= CAMPUS = Freshman's notebook
1st semester exam
Exam program for the course "Fundamentals of inorganic and experimental chemistry"
1 semester, JNF, 2011/2012 academic year
chemical balance. Signs of true balance. Equilibrium constants in homogeneous and heterogeneous systems. Equilibrium concentrations of reactants and products and the concept of their calculation.
Le Chatelier's principle and the shift of chemical equilibrium with changes in temperature, pressure, concentrations of reagents and products.
Redox reactions(OVR). The oxidation state of atoms and its change in OVR. Typical oxidizing agents and reducing agents. Substances with oxidizing and reducing functions. The role of the environment in OVR. Compilation of OVR equations using the method of electron-ion half-reactions.
Standard electrochemical potential as a characteristic of the redox properties of substances in aqueous solution. Criteria for the direction of the OVR under standard conditions. Solution of calculation problems.
General properties of solutions. Solvent and solute. concentrated and diluted solutions. Saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solution and methods for their preparation. Solubility. Thermal effect of dissolution. Diagrams (polytherms) of solubility. Dependence of the solubility of gases and crystalline substances in liquid solvents on temperature.
Solutions of electrolytes and non-electrolytes. Ostwald's dilution law.
Sparingly soluble strong electrolytes and the solubility product (PR). Calculations using PR values. Precipitation and dissolution conditions. Shift of phase equilibria in saturated solutions of sparingly soluble strong electrolytes.
Basic concepts of proton theory acids and bases. Protic solvents and their ionic product. Acid and base in proton theory. Acidity and basicity constants and the relationship between them. Ampholytes.
Shift of protolytic equilibria under the action of temperature, protolith concentration (dilution) and with the introduction of protolysis product ions of the same name. Degree of protolysis and pH in solutions close to infinite dilution.
Ionic product of water. Hydrogen and hydroxide indicators of medium acidity. pH scale for aqueous solutions.
Solvolysis and hydrolysis. Irreversible hydrolysis of binary compounds. Reversible hydrolysis of salts. Shift of hydrolysis equilibria.
Calculations of pH values and degree of protolysis in the case of strong and weak acids and bases, as well as ampholytes.
The structure of atoms and the Periodic law. Hydrogen atom. Multi-electron atoms. The main thing is the orbital, magnetic and spin quantum numbers. Atomic orbitals, electronic levels and sublevels.
Minimum energy principle, Hund's rule and Pauli's principle. The order of population of atomic orbitals by electrons. Klechkovsky's rule. Electronic formulas and energy diagrams of atoms of elements.
Periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev. periods and groups. Sections s-, p-, d- and f- elements.
Chemical bond. Ionic and covalent bonds. Basic concepts of the method of valence bonds. Overlapping electron orbitals; sigma, pi and delta bonding. Multiple connections. Idea of hybridization and geometry of molecules.
Polarity of bonds and polarity of molecules. The dipole moment of a chemical bond and the dipole moment of a molecule.
The concept of the method of molecular orbitals. Hydrogen bond and intermolecular interaction.
Required knowledge of students to get a positive mark on the exam of the 1st semester
1. Symbols chemical elements and their names. Sections s-, p-, d- and f- elements in the Periodic system.2. Nomenclature inorganic substances (formulas and names contained in the lecture course, laboratory workshop and homework).
3. Electronic configurations atoms by their coordinates (group number, period number) in the Periodic system.
4. Main, orbital and magnetic quantum numbers, the relationship between them and the number of energy levels, sublevels and atomic orbitals.
5. Definition type of hybridization atomic orbitals and the prediction of the geometric shape of AB-type particles X(molecules or ions), where A, B are atoms s- and p- elements.
6. Equilibrium constant. Acidity and basicity constants. Le Chatelier's principle to shift the chemical equilibrium.
7. Solubility inorganic substances. Solubility product. Precipitation condition and its dissolution.
8. Drawing up reaction equations the following types:
* exchange reactions in aqueous solution (molecular and ionic equation)
* redox reactions in an aqueous solution (molecular and ionic equation, selection of coefficients by the method of electron-ion half-reactions)
* protolytic reactions involving water as a solvent
* reactions of hydrolysis of salts, hydrolysis of binary compounds.
