 he received the title of privatdozent, and he was given a scholarship for a scientific internship abroad. French doctors used hypnosis with particular success, to study the experience of which Freud traveled to Paris for several months to the famous neurologist Charcot (now his name has been preserved in connection with one of the physiotherapeutic procedures - the so-called Charcot shower). It was a wonderful doctor, nicknamed "Napoleon of neuroses." He treated most of the royal families of Europe. Freud, a young Viennese doctor, joined the large crowd of trainees who constantly accompanied the celebrity during rounds of patients and during their hypnotic treatment sessions. The chance helped Freud get closer to Charcot, to whom he approached with a proposal to translate his lectures into German. In these lectures, it was stated that the cause of hysteria, like any other diseases, should be sought only in physiology, in a violation of the normal functioning of the body, the nervous system. In one of his conversations with Freud, Charcot noted that the source of oddities in the behavior of a neurotic lurks in the peculiarities of his sexual life. This observation sunk into Freud's head, especially since he himself, and other doctors, were faced with the dependence of nervous diseases on sexual factors. A few years later, under the influence of these observations and assumptions, Freud put forward a postulate that gave all his subsequent concepts, whatever psychological problems they may concern, a special color and forever connected his name with the idea of the omnipotence of sexuality in all human affairs. This idea of the role of sexual attraction as the main engine of people's behavior, their history and culture gave Freudianism a specific coloring, strongly associated it with ideas that reduce all the countless variety of manifestations of life activity to direct or disguised intervention of sexual forces. This approach, referred to as "pansexualism", gained Freud immense popularity in many Western countries - moreover, far beyond the boundaries of psychology. This principle began to be seen as a kind of universal key to all human problems. 
As already mentioned, Breuer and Freud came to the clinic after several years of work in the physiological laboratory. Both were naturalists to the marrow of their bones, and before they entered medicine, they had already gained fame for their discoveries in the physiology of the nervous system. Therefore, in their medical practice, they, unlike ordinary empiricists, were guided by the theoretical ideas of advanced physiology. At that time, the nervous system was considered as an energy machine. Breuer and Freud thought in terms of nervous energy. They assumed that its balance in the body is disturbed during neurosis (hysteria), returning to a normal level due to the discharge of this energy, which is catharsis. Being a brilliant connoisseur of the structure of the nervous system, its cells and fibers, which he studied for years with a scalpel and microscope, Freud made a courageous attempt to outline the theoretical scheme of the processes occurring in the nervous system when its energy does not find a normal outlet, but is discharged along the paths leading to disruption of the organs of vision, hearing, muscular apparatus and other symptoms of the disease. Records have been preserved outlining this scheme, which has already received high praise from physiologists in our time. But Freud was extremely dissatisfied with his project (it is known as the "Project of Scientific Psychology"). Freud soon parted with him, and with physiology, to which he devoted years of hard work. This did not mean at all that he from then on considered the appeal to physiology to be meaningless. On the contrary, Freud believed that in time knowledge of the nervous system would advance so far that a worthy physiological equivalent would be found for his psychoanalytic ideas. But contemporary physiology, as his painful reflections on the "Project of Scientific Psychology" showed, could not be counted on.
On his return from Paris, Freud opens a private practice in Vienna. He immediately decides to try hypnosis on his patients. The first success was inspiring. In the first few weeks, he achieved instant healing of several patients. A rumor spread throughout Vienna that Dr. Freud was a miracle worker. But soon there were setbacks. He became disillusioned with hypnotic therapy, as he had been with drug and physical therapy.
In 1886, Freud marries Martha Bernays. With Marta, a fragile girl from a Jewish family, he met in 1882. They exchanged hundreds of letters, but met quite rarely. Subsequently, they have six children - Matilda (1887-1978), Jean Martin (1889-1967, named after Charcot), Oliver (1891-1969), Ernst (1892-1970), Sofia (1893-1920) and Anna ( 1895-1982). It was Anna who became a follower of her father, founded child psychoanalysis, systematized and developed psychoanalytic theory, made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of psychoanalysis in her writings. 
