Beginning of capitalist industrialization
For the establishment of capitalism in Russia, the industrial revolution, which was completed by the beginning of the 1880s, was of paramount importance. The industrial revolution in Russia began later than in Western Europe, only in the 1830s-1840s. The development of capitalist manufacture, associated with the replacement of manual labor by machine labor, in Russia, as in all countries, took place primarily in light industry.
Next in line was the next task - capitalist industrialization. However, during the three decades that followed the liberation of the peasants, the growth of industry as a whole was 2.5-3% per year. The economic backwardness of the country was a serious obstacle to industrialization. Until 1880, the country had to import raw materials and equipment for the construction of railways.
Since the mid 1890s. Russia began to move along the path of industrialization. The most important events in this area are associated with the name of Count SJ. Witte. Many contemporaries believed that as a statesman SYu. Witte was head and shoulders above his colleagues, distinguished by a heightened "sense of life and its needs." SYU. Witte, one of the greatest reformers in Russian history, served as Minister of Finance from 1892 to 1903. He strove to catch up industrially with the developed countries of Europe in about ten years, to take a strong position in the markets of the Near, Middle and Far East. He intended to achieve accelerated industrial development through three main sources: attracting foreign capital, accumulating domestic resources through a strict tax policy, and customs protection of industry from Western competitors.
The “discovery” of Russia by foreign capital took place in the 1950s. XIX century, but then the Russian economy could not attract Western European capital in large volumes due to the lack of a free labor market. In the post-reform era, Western entrepreneurs began to be attracted by Russia's huge raw material resources, low competition and cheap labor, which ensured a high rate of profit.
SU's appeal. Witte to foreign capital, naturally, led to serious political controversy, especially in 1898-1899, between those business circles that successfully cooperated with foreign firms, on the one hand, and their opponents, who were afraid to put Russia in a subordinate position to foreign investors and lose national independence, on the other. For its part, SU. Witte sought to accelerate the process of industrialization, which would allow the Russian Empire to catch up with the West. The huge rates of industrial growth - the highest in the world - were due to the fact that Russia, embarking on industrialization, could use knowledge, experience, technical personnel, equipment, but first of all - the capital of the advanced powers. Thus, the widespread attraction of foreign capital has become the most important feature of capitalist industrialization in Russia.
The influx of foreign capital into industry in the form of direct investment was hampered by disorderly Russian finances. In the 1850-1870s. the ruble exchange rate fell to 62 kopecks in gold. By 1892 the state was on the verge of financial bankruptcy. Financial reform of the SU. Witte in 1897 to strengthen the ruble made it possible to increase the gold content of the ruble, as a result of which at the turn of the century it turned into one of the stable European currencies.
Another obstacle to the investment of foreign capital was the low customs tariff, which allowed the free import of goods and in which there was no incentive for the development of domestic industry. In 1877, "gold" (in gold currency) duties were introduced, which doubled their real value. In 1891, new customs rules came into force, prohibiting foreign manufactured goods.
If in Western Europe the construction of railways completed industrialization, then in Russia it served as its starting point. The immediate construction of railways was first announced in the early 60s. 19th century landowners - grain exporters and the commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. In 1865, there were only 3.7 thousand km of railways in Russia, while in England - 22 thousand km, the USA - 56 thousand km.
For the period 1861 -1900. 51.6 thousand km of railways were built and put into operation, and 22 thousand km of them within one decade (1890-1900). The Russian railway network connected the grain regions with industrial ones, the center with the outskirts.
By the beginning of the XX century. a nationwide network of railways was created, which became the most important factor in the formation of a single capitalist economic system. In the European part of Russia, eight main railway junctions are finally being formed, covering the most important economic regions. Of great importance for the economic development of the country was the state large-scale construction of railways on the outskirts of the country - the Trans-Siberian Railway, Central Asia, etc. Railway transport became the most important branch of the capitalist economy.