9. Composition of solutions:
* mass fraction
* molarity (molar concentration of a solute)
10. Acid, alkaline and neutral environment aqueous solutions. Hydrogen index (pH). pH scale for aqueous solutions.
What Students Need to Know About the Inorganic Chemistry Written Exam
# Exam starts at 9.00 in room K-2. For students with a cumulative grade in general chemistry for 1 semester from 15 to 24 points, the exam starts at 9.30. Students of the specified category have the right to choose the type of ticket to take the exam: main level (maximum score 50 points) or tickets reproductive level (maximum score 24 points).
# Students without credit books are not allowed to take the exam. If a student is not allowed to take an exam due to lack of credits or for other reasons, the department can take an exam from him only with the written permission (permission) of the dean's office.
# Exam writing time from 9.00 to 12.00(from 9.30 to 12.30). During the exam, it is allowed to use reference tables on inorganic chemistry (issued by the teacher on duty) and a microcalculator. Students receive paper for writing work from the teacher on duty along with the exam ticket.
# During the exam not allowed use a mobile phone, electronic notebook, laptop computer. Student leaving the classroom during the exam is possible only with the permission of the teacher on duty and in all cases entails a change in the exam ticket.
# Announcement of results exam - on the day of the exam, at 15.00 at the Department of Inorganic Chemistry. Issuance of test books - at 15.00, only personally for each student.
# Examination ticket includes 6 questions on the following topics:
1. Chemical balance;
2. General properties of solutions, solubility product;
3. Redox reactions;
4. Protolytic equilibria, hydrolysis;
5. The structure of the atom and the Periodic Law;
6. Chemical bond and structure of molecules.
## 2, 3 or 4 ticket question represents calculation problem one of those types that were studied in the 1st semester.
## calculation task is accompanied by additional questions, optional for a satisfactory or good response (highlighted in italics, framed).
## To receive a positive rating ("satisfactory"), you must give correct answers to all six questions(See "Required knowledge of students to receive a positive mark"). Answers to questions should be clear, clear, justified, chemically literate (including the correct representation of formulas, equations of chemical reactions, the use of modern symbols of physical and chemical quantities, the derivation of calculation formulas when solving problems, etc.).
A correct, complete and reasonable answer to an additional question serves as the basis for an excellent assessment of the work.
Written examination work is assessed in points in the following way:
41-50 points - "excellent"
31-40 points - "good"
21-30 points - "satisfactory"
0-20 points - "unsatisfactory"
n1.doc
2. Atomic-molecular doctrine of chemistry.The main provisions were formulated by Lomonosov in the form of a capsular theory of the structure of matter - all substances consist of the smallest particles of capsules (molecules) that have the same composition as the whole substance and are in continuous motion. Chemical element A type of atom with the same positive nuclear charge. Atom - the smallest particle of a chemical element, which is the carrier of its properties. An atom is an electrically neutral microsystem that obeys the laws of quantum physics and consists of a positively charged nucleus and negatively charged electrons. Molecule - the smallest particle of a substance that determines its properties and is capable of independent existence. Atoms are combined into a molecule with the help of chemical bonds, in the formation of which mainly external (valence) electrons take part.
In 1911, Rutherford performed experiments to refine the structure of the atom. In 1913, the simplest planetary model of Bohr-Rutherford's "hydrogen atom" appeared.
This model is currently the generally accepted "official" model of the atom.
the advantage is simplicity. According to this model, the atom should have consisted of a compact positive nucleus and an electron revolving around it in "stationary circular orbits." These shortcomings are simply striking:
1) an electron around an atom, according to the solution of the problem of body motion in a central field, cannot move along circular trajectories. Trajectories must be elliptical. But elliptical trajectories are not possible in such a model.
N. Bor An atom can only be in special stationary states, each of which corresponds to a certain energy. In a stationary state, an atom does not radiate electromagnetic waves.
The emission and absorption of energy by an atom occurs during a jump-like transition from one stationary state to another. Advantages:
She explained the discreteness of the energy states of hydrogen-like atoms.
Bohr's theory approached the explanation of intra-atomic processes from fundamentally new positions and became the first semi-quantum theory of the atom. Flaws
Could not explain the intensity of the spectral lines.
Valid only for hydrogen-like atoms and does not work for atoms following it in the periodic table.