In 1895, Freud finally abandoned hypnosis and began to practice the method of free association - the treatment of conversation, later called "psychoanalysis". He first used the concept of "psychoanalysis" in an article on the etiology of neuroses, published in French on March 30, 1896. Between 1885 and 1899, Freud engaged in intensive practice, in-depth self-analysis and worked on his most significant book, The Interpretation of Dreams. The exact date when Freud deciphered his first dream is known - July 14, 1895. Subsequent analyzes led him to the conclusion: in a dream, unfulfilled desires are fulfilled. Sleep is a substitute for action; in its saving fantasy, the soul is freed from excess tension.
Continuing the practice of a psychotherapist, Freud turned from individual behavior to social. In cultural monuments (myths, customs, art, literature, etc.), he was looking for the expression of all the same complexes, all the same sexual instincts and perverted ways to satisfy them. Following the trends in the biologization of the human psyche, Freud extended the so-called biogenetic law to explain its development. According to this law, the individual development of an organism (ontogeny) in a brief and concise form repeats the main stages of development of the entire species (phylogenesis). With regard to the child, this meant that, moving from one age to another, he follows the main stages that the human race has gone through in its history. Guided by this version, Freud argued that the core of the unconscious psyche of the modern child is formed from the ancient heritage of mankind. In the fantasies of the child and his desires, the wild instincts of our wild ancestors are reproduced. Freud did not have any objective data in favor of this scheme. It was purely speculative and speculative. Modern child psychology, having a huge amount of experimentally verified material on the evolution of child behavior, completely rejects this scheme. A carefully conducted comparison of the cultures of many peoples clearly speaks against it. It did not reveal those complexes which, according to Freud, hang like a curse over the entire human race and doom every mortal to neurosis. Freud hoped that by drawing information about sexual complexes not from the reactions of his patients, but from cultural monuments, he would give his schemes universality and greater persuasiveness. In fact, his excursions into the realm of history only strengthened in scientific circles distrust of the claims of psychoanalysis. His appeal to data concerning the psyche of "primitive people", "savages" (Freud relied on the literature on anthropology), aimed to prove the similarity between their thinking and behavior and the symptoms of neuroses. This was discussed in his work "Totem and Taboo" (1913).
Since then, Freud has taken the path of applying the concepts of his psychoanalysis to the fundamental questions of religion, morality, and the history of society. It was a path that turned out to be a dead end. Social relations of people depend not on sexual complexes, not on libido and its transformations, but it is the nature and structure of these relations that ultimately determine the mental life of the individual, including the motives of her behavior.
Not these cultural and historical studies of Freud, but his ideas concerning the role of unconscious drives both in neurosis and in everyday life, his focus on deep psychotherapy became the center of the unification around Freud of a large community of doctors, psychiatrists, and psychotherapists. Gone are the days when his books did not arouse any interest. So, it took 8 years for the book "The Interpretation of Dreams", printed in 600 copies, to be sold out. The same number of copies are sold monthly in the West these days. Freud gets international fame.
In 1907, he established contact with the school of psychiatrists from Zurich, and the young Swiss doctor K.G. became his student. Jung. Freud pinned great hopes on this man - he considered him the best successor to his offspring, capable of leading the psychoanalytic community. 1907, according to Freud himself, is a turning point in the history of the psychoanalytic movement - he receives a letter from E. Bleuler, who was the first in scientific circles to express official recognition of Freud's theory. In March 1908, Freud became an honorary citizen of Vienna. By 1908, Freud had followers all over the world, the "Psychological Society on Wednesdays", which met with Freud, is transformed into the "Vienna Psychoanalytic Society". In 1909 he was invited to the USA, and many scientists listened to his lectures, including the patriarch of American psychology, William James. Embracing Freud, he said: "The future is yours."
In 1910, the First International Congress on Psychoanalysis met in Nuremberg. True, soon among this community, which declared psychoanalysis a special science, different from psychology, strife began, which led to its collapse. Many of yesterday's closest associates of Freud broke with him and created their own schools and directions. Among them were such, in particular, researchers who became major psychologists, such as Alfred Adler and Carl Jung. Most parted ways with Freud because of his adherence to the principle of the omnipotence of the sexual instinct. Both the facts of psychotherapy and their theoretical understanding spoke against this dogma.