The creation of a developed transport network in the country allowed large-scale machine production to function normally. Railroads linked local markets into a single internal market, which contributed to the further development of capitalist relations. Thanks to the railroads, new resources were discovered - land, forest, minerals - in previously unknown areas, and Russia was able to enter the world grain market.
Income from grain exports was one of the main sources of accumulation and was invested in the development of various sectors of the Russian export industry. The acceleration of cargo transportation also accelerated the turnover of steel. The main role in the construction of railways (70% of the invested capital) belonged to foreign capital. Thus obrazol foreign capital indirectly stimulated the development of the entire Russian economy.
In the post-reform decades, the greatest difficulty was the technical restructuring of heavy industry.
In 1861, the Rules were adopted to encourage the engineering business in Russia, then the government developed a new system to stimulate the growth of its own steel production, based on long-term government orders at higher prices and cash bonuses. In 1878, a Special Commission was established to study the reasons hindering the development of mining and mechanical engineering in Russia. At the same time, the Society for the Promotion of Russian Industry and Trade submitted a petition to the government for financial support only for independent factories that made steel rails from domestically produced metals. But the effectiveness of the measures was low. Domestic needs for machinery, metal and coal were two to three times higher than domestic production, the shortcomings were covered by a corresponding share of imports, the total value of which exceeded the gigantic amount of 1 billion rubles at that time. silver. Thus, Russia paid dearly for its technical backwardness.
The influx of foreign capital played a significant role in industrial development and by 1900 had become a mass phenomenon in Russia. In the development of heavy industries - metallurgical, coal, machine-building, electrical engineering - its share was 60%. In general, from 1861 to the 1890s. foreign capital in Russia grew 23 times, with France in first place, followed by Great Britain, Germany, and Belgium. The results of the economic policy of SYu. Witte were impressive. Industrial takeoff in the 1890s completely transformed many areas of the empire, causing the development of urban centers and the emergence of new large modern industrial enterprises.
In general, large-scale industry was unevenly distributed over the territory of Russia and concentrated in several areas: Moscow, St. Petersburg, Poland, Baltic, Ural. By the end of the XIX century. new districts were added to them - the Southern coal and metallurgical and Baku oil producing. The central region around Moscow assumed even greater importance, as did the area around St. Petersburg, represented by such a giant as the Putilov factory. The Urals, on the contrary, had fallen into decay by that time due to their social and technical backwardness. The place of the Urals as the leading industrial region was taken by Ukraine and the South of Russia.
A feature of Russian industry was also the fact that the machine industry was immediately created as a large and largest one. Thus, the Russian heavy industry was characterized by a high concentration of production: 18% of all industrial enterprises employed more than 4/5 workers. By 1914, the industrial proletariat in St. Petersburg was 70% concentrated in large enterprises.
In 1866, European financiers founded the "Society for Mutual Land Credit", which issued its mortgage bonds through the largest European banks, in particular the Rothschild Bank. Although the first commercial banks in Russia were created exclusively with Russian money, later the organization of commercial credit was taken over by foreign capital. If in the 1860-1880s. dominated by German capital, then in the 1890s. - French. By the end of 1913, 11 of the 19 largest banks in Russia were based on foreign capital (five of them - on French).
Economic boom in the 1890s was associated with the commercial and industrial policy of the autocracy - the development of joint-stock foundation. Dozens of Russian and foreign companies opened every year. The founding peak came in 1899, when 156 Russian and 37 foreign companies were opened.
By the beginning of the XX century. Russia in terms of industrial production has approached France, and in terms of its growth - to Germany and the United States. Russia's share in world industrial production increased from 1.72% in 1860 to 1.88% in 1890, and by 1913 it was 3.14%, but this did not correspond to the opportunities at its disposal and modern tasks.
From the 1870s to the 1890s domestic trade turnover increased more than three times, foreign trade turnover - four times. Russia's main trading partners were England and Germany. 3/4 of Russian exports were agricultural products, and imports were mainly metal, coal, machinery, and cotton.