3.B1924 G. French physicist Louis de Broglie proposed the idea that matter has both wave and particle properties. According to the de Broglie equation (one of the basic equations of quantum mechanics),
i.e., a particle with a mass m moving with a speed v corresponds to a wave of length ?; h is Planck's constant. For any particle with mass m and known velocity v, the de Broglie wavelength can be calculated. De Broglie's idea was experimentally confirmed in 1927, when both wave and corpuscular properties were discovered in electrons. In 1927, the German scientist W. Heisenberg proposed the uncertainty principle, according to which it is impossible for microparticles to simultaneously accurately determine both the coordinate of the particle X and the momentum px component along the x axis. An atom with more than one electron is a complex system of electrons interacting with each other , moving in the field of the nucleus. Nevertheless, it turns out that in an atom it is possible, with good accuracy, to introduce the concept of the states of each electron separately as stationary states of electron motion in some effective centrally symmetric field created by the nucleus together with all other electrons. For different electrons in an atom, these fields are, generally speaking, different, and they must all be determined simultaneously, since each of them depends on the states of all other electrons. Such a field is called self-consistent. Since the self-consistent field is centrally symmetric, then each state of an electron is characterized by a certain value of its orbital moment /. The states of an individual electron for a given / are numbered (in ascending order of their energy) using the main quantum number n, the running value n \u003d / +1, /+2, ...; such a choice of numbering order is set in accordance with that adopted for the hydrogen atom. But the sequence of increasing energy levels with different / in complex atoms, generally speaking, differs from that which takes place in the hydrogen atom.
4. Principles of orbital filling.
1. Pauli principle. There cannot be two electrons in an atom, for which the values of all quantum numbers (n, l, m, s) would be the same, i.e. Each orbital can contain no more than two electrons (with opposite spins).
Har-ka kov. St.
St. energy, St. length, saturation, directivity.
12. Sun method.
Implicit. Images. Elekt. Density through the socialization of electrons located on the external. Electron. level.
Flaws
I could not explain the paramagnetic properties of some Comm. (O at t -220 becomes fluid, which is attracted by a magnet)
Creatures. Mol. Ions (He 2+, H 2+, O 2-)
Regulations
Image. x / s the result of the transition of electrons from atomic orbitals to new levels with energy defined. All atom. Molecule
After image. Mol. Orbital - atomic Orb. They lose their individuality.
Each mol. Orb. Resp. Define energy.
Electrons in a molecule are nonlocalized. In the internuclear spaces of 2 atoms, and found. In the zone of action of the nuclei
Hybridization is spontaneous. Form and energy alignment process.
13. MO method
An improved version of the method of valence bonds. Based on principles. 1. The chemical bond between atoms is carried out due to one or more electron pairs. 2. When a common electron pair is formed, the electron clouds overlap. The stronger the overlap, the stronger the chemical bond. 3. When a common electron pair is formed, the spins of the electrons must be antiparallel. 4. Only unpaired electrons of atoms can participate in the formation of common electron pairs. Paired electrons must be separated to form bonds. 5. When a covalent bond is formed from a certain number of electron clouds of two atoms, the same number of electron clouds of a molecule belonging to both atoms is formed. 6. When electron clouds combine, their mutual overlap with the formation of binding clouds of the molecule and mutual repulsion with the formation of loosening clouds of the molecule is possible. 7. The filling of the orbitals of the molecule with electrons occurs in accordance with the principles of minimum energy and Pauli (There cannot be 2 electrons in an atom that have the same values of all 4 quantum numbers. No more than 2 electrons can be located on one orbital). 8. A bond is formed when the number of electrons in the bonding orbitals is greater than in the loosening orbitals. Properties of a covalent bond. She is durable. It has the property of saturation. Has direction in space.
14.chem. thermodynamics studies energy. Changes.considered. processes in comp. Equilibrium r-i either did not start or ended and flows into the external. Wednesday are absent.
Thermodyne. Sist is a macroscopic body isolated from the environment of the mental. or physical. shells.
By number of phases:
Homogeneous (all system components in one phase)
Heterogeneous (chemical p-and flow in different phases)
By the nature of interaction with the environment. Wednesday:
Open (exchange of things and energy), Closed (exchange of energy), Isolated. (no exchange)
All vehicles are characterized by parameters: pressure, pace, volume, mass. Thermodyne. Studying the transition of the system. From one comp. In the other - the process: Equilibrium any chemical. r-I in comp. Equilibrium, Stationary.