Soon, Freud himself had to make adjustments to his scheme. This is what life forced me to do. The First World War broke out. Among the military doctors there were also those familiar with the methods of psychoanalysis. The patients they now had were suffering from neuroses not related to sexual experiences, but to the wartime trials that had traumatized them. Freud also encounters these patients. His earlier concept of neurotic dreams, inspired by the treatment of the Viennese bourgeois at the end of the 19th century, turned out to be unsuitable for interpreting the mental trauma that arose in combat conditions in yesterday's soldiers and officers. The fixation of Freud's new patients on these traumas caused by the encounter with death gave him reason to put forward a version of a special attraction, as powerful as sexual, and therefore provoking a painful fixation on events associated with fear, anxiety, etc. This special Instinct, which, along with sexual, lies at the foundation of any form of behavior, was designated by Freud with the ancient Greek term Thanatos as the antipode of Eros, the force that, according to Plato's philosophy, means love in the broadest sense of the word, therefore, not only sexual love. The name Thanatos meant a special attraction to death, to the destruction of either others or oneself. Thus, aggressiveness was elevated to the rank of an eternal biological impulse inherent in the very nature of man. The notion of the primordial aggressiveness of a person once again exposed the anti-historicism of Freud's concept, permeated with disbelief in the possibility of eliminating the causes that give rise to violence.
In 1915-1917. he spoke at the University of Vienna with a large course published under the title "Introductory Lectures into Psychoanalysis". The course required additions, he published them in the form of 8 lectures in 1933.
In January 1920, Freud was awarded the title of ordinary university professor. An indicator of true glory was the honoring in 1922 by the University of London of the five great geniuses of mankind - Philo, Memonides, Spinoza, Freud and Einstein.
In 1923, fate puts Freud to severe trials: he develops jaw cancer, caused by addiction to cigars. Operations on this occasion were constantly carried out and tormented him until the end of his life.
In 1933, fascism came to power in Germany. Among the books burned by the ideologists of the "new order" were Freud's books. Upon learning of this, Freud exclaimed: "What progress we have made! In the Middle Ages they would have burned me; today they are content with burning my books." He did not suspect that several years would pass, and millions of Jews and other victims of Nazism would die in the ovens of Auschwitz and Majdanek, among them the four sisters of Freud. He himself, a world-famous scientist, would have met the same fate after the capture of Austria by the Nazis, if, through the mediation of the American ambassador in France, permission had not been obtained for his emigration to England. Before leaving, he had to give a receipt that the Gestapo treated him politely and carefully and that he had no reason to complain. Putting his signature, Freud asked: could it not be added that he could cordially recommend the Gestapo to everyone? In England, Freud was received enthusiastically, but his days were numbered. He suffered from pain, and at his request, his doctor Max Schur gave two injections of morphine, which put an end to the suffering. It happened in London on September 21, 1939.
http://zigmund.ru/
http://www.psychoanalyse.ru/index.html
http://www.bibliotekar.ru/index.htm
On December 7, 1938, a BBC team visited Sigmund Freud at his new flat in north London, Hampstead. Just a few months earlier, he had moved from Austria to England to escape Nazi persecution. Freud is 81, his speech is extremely difficult - he has terminal cancer of the jaw. On that day, the only known audio recording of the voice of Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis and one of the most influential intellectual figures of the 20th century, was created.
Text of his speech:
I started my professional activity as a neurologist trying to bring relief to my neurotic patients. Under the influence of an older friend and by my own efforts, I discovered some important new facts about the unconscious in psychic life, the role of instinctual urges, and so on. Out of these findings grew a new science, psychoanalysis, a part of psychology, and a new method of treatment of the neuroses. I had to pay heavily for this bit of good luck. People did not believe in my facts and thought my theories unsavory. Resistance was strong and unrelenting. In the end I succeeded in acquiring pupils and building up an International Psychoanalytic Association.But the struggle is not yet over.
I started my professional career as a neuropathologist, trying to bring relief to my neurotic patients. Under the influence of an older friend, and by my own efforts, I discovered a number of important new facts about the unconscious in mental life, the role of instinctual drives, and so on. From these discoveries a new science has grown - psychoanalysis, a part of psychology, and a new method of treating neuroses. I had to pay dearly for this little bit of luck. People didn't believe in my facts and thought my theories were dubious. The resistance was strong and inexorable. In the end, I managed to find students and I created the International Psychoanalytic Association. But the fight is not over yet.