Agricultural production is increasing. Russian grain exports grew in the 1860s-1890s. five times. At the end of the XIX century. Russia gave up to half of the world's rye crop, up to a quarter of the world's oat crop, and was in first place in terms of total agricultural production. Two types of agrarian capitalism competed in Russia: "Prussian" with the predominance of landlord farms that switched to new methods of managing with the use of progressive wage labor, and "American" with the dominance of peasant farms of the American farm type. The "American" way was more progressive: hired labor was used more widely, fewer expenses were required for the maintenance of the management staff. By the beginning of the XX century. peasant entrepreneurs gave about half of the country's marketable bread. The American way spread to the outskirts that did not know serfdom: in Novorossia, the Volga region, and Siberia.
By the second half of the XVIII century. in the socio-economic field of development of the countries of Western Europe and the United States, all conditions were created for the start of the industrial revolution. The destruction of the old feudal order, the economic and political strengthening of the bourgeois strata of society, the growth of manufacturing production - all this testified to the maturing of global changes in the sphere of production. Of great importance for the beginning of the industrial revolution were the results of the agrarian revolution of the 18th century, which led to the intensification of agricultural labor and at the same time to the reduction of the rural population, some of which began to leave for the city. Industrialization, which swept from the end of the XVHI - XIX centuries. throughout Europe, developed extremely unevenly and had its own characteristics in each region. The most rapid growth was characteristic of areas with a long industrial tradition, as well as areas rich in coal, iron ore and other minerals.
The industrial revolution began in England in the 60s. 18th century This country had a dense network of manufactories that functioned on the basis of the principle of division of labor: the organization of production here reaches a high degree of development, which contributed to the utmost simplification and specialization of individual production operations. The replacement and displacement of manual labor by machines, which is the essence of the industrial revolution, is taking place for the first time in light industry. The introduction of machines in this area of production required less capital investment and brought quick financial returns. In 1765, the weaver D. Hargreaves invented a mechanical spinning wheel, in which 15-18 spindles worked simultaneously. This invention
nie, repeatedly modernized, soon spread throughout England. An important milestone in the process of improvements was the invention by D. Watt in 1784 of a steam engine that could be used in almost all industries. New technology required a different organization of production. The manufacture begins to be supplanted by the factory. Unlike manufactory, which was based on manual labor, the factory was a large machine enterprise, designed to produce a huge amount of standard products. The development of industry has resulted in the growth of transport infrastructure: new canals and highways are being built; from the first quarter XIX in. rail transport is actively developing. By the middle of the century, the length of railway lines in England amounted to more than 8000 km. Sea and river trade was also modernized with the introduction of steam engines in the fleet. The successes of England in the industrial sector were impressive: at the end of the 18th - the first half of the 19th centuries. it began to be called the "workshop of the world."
Industrial development of the XIX century. characterized by the expansion of machine production, the transfer of technological knowledge, commercial and financial experience from England to other European countries and the United States. In continental Europe, one of the first countries affected by industrialization was Belgium. As in England, there were rich reserves of coal and ore; large trading centers (Ghent, Liege, Antwerp, etc.) flourished due to the convenient geographical position between France and Germany. The ban on the import of English goods during the Napoleonic Wars contributed to the flourishing of cotton production in Ghent. In 1823, the first blast furnace was built in the Liege coal basin / The independent existence of Belgium since 1831 favored the acceleration of its industrial development: over the next 20 years, the number of machines used increased six times, and the level of coal production increased from 2 to 6 million tons in year. In France technological innovations penetrated, first of all, into large industrial centers such as Paris and Lyon, as well as into areas of development
textile industry (northeast and center of the country). Of great importance to French industry was the fact that banks and financial institutions actively invested their capital in the construction of new enterprises and the improvement of technology. The French economy was developing especially actively during the era of the Second Empire (1852-1870), when the volume of exports increased 400 times, and energy production - five times.