Isobaric(Constant Pressure), Isochoric(Constant Volume), Isothermal(Constant Temp)
TC energy: E = K + P + delta U (internal)
Chem. thermodyne Based on 2 laws
Law. Save Energy - change ext. Energy Syst. Def. Number of released heat and perfect work
The standard enthalpy is the enthalpy of that p-and in which 1 mol of v-va is formed from simple v-in is stable. At std. conditions.
15. First law of thermodynamics
Enthalpy is the state function equal to the internal energy of the system + the work of expansion. . At constant pressure
1 law-thermal effect p-i = heat. Eph. Reverse p-and, but opposite in sign. (The more warm. Ef formation is complex. V-va, the more stable it is.)
16. Hess's law. - warm. Eph. Chem. p-and does not depend on the path along which it flows, but depends on the initial and final state. syst.
Consequence
- change Enthalpy chem. p-and does not depend on the number of interm. stages
High selectivity
The ability to regulate catalytic St.-in.
24.
Chemical
equilibrium
- the state of the system in which the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal.
Reversible-prote. Not to the end and the products of such p-th mutual. with images. ref. in-in.
Irreversible p-and- leak. to the end, to full consumption. ref. in-in and product. p-i (image. Sediment, gas, water)
Constant
chemical balance. reaction = the product of the concentrations of the reaction products, taken in powers of their stoichiometric coefficients in the reaction equation, divided by the product of the concentrations of the starting materials, taken in powers of the stoichiometric coefficients
25.
the process goes spontaneously in the forward direction, if the potential decreases, therefore the equilibrium constant is greater than 1. The concentration of products > the concentration of the starting substances. On the contrary, there was practically no reaction. When the temperature rises, the equilibrium shifts towards an endothermic reaction, when it decreases, towards an exothermic one. With an increase in pressure, the equilibrium shifts in the direction of the reaction, which proceeds with a decrease in the volume of gaseous substances, with a decrease in pressure, in the direction of the reaction, which proceeds with an increase in volume. With an increase in the concentration of the starting substances, the equilibrium shifts towards a direct reaction.
Le Chatelier-Brown principle . If an external influence is exerted on a system in equilibrium, then the equilibrium shifts in a direction that weakens this influence.
26. Solutions-tv, liquid, gas-I homogeneous sist. image. growth-ohm, growth-th in-ohm and product. Their interaction.
A solvent component that does not change its aggregate. comp. with images. solutions.
Concentration - number of solution. in-va in units volume or mass of ras-ra or rast-la.
27.
Solubility is the ability of a substance to form homogeneous systems with other substances - solutions in which the substance is in the form of individual atoms, ions, molecules or particles.
The process of growth is a complex physical and chemical. yavl., one of the physical. processes yavl. Diffusion solution. in-va in the growth of this process of spontaneous movement. The force of diffusion is Temp. Movement
The reasons for the diff. are an increase in entropy. The speed of the solution. in-va depends on the rate of diffusion.
Faience phase rule
28.
solution of gases in liquid. exotherm. process. (when the gases dissolve in the liquid.
Henry's Law:
Mass of gas dis-I at a given temp. And this volume of liquid. directly proportional partial pressure gas.
Dalton's law:
The growth of each of the components of the gases of the mixture at post. Temp., proportional partial pressure liquid component. and does not depend on the total pressure. mixtures and individual component.
Sechenov's law:
In the presence of electrolytes, the growth of gas in liquid. reduce
29.Collective name Saint-va dependent on conc. rast-ra, but not dependent. from their chem. comp.
By pressure
rich
pair
liquids
called the pressure that has been established above the liquid when the rate of evaporation of the liquid = the rate of condensation of vapor into liquid. 1
law
Raul.
Relative reduction in solvent vapor pressure over solution = mole fraction of solute
Solutions
subordinate
this
law
called
ideal. 2
law
Raul.
Ebulioscopic.
The increase in the boiling point of a non-electrolyte solution is proportional to the molar concentration of the solute. 
, E-ebullioscopic constant. E = increase in boiling point caused by 1 mole of a substance dissolved in 1000 g of solvent. Cryoscopic.