Sigmund Freud, his short biography
Introduction to psychoanalysis
Basic concepts and ideas of psychoanalysis
Brief biography of Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was born in 1856 in Austria.
While still at school, Freud became acquainted with the teachings of Darwin, under the influence of which he made the decision to become a naturalist.
Freud stubbornly acquires knowledge, successfully learns languages, systematically prepares himself for a scientific career. But Freud was Jewish. And in bourgeois Austria of those years, a Jew could choose only one of three professions. He could be either a lawyer, or a businessman, or a doctor. And although medicine did not attract Freud at all, he was forced in 1873 to enter the medical faculty of the University of Vienna. Freud later worked in the psychiatric clinic of Theodor Meinert. At the age of 29, he competed for the position of Privatdozent in Neurology at the University of Vienna. At the age of 36, he became a professor at the University of Vienna. Until his death, which occurred in 1939, Freud was engaged in active scientific activity, having published many scientific articles and monographs during this time.
Psychoanalysis(German: Psychoanalyse) is a psychological theory developed in the late 19th and early 20th century by the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud, as well as an extremely influential method of treating mental disorders based on this theory. Psychoanalysis has been expanded, criticized and developed in various directions, mainly by Freud's former colleagues such as Alfred Adler and C. G. Jung.
The term "psychoanalysis" was introduced by 3. Freud in 1896 in an article on the etiology of neuroses. Before that, he talked about analysis, about the analysis of the psyche, psychological analysis and hypnotic analysis. Freud himself gives many definitions of psychoanalysis, among which the most frequently cited is the one contained in the 1922 encyclopedia article. In it, the author writes that called psychoanalysis : firstly, a way to study mental processes that are otherwise inaccessible; secondly, a method of treating neurotic disorders based on this study; thirdly, a number of psychological concepts that arose as a result of this, gradually developed and formed into a new scientific discipline.
The main principles of psychoanalysis are as follows:
* human behavior, experience and knowledge are largely determined by internal and irrational drives;
*these drives are mostly unconscious;
*attempts to become aware of these drives lead to psychological resistance in the form of defense mechanisms;
* individual development is determined by the events of early childhood;
*conflicts between conscious perception of reality and unconscious (repressed) material can lead to mental disturbances such as neurosis, neurotic character traits, fear, depression, etc.;
* liberation from the influence of unconscious material can be achieved through its awareness (for example, with appropriate professional support).
Freud's classical psychoanalysis denotes a specific type of therapy in which the "analysant" (analytic patient) verbalizes thoughts, including free associations, fantasies and dreams, from which the analyst attempts to infer the unconscious conflicts that are the causes of the patient's symptoms and character problems and interprets them for the patient, to find ways to resolve problems.
The theory has been criticized and criticized from various points of view, up to the assertion that psychoanalysis is a pseudoscience, however, it is practiced by numerous clinical psychologists and doctors at the present time. Psychoanalysis has also become widespread in philosophy, the humanities, literary and artistic criticism as a discourse, method of interpretation and philosophical concept. He had a significant influence on the formation of the ideas of the sexual revolution.
Freud made a huge breakthrough in the treatment of nervous disorders. Previously hysteria were treated with massages and it was believed that they were characteristic only of women with a wandering uterus. Freud also noted that often the physical diseases caused by hysteria do not have any organic causes, therefore, these diseases appear on a subconscious level, moreover, the hypothesis that psychosomatic diseases are characteristic only for women was also challenged by Freud.
Before the appearance of Freud's works in world psychology, it was believed that all mental processes occurring in a person can be realized by a person himself and fully analyzed. The main attention in the study of man was given to his physiology.
Freud, studying the human psyche, refuted the assertion that no one can understand the mental process better than a person who experiences it for himself. He argued that a person is not aware of many mental phenomena - they occur deep in the psyche. Without studying this hidden area of the psyche, it is impossible to understand a person. o in order to identify violations in the human psyche, it is necessary to fully analyze and realize all its deepest layers. Based on my practice. Freud called sexual and mental trauma received in childhood the main causes of psychosomatic diseases.