A significant obstacle to the process of industrialization in Germany was the political fragmentation of this country. The situation improved significantly after the unification of the German lands in 1871. The Ruhr region became the largest industrial region in Germany, where there were significant deposits of high quality coal. Subsequently, the Krupp company was founded here, which was the leading steel manufacturer in Germany. Another "industrial center of the country was located in the valley of the Wupper River. At the beginning of the century, it gained fame due to the production of cotton fabrics, the extraction of coal and iron ore. It was in this region of Germany that coke was first used instead of charcoal for the production of iron.
Industrialization in Austria-Hungary, Italy, Spain affected only certain regions, without having a significant impact on the economic development of these countries as a whole.
AT USA industrial production begins to develop at an especially rapid pace from the 40s. XIX century. The most important industrial region of the country was the northeastern states (Pennsylvania, New York, etc.), where by the middle of the 19th century there were large enterprises for the production of iron, agricultural machines, working on coal fuel. The ever-increasing size of the country (by 1848, the US borders stretched from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans) contributed to the rapid development. means of communication - railway lines and highways. The industrial development of the United States was carried out in the conditions of a constant influx of cheap labor - emigrants from Europe and Asia. Technical innovations also penetrate the south of the United States, where in the first half of the XIX
in. plantation agriculture developed, based on the use of the labor of black slaves: the cotton gin, invented in 1793, is being introduced more and more widely; enterprises for the processing of agricultural products are being built. In general, the industrial development of the United States proceeded at the most rapid pace since the second half of the 19th century, when internal socio-political contradictions (the conflict between the southern and northern states) were overcome.
The Industrial Revolution had significant social consequences^ associated with the formation of two main classes of industrial society: the industrial bourgeoisie and wage workers. These two social groups had to find common ground and develop an effective system of relationships. This process was extremely difficult. At the first stage of industrial development, which can be conditionally designated as the era of "wild capitalism", the degree of exploitation of workers was extremely high. Entrepreneurs sought to reduce the cost of producing goods at any cost, in particular by lowering wages and increasing the length of the working day. In conditions of low labor productivity, the complete absence of elementary safety measures, as well as legislation protecting the rights of employees, the position of the latter was very difficult. Such a situation could not but cause spontaneous protest, which had various manifestations: from the destruction of machines (the Luddite movement in England) to the creation of trade unions and the formation of ideological concepts in which the proletariat was given a decisive role in the development of society. The nature of the relationship between industrialists and state power has also changed. The capitalists were no longer satisfied with the mere fact that the state took into account their interests - they gradually began to openly claim power.
By the end of the 70s. 19th century the most developed countries of continental Europe (France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland) caught up with the UK in terms of key economic indicators. The period of British economic dominance was gradually drawing to a close. Especially
Rapidly developing Germany, which by the end of the 19th century achieved significant success in the development of “new industries” of production (electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and the chemical industry), became a serious competitor to England in the European market. England was also seriously competing with the United States, which actively introduced the latest European technologies. The rapid development of industry begins to require additional markets for European goods. The crises of overproduction, which had a cyclical nature, became more and more serious and prolonged towards the end of the 19th century. The raw material base of European industry is also gradually depleted. All this prompts the most developed industrial countries to seize colonies. The least developed regions of the world (Africa, Asia, Oceania) became the objects of colonial expansion. These lands, which did not have their own industry, but possessed significant material and human resources, became the most important sources of raw materials and markets for European industry. By the end of the XIX century. whole colonial empires were created, the largest of which was the British Empire. This stage in the development of Western civilization is characterized as the era imperialism. This era was not only the period of the highest power of the European industrial powers, but also the time when serious contradictions arose between them, which later acquired an insoluble character. Economic rivalry, the struggle for colonial sources of raw materials and markets became the main reasons for the growing international tension.