The decrease in the freezing point of a non-electrolyte solution is proportional to the molar concentration of the solute. 
,
K-cryoscopic \u003d lowering the freezing point of solutions in which there is 1 mol of dissolved non-electrolyte per 1000 g of solvent.
30. Diffusion and osmosis.
Osmosis - one-way diffusion of solvent molecules in solution through a membrane that is impermeable to the dissolved
reactions,
divided
on the
work
concentrations
initial
substances
taken
in
degrees
them
stoichiometric.
let's denote K* through K H 2 O. The quantity is called the ionic product of water. Ionic
work
water= the product of the concentration of hydrogen cations by the concentration hydroxide anions. Water dissociation constant 
. Changing the concentrations of protons and hydroxide ions in a solution creates an acidic or alkaline environment. -7 - alkaline,
>10 -7 - sour. 
.
Hydrogen
indicator(pH) numerically = the decimal logarithm of the concentration of hydrogen cations, taken with the opposite sign. 
, the hydroxide index is calculated similarly 
. For a neutral environment [pH] \u003d 7, alkaline - [pH]\u003e 7, acidic - [pH]
38. Hydrolysis of salts. Constant and degree of hydrolysis. Hydrolysis- the reaction of salt with water to form a weak electrolyte. It is accompanied by a change in the pH of the medium. Example Na 2 CO 3 =Na + +CO 3 2- -dissociation, CO 3 2- +H 2 O=HCO 3 - +OH - - hydrolysis. Hydrolysis consists in the chemical interaction of dissolved salt ions with water molecules, leading to the formation slightly dissociated compounds and changing the reaction of the medium. Quantitative quantity characterizing hydrolysis, is called the degree of hydrolysis h. Degree hydrolysis- the ratio of the number hydrolyzed salt molecules to the total number of its dissolved molecules. . Dependence of the degree of hydrolysis. Concentration substances– the greater the dilution, the greater the degree of hydrolysis. Temperature – the higher the temperature, the stronger the hydrolysis. Addendum strangers substances- the introduction of substances that give an alkaline reaction, inhibits the hydrolysis of salt with pH > 7 and enhances hydrolysis with pH 7, and vice versa, acidic substances increase hydrolysis with pH > 7 and inhibit with pH 7. nature dissolved substances- the degree of hydrolysis depends on the chem. the nature of the dissolved salt. There are 3 options.
42.cooking methods :
Without r-and (by mixing the calculated number of r-s; when adding the calculated number of tv. in-va to the r-ru)
According to the p-and equation
43.Buffer solutions- solutions that practically do not change their pH value when diluted or added to them with certain amounts of a strong acid or strong base
Buffer capacity. It is expressed as the amount of a substance equivalent to a strong acid or base that must be added to 1 liter of a buffer solution to shift its pH value by one.
44. Heterogeneous equilibria
At contact solid with a solvent, the substance begins to dissolve and, upon establishing thermodynamic equilibrium, a saturated solution is formed. When sparingly soluble electrolyte in an aqueous solution saturated with sparingly soluble electrolyte.
Solubility product - product of ion concentration sparingly soluble electrolyte in its saturated solution at constant temperature and pressure. Work solubility-value constant.
A precipitate will form if the ion product is greater than the solubility product.
45. OVP. redox reactions- such reactions that proceed with a change in the oxidation states of the elements that make up the compounds. The oxidation state is the actual charge of an atom in a molecule resulting in a redistribution. electron density.
46. Oxidation - the process of losing electrons, leading to an increase in CO. Oxidizing agents: simple in-va, atoms that have a large electronegative. (F, O. CE); in-va, containing. El-you in max CO; cations me and H.
Reducing agents: simple in-va atoms which have a small EO; sozherzh. e-you are in the lower. SO
47.Intermolecular- rev. CO in different molecules xl.proportionation (ok-l, in-l the same e-t but in different COs)
Intramolecular -ism. CO in one molecule
2. Klechkovsky's rule (principle of least energy). In the ground state, each electron is positioned so that its energy is minimal. The smaller the sum (n + l), the lower the energy of the orbital. For a given value (n + l), the orbital with the smallest n has the lowest energy. The energy of the orbitals increases in the series:
1S
3. Hund's rule. An atom in the ground state must have the maximum possible number of unpaired electrons within a certain sublevel.