Having put forward the hypothesis that the individual is always in conflict with society and that people's behavior depends on the psyche, and not on the development of society, Freud concludes that the cause of mental disorders is that the patient tries to suppress his secret desires, fearing the condemnation of society . Due to the suppression of desires, psychophysiological problems arise. That is, in order to be completely cured, a person must realize and re-experience the suppressed desire. Freud suggested using hypnosis to reveal these drives. Freud called erotic desires the most repressed drives. He said that repressed desires can manifest themselves not only in mental illness, but in all products of human activity - in art, for example.
Later, Freud stops using hypnosis, as this method does not bring the desired results. Instead, Freud offers the method of free association and the interpretation of dreams. In fact, these methods laid the foundation for psychoanalysis. He first used this term in 1896.
The method of free associations consisted in the fact that the patient, sitting comfortably on the couch, said everything that came to his mind, not embarrassed by the most indecent, senseless and rude statements, thus releasing those forgotten desires and sensations that were cut off by consciousness when applying introspection, adopted during critical thinking. Freud would later say that this method does not always work.
The second method of psychoanalysis was the interpretation of dreams. Freud called dreams a distorted image of unconscious desires. That is, a dream is some encrypted information, after analyzing which, it is possible to identify substituted affects. He described this theory in detail in his first work, The Interpretation of Dreams, in 1900.
In the future, the theory of psychoanalysis has changed. To the notion libido" also added terms Eros- desire for life Thanatos- desire for death. Thanatos is the leading passion and manifests itself in human aggression. There are also concepts eid", "Ego" and " super ego which are part of a person's personality.
Techniques (and analysis steps)
1.Material accumulation:
* the method of free association (or "the basic rule of psychoanalysis")
* "Interpretation of Dreams"
2. Interpretation - interpretation of the primary sources of conflicts
3. Analysis of "resistance" and "transfer"
4. Elaboration - the final stage (and the mechanism for restructuring the psyche during it)
Topographic model of the mental apparatus
Consciousness - a part of the psyche, realized by the individual - determines the choice of behavior in the social environment, but not entirely, since the very choice of behavior can be initiated by the unconscious. Consciousness and the unconscious are antagonistic, in an endless struggle, the unconscious always wins. The psyche is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle, which is modified into the reality principle; if the balance is disturbed, a reset is carried out through the unconscious sphere [clarify].
Unconscious - psychic forces that lie outside of consciousness, but control human behavior.
Freud proposed the following structure of the psyche:
Ego ("I") that part of the human personality that is perceived as "I" and is in contact with the outside world through perception.
Superego("Super-I") moral attitudes of a person.
eid("It") representative an unconscious part of the psyche, a set of instinctive drives.
Defense mechanisms
Sigmund Freud identified the following defense mechanisms of the psyche:
1. Substitution
2.Reactive formation
3.Compensation
4.Displacement
5. Denial
6.Projection
7. Sublimation
8. Rationalization
9.Regression
Later, Anna Freud, followed by other psychoanalysts, significantly expanded this list, which now includes about 30 different psychological defense mechanisms.
Structures of the psyche and structural mechanisms
Freud speaks of three main mechanisms of the psyche that form the subject: "denial" (Verneinung) underlies the neurotic personality, "rejection" (Verwerfung) - psychotic and "refusal" (Verleugnung) - perverse.
neurosis - denial (Verneinung)
psychosis - discarding (Verwerfung)
perversion - refusal (Verleugnung)
Splitting consciousness
“The concept of splitting was developed by Freud mainly in the articles “Fetishism” (Fetischismus, 1927), “Splitting of the Self in the process of defense” (Die Ichspaltung im Abwehrvorgang, 1938) and in “Essay on psychoanalysis” (Abriss der Psychoanalyse, 1938) in connection with reflections on psychosis and fetishism.
Stages of psychosexual development
The development itself is divided into five clearly defined phases:
0 - 1.5 years - Oral phase, only Id - desire is manifested in the personality;
1.5 - 3.5 years - Anal phase, the super-I is formed - socially conditioned prohibitions;
3.5 - 6 years - Phallic phase, interest in the sexual sphere, its apogee Oedipus complex or Electra complex;
6 - 12 years - Latent phase, sexual lull;
from 12 years old - Genital phase, or adult stage.