Thus, by the end of the 19th century, the process of the formation of an industrial capitalist society in Western and Central Europe and North America had been completed. The countries of the West became a zone of accelerated, "advanced" development of capitalism, its "first echelon". Southeast and Eastern Europe, as well as some countries in Asia (Japan) have also embarked on the path of reform. At the end of the XIX century. finally formed the system of the world economy. The export of goods and capital connected many regions of the world with European centers of industry and banks. Industrialization contributed to a profound revolution in the development of world civilization. She zat-
dropped all spheres of life of society without exception, solving and, at the same time, giving rise to many problems. The second half of the 19th century was a time when optimistic moods prevailed in European society. Europeans believed in progress, in the omnipotence of technology and human genius, and looked to the future with confidence.
Features of the industrialization of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. Transition to “modern rates of economic growth. Reform Witte.
After the abolition of serfdom in 1861 and bourgeois reforms, capitalism was established in Russia. From an agrarian, backward country, Russia turned into an agro-industrial one: a network of railways was quickly created, a large machine industry developed, new types of industry arose, new areas of capitalist industrial and agricultural production were formed, a single capitalist market was formed, important social changes took place in the country .
Industrialization required significant capital investments from the budget, which was supposed to ensure the implementation of the developed policy. One of the directions of the reform carried out by him (Witte) was the introduction in 1894 of ᴦ. state wine monopoly, which became the main revenue item of the budget (365 million rubles per year). have been increased taxes, primarily indirect (they increased by 42.7% in the 1990s). The gold standard, ᴛ.ᴇ, was introduced. free exchange of the ruble for gold. (1897)
The latter made it possible to attract foreign capital into the Russian economy, because foreign investors could now take gold rubles out of Russia. customs tariff protected domestic industry from foreign competition, the government encouraged private enterprise. During the years of the economic crisis of 1900 - 1903. the government generously subsidized both public and private enterprises. Gets spread concession system, the issuance of government orders to entrepreneurs for a long time at inflated prices. All this was a good stimulus for domestic industry.
At the same time, the process of industrialization in Russia was contradictory. Capitalist methods of management (profit, cost, etc.) did not affect the public sector of the economy - the largest in the world. These were defense plants. And this created a certain imbalance in the capitalist development of the country.
In his reform activities, Witte had to experience resistance from the aristocracy and higher officials, who had a great influence on the reigning persons. The most active opponent of Witte was the Minister of the Interior VK. Plehve. His course of social policy is opposition to reforms, upholding conservative principle of development, retaining invariably the privileges of the nobility to power, and, consequently, the preservation of feudal remnants. This trend of confrontation between reforms and counter-reforms at the turn of the two centuries ended not in Witte's favor.
Changes in the world economic situation at the turn of the XIX - XX centuries. led to a crisis in industries that were intensively developing in the 90s. - metallurgy, mechanical engineering, oil and coal mining industry. Opponents of the minister accused him of the decline in Russian production, called his policy adventurous and disastrous for Russia. Dissatisfaction with Witte's policy led to his resignation in 1903 ᴦ.
Features of the industrialization of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. Transition to “modern rates of economic growth. Reform Witte. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Features of the industrialization of Russia in the late XIX - early XX century. Transition to "modern rates of economic growth. Witte's reform." 2017, 2018.
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Further development of technological progress in the XIX century. and the largest discoveries in the field of natural sciences - physics, mathematics, biology, chemistry served as the basis for a powerful impetus to the industry of the leading countries of the world.
The substantiation of the law of conservation and transformation of energy made it possible to draw a conclusion about the unity of the world and the indestructibility of energy. The discovery of electromagnetic induction paved the way for the transformation of electrical energy into mechanical motion. In the 19th century there was a tendency towards the integration of scientific research, the outstripping development of the natural sciences as the basis for the development of engineering and technology. A new phenomenon was the emergence of links between scientific, technical and industrial activities.