The state of an atom with the lowest possible energy of electrons in it is called the ground, or unexcited, state. However, if the atoms receive energy from the outside (for example, during irradiation, heating), then the electrons of the outer electron layer can "steam" and move to free orbitals, characterized by higher energy. This state of the atom is called excited.
5.Periodic law. The properties of the elements, as well as the structure and properties of their compounds, are in a periodic dependence on the charge of the nuclei of their atoms. The ordinal number of an element = the charge of its nucleus and the number of electrons. Number of neutrons = atomic mass - serial number. Each period begins with s - elements (s 1 alkali metal) and ends with a p - element (s 2 p 6 inert gas). 1 period contains 2 s - elements. 2-3 contains 2 s-elements and 6 p-elements. In 4-5, d elements are wedged between s and p. Number of electronic levels = period number. For elements of the main subgroups, the number of electrons = the number of the group. In the group from top to bottom, metallic properties are enhanced. From left to right, non-metallic properties (the ability to accept electrons) are enhanced. Periodicity of changes in the properties of s-, p- and d elements.
Atom chem. The element consists of 3 basic elementary particles: positively charged protons, neurons that do not have a charge, and negatively charged electrons. At the center of an atom is a nucleus consisting of protons and neutrons, and electrons revolve in orbits around it. The number of electrons = the charge of the nucleus. Chemical element- a type of atom with a certain nuclear charge. isotopes Atoms of the same element that have the same nuclear charge but different masses. isobars Atoms of different elements that have different nuclear charges but the same atomic mass. The current model is based on 2 fundamental principles of quantum physics. 1. An electron has the properties of both particles and waves at the same time. 2. particles do not have strictly defined coordinates and velocities. Energy level(quantum number n) is the distance from the nucleus. As n increases, the energy of the electron increases. The number of energy levels = the number of the period in which the element is located. The maximum number of electrons is determined by N=2n 2 . Energy sublevel denoted by letters s (spherical), p (dumbbell-shaped), d (4 petal rosette), f (more complex). Magnetic quantum number interaction of an electron cloud with external magnetic fields. Spin quantum number proper rotation of an electron around its axis .
7. x/s- the result of interaction atoms drive. to the image. chem. molecules.
8.energy- necessary for the break x / c or released during the formation of x / c.
Length - the shortest distance between the nuclei of interacting atoms
saturation-number x/s which can image. An atom of this element.
Saturation - valency
Orientation-strict location x/s in 3D space
9.1.orientational-intermod. Communication With the presence of 2 or more sex. they say
2.induction-one pier. Polar, the second is not
3.dispersion-related image. Instantaneous dipoles (har-n for non-pol. Mol.)
10.Inonnaya St.-result of electrostat. mutual m / y ions. (limiting case cov. field. St.) total electr. A pair refers to only one of the interactions. Atoms.
polarization-yavl. Space Atom deformations found. In the zone of action permanent or electr. Molek. cathode(-) anode(+)
the ability to undergo polarization (polarizability) of an ion, radius.
11.Kov x / s - the process of socialization of electrons found. On external Energy level.
Incomplete (non-different H2) polar (NSE)
Mechanisms image.
Exchange- into an image. x/ c participation. One electron from each atom
Donor-acceptor- donor (electronic pair) acceptor (orbital)
Dative- variety. Donor acceptance. In which each of the atoms simultaneously yavl. Both donor and acceptor
-enthalpy
x/r
=
sum
enthalpy
product image
r-th
per
minus
amounts
enthalpy
arr.
Exodus.
thing
Format: DOC (Microsoft Office Word)
Quantity: 23 tickets Format: DOC (Microsoft Office Word)
Quantity: 23 tickets
Ticket number 1
Periodic law and periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev on the basis of ideas about the structure of atoms. The value of the periodic law for the development of science.
In 1869, D. I. Mendeleev, based on the analysis of the properties of simple substances and compounds, formulated the Periodic Law: *** formulas in the file when jumping
The properties of simple bodies ... and compounds of elements are in a periodic dependence on the magnitude of the atomic masses of elements.
On the basis of the periodic law, the periodic system of elements was compiled. In it, elements with similar properties were combined into vertical columns - groups. In some cases, when placing elements in the Periodic system, it was necessary to break the sequence of increasing atomic masses in order to observe the periodicity of the repetition of properties. For example, I had to \"swap \" tellurium and iodine, as well as argon and potassium.
The reason is that Mendeleev proposed the periodic law at a time when nothing was known about the structure of the atom.
After the planetary model of the atom was proposed in the 20th century, the periodic law is formulated as follows: *** formulas in the file when jumping
The properties of chemical elements and compounds are in a periodic dependence on the charges of atomic nuclei.
The charge of the nucleus is equal to the number of the element in the periodic system and the number of electrons in the electron shell of the atom.
This wording explained the "violations" of the Periodic Law.
In the Periodic system, the period number is equal to the number of electronic levels in the atom, the group number for elements of the main subgroups is equal to the number of electrons in the outer level.*** formulas in the file when jumping
The reason for the periodic change in the properties of chemical elements is the periodic filling of electron shells. After filling the next shell, a new period begins. The periodic change of elements is clearly seen in the change in the composition and properties and properties of oxides.
The scientific significance of the periodic law. The periodic law made it possible to systematize the properties of chemical elements and their compounds. When compiling the periodic system, Mendeleev predicted the existence of many yet undiscovered elements, leaving free cells for them, and predicted many properties of undiscovered elements, which facilitated their discovery.
Briefly about the topics in the tickets:
Ticket number 2
The structure of atoms of chemical elements on the example of elements of the second period and IV-A group of the periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev. Regularities in the change in the properties of these chemical elements and the simple and complex substances (oxides, hydroxides) formed by them, depending on the structure of their atoms.
Ticket number 3.
Types of chemical bonds and methods of its formation in inorganic compounds: covalent (polar, non-polar, simple and multiple bonds), ionic, hydrogen.
Ticket number 4.
Classification of chemical reactions in inorganic chemistry.
Classification according to the composition of the starting materials and reaction products.
Ticket number 5.
Ticket number 5.(in-depth)
Electrolytes and non-electrolytes. Electrolytic dissociation of inorganic acids, salts, alkalis. Degree of dissociation.
Ticket number 6.
Reversible and irreversible chemical reactions. Chemical equilibrium and conditions for its displacement (change in the concentration of reagents, temperature, pressure).
Ticket number 7.
Ion exchange reactions. Conditions for their irreversibility.
Ticket number 8.
The rate of chemical reactions. Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction (dependence of the rate on nature, concentration of a substance, surface area of contact of the reactants, temperature, catalyst).
Ticket number 9.
General characteristics of metals of the main subgroups of groups I - III (I-A - III-A groups) in connection with their position in the periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev and the features of the structure of their atoms, metallic chemical bond, chemical properties of metals as reducing agents.
Ticket number 10.
General characteristics of non-metals of the main subgroups IV - VII groups (IV-A - VII-A) in connection with their position in the periodic system of chemical elements of D. I. Mendeleev and the structural features of their atoms. Changes in the redox properties of non-metals on the example of group VI-A elements.
Ticket number 11.
Allotropy of substances, composition, structure, properties of allotropic modifications.
Ticket number 12.
Ticket number 12 (in depth).
Electrolysis of solutions and molten salts (on the example of sodium chloride). The practical significance of electrolysis.
Ticket number 13.
Hydrogen compounds of nonmetals. Patterns in the change of their properties in connection with the position of chemical elements in the periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev.
Ticket number 14.
Higher oxides of chemical elements of the third period. Patterns in the change of their properties in connection with the position of chemical elements in the periodic system of D. I. Mendeleev. Characteristic chemical properties of oxides: basic, amphoteric, acidic.
Ticket number 15.
Acids, their classification and chemical properties based on the concept of electrolytic dissociation. Features of the properties of concentrated sulfuric acid on the example of interaction with copper.
Ticket number 16.
Bases, their classification and chemical properties based on ideas about electrolytic dissociation.
Ticket number 17.
Medium salts, their composition, names, chemical properties (interaction with metals, acids, alkalis, with each other, taking into account the characteristics of oxidation-reduction reactions and ion exchange).
Ticket number 18.
Hydrolysis of salts (disassemble the first stage of hydrolysis of salts formed by a strong base and a weak acid, a weak base and a strong acid).
Ticket number 19.