In metallurgy, the English engineer Bessemer invented a converter - a rotary kiln for processing iron into steel. The Frenchman Martin designed a furnace for smelting higher quality steel. At the end of the XIX century. electric furnaces appeared. The energy basis of industry has changed. The steam engine was improved, a powerful heat engine was created - a steam turbine. The use of electricity has revolutionized the energy sector. The energy of coal, peat, and shale began to be widely used to generate electric current, which can be transmitted over a distance. The creation of a dynamo used as an electric motor was decisive for technological progress.
The creation of machines with the help of other machines led to the emergence of machine-building plants equipped with a variety of machine tools. At the end of the XIX century. mechanical engineering had five types of machine tools - turning, drilling, planing, milling, grinding. The main line of development of mechanical engineering was the transition to specialized machines designed for one or more operations. The narrowing of the functions of the machines led to the simplification of the operations performed and created the conditions for the use of automatic processes. In 1873, the American X. Spencer created one of the first automatic machines.
In the 19th century The railroad entered the life of the people. For the first time, rail transport appeared in England in 1825. In the second half of the 19th century. The greatest scope of railroad construction has received in the United States. Here, in 1869, the first transcontinental railway line was opened, connecting the Atlantic coast with the Pacific. Improved dirt roads. After 1830, the first highway appeared in France. There have been changes in urban transport. In the 80s. The horse-drawn carriage was replaced by the tram. Maritime transport developed. Steamships appeared. The migration of the population from Europe to America, Australia, New Zealand encouraged the creation of new bulky ships. Special-purpose vessels also entered the sea routes. In 1886, the British built the first tanker. In 1864, the first icebreaker Pilot was built by the Russians, guiding ships from Kronstadt to Oranienbaum. The development of maritime transport was the impetus for the construction of the Suez Canal, which lasted from 1859 to 1869.
The means of communication improved. In 1844, the inventor Morse from the USA created a telegraph apparatus, and in 1866 the first transatlantic cable 3240 km long was laid. In 1876, the American A. Bell created a telephone that provides audibility over a short distance. Soon, E. Hughes invented the most important part of the telephone - a microphone, and then T. A. Edison developed switching equipment. In 1887, the German physicist G. Hertz discovered the possibility of artificial excitation of electromagnetic waves. The idea of wireless communication was materialized by AS Popov. In 1895, radio appeared.
Industrial revolution and its features. The Industrial Revolution began in the 1980s. 18th century in England in the first half of the nineteenth century. covered the rest of Europe and North America. By the middle of the XIX century. the factory already dominated England. From 1826 to 1850 the export of machinery from England increased sixfold. In many other countries, however, manufactory and small-scale handicraft production still prevailed, and, despite the acceleration, the industrial revolution was completed here in the last third of the 19th century.
In France, the transition to the creation of factories began primarily in the textile industry. In the production of silk, France came out on top in the world, its fabrics were sold domestically and on the foreign market. Luxury goods have traditionally played an important role in French exports. Factory production gradually established itself in metallurgy and mechanical engineering. Paris in 1828 switched to gas lighting and asphalting of the streets. The economy developed especially rapidly during the years of the Second Empire (1852 - 1870).
In the German states, the industrial revolution unfolded in the 30s. It became possible thanks to the emergence of a free labor force due to the ruin of artisans and peasants, the accumulation of large capitals, the growth of the urban population and the increase in its consumer demand. Factory production was established primarily in the cotton industry of Saxony, the Rhine-Westphalian region, and Silesia. After the creation of the Customs Union in 1834, the formation of economic unity began while maintaining the state fragmentation of Germany. Technological progress and railway construction played an important role in the industrial revolution. In Prussia, the construction of highways began. Large centers of mechanical engineering were formed - Berlin, Ruhr.
The use of machines in the Czech Republic, Lower Austria, Italian lands, and Spain became more intensive. The transition from medieval forms of production here took place faster in the textile industry, then in metallurgy.