Corrosion of metals (chemical and electrochemical). Ways to prevent corrosion.
Ticket number 20.
Redox reactions (disassemble on examples of the interaction of aluminum with iron oxide (III), nitric acid with copper).
Ticket number 21.
Iron, position in the periodic system, atomic structure, possible oxidation states, physical properties, interaction with oxygen, halogens, solutions of acids and salts. Alloys of iron. The role of iron in modern technology.
Ticket number 22.
Higher oxygen-containing acids of chemical elements of the third period, their composition and comparative characteristics of properties.
Ticket number 23.
General methods for obtaining metals.
Exam tickets - Chemistry - A basic level of - Grade 11
Ticket number 1
1. Periodic law and periodic system of chemical elements D.I. Mendeleev on the basis of ideas about the structure of atoms. The value of the periodic law for the development of science.
2. Limit hydrocarbons, general formula and chemical structure of the homologues of this series. Properties and application of methane.
3. Task. Calculation of the mass of the reaction product, if the amount of the substance or the mass of one of the starting substances is known.
Ticket number 2
1. The structure of atoms of chemical elements and regularities in changing their properties on the example of: a) elements of the same period; b) elements of one main subgroup.
2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons, general formula and chemical structure of the homologues of this series. Properties and application of ethylene.
3. Experience. Determination using characteristic reactions of each of the three proposed inorganic substances.
Download and read Exam tickets - Chemistry - Basic level - Grade 11
1 The most important classes of inorganic compounds: oxides, hydroxides, acids, salts.
2 The law of conservation of matter.
3 The main types of complex compounds (c. s.). Behavior to. in aqueous solutions. Instability constant.
4 Nomenclature of complex compounds. coordination number.
5 Amphoteric hydroxides.
6 Complex compounds. Complexing agent, ligands.
7 Hydrolysis of salts formed by a weak base and a strong acid. degree of hydrolysis.
8 Dissolution of solids. What are the components of the heat of dissolution of a solid in a liquid?
9 Types of redox reactions.
10 Law of composition constancy. Daltonides, Bertolids.
11 Crystallization of dilute and concentrated solutions. Crystal hydrate.
12 Ion-exchange reactions. solubility product.
13 Law of multiple ratios.
14 Electrochemical dissociation of water. Ionic product of water. Hydrogen index.
15 The ratio of metals to hydrochloric and sulfuric acids (diluted and concentrated.
16. Factors affecting redox processes. Arrangement of coefficients in redox reactions.
17 The law of equivalents. Determination of equivalents of simple and complex substances.
18 Methods for expressing the concentration of a solution: molar, normal, titer.
19 Quantum-mechanical theory of the structure of the atom. Louis de Broglie equation. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle.
20 Redox properties of potassium permanganate.
21 The structure of the atom and the periodicity of the properties of the elements.
22 Hydrolysis of salts formed by a weak base and a weak acid.
23 Weak electrolytes. Degree of dissociation. dissociation constant.
24 The ratio of metals to nitric acid.
25 Hydrolysis. Factors affecting the hydrolysis process.
26 Electronic structure of atoms. S-, p-, d-, f-electronic families of atoms.
27 Solubility. Dissolution of gases, liquids and solids. Physico-chemical theory of solutions.
28 Filling of atomic orbitals in atoms with an increase in the ordinal number of an element (Klechkovsky's rule).
29 Vapor pressure over liquid. Raoult's first law.
30 Nuclear model of the structure of the atom. Atomic nuclei, their composition. Isotopes, isobars.
31 Solutions of strong electrolytes.
32 Quantum numbers: principal, orbital, magnetic, spin.
33 General concept of solutions. Methods for expressing the concentration of a solution: molality, mass fraction, titer.
34 Hydrolysis of salts formed by a strong base and a weak acid.
35 Osmosis. osmotic pressure.
36 Strong electrolytes.
37 Planck's quantum theory of light. Bohr's theory of the structure of the atom.
38. Water. Physical and chemical properties of water.
39 The law of equivalents. Chemical element. Determination of equivalents of acid, base, salt.
40 Raoult's second law.
41 Electrode potential. Nernst equation.
42 Chemical sources of current (FC, accumulators, GE).
43 Corrosion (chemical, electrochemical).
44 Methods of protection of metals from corrosion.