The Industrial Revolution created the conditions for the transformation of society from an agrarian to an industrial one. Capitalist forms of agriculture were first introduced in England and Holland. At the beginning of the XIX century. they were introduced in some regions of France, in northern Italy. The Prussian junkers (landlords) rebuilt their estates on a capitalist basis while maintaining the semi-feudal order.
In agricultural production, iron implements began to be used more widely, crop areas expanded, crop rotation improved, fertilizers, other achievements of agronomy, and the first agricultural machines were used. On the whole, the village moved more slowly to new forms of management.
The industrial revolution and industrialization caused crises of overproduction, accompanied by a sudden recession, a reduction in production, and an increase in unemployment. The first cyclical crisis of overproduction erupted in 1825 in England. Crises have been repeated every decade. They were caused by the displacement of manual labor by machine labor, a reduction in the number of workers, which led to a drop in the purchasing power of the population. As a result, the domestic market was oversaturated with goods that were not sold out, because the bulk of the buyers consisted of people who worked for hire. During crises, the volume of production fell, the situation of the workers worsened, which aggravated social contradictions.
The expansion of economic and trade ties led to the fact that crises acquired an international character. The first world economic crisis erupted in 1857. The global agrarian crisis of the early 1970s, caused by the influx of cheap American bread into European countries, caused great damage to the European economy.
The economies of European countries developed unevenly. The balance of power in the group of the most developed countries began to change. If in the first half of the XIX century. England ranked first in world industrial production, then by the end of the 19th century. it moved to third place in the world, behind the United States and Germany. Accordingly, France moved from second place to fourth.
With the completion of the industrial revolution in most Western countries, the process of concentration of production and capital accelerated. A separate enterprise, due to limited capital, could not survive in a fierce competition. Joint-stock companies arose in the form of cartels, syndicates, trusts that controlled entire sectors of the economy.
In Germany, the Rhenish-Westphalian Coal Syndicate concentrated in its hands a significant part of the country's coal production. The General Electricity Company (AEG), Siemens became monopolists in the electrical industry, entrepreneurs Krupp and Stumm - in military production.
In France, the metallurgical industry was in the hands of two companies - "Comite de Forge" and Schneider-Creusot.
In England, the military concerns of Vickers and Armstrong and the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company played an important role. The Morgan Steel Corporation and the Rockefeller Oil Trust subjugated a significant part of the metallurgy and oil production of the United States. These monopolies controlled small and medium-sized enterprises, dictating their terms to them.
The largest banks monopolized the financial sector. There was a fusion of banking capital with industrial capital and the formation on this basis of a financial oligarchy that significantly influenced the domestic and foreign policies of their states. Monopolies became crowded within the national framework, international monopolies arose.
Although by the end of the XIX century. many peoples of the globe were still at the pre-industrial stage of development, the capitalism of the leading industrial countries through colonial policy, the export of capital, trade, and transport drew them into the world market. A world capitalist economic system has taken shape.
item 1 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 91
Question. Fill in the table and draw conclusions about the significance of technical achievements of the second half of the 19th century.
item 2 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 93
Question. Analyze the characteristics of different types of monopolies and explain what distinguishes them from each other. How did the degree of centralization of management determine a particular type of monopoly?
Types of monopolies from a cartel to a concern differ in the enlargement of their positions: if in a cartel entrepreneurs agree on prices and volumes, then a concern unites enterprises of different industries that are under the same control and management.
p.3 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 96
Question 1. Make a logical diagram showing the causes of economic crises in the 19th century. and their social consequences.
Question 2. What were the positive and negative consequences of the monopolization of markets and areas of production? Why in the second half of the XIX century. entrepreneurs became more profitable export of capital, rather than goods from industrialized countries?
Entrepreneurs quickly increased the output of goods for which there was a demand, however, having had enough of the goods, a decline in production began. Moreover, the recession, which began in one industry, covered the entire economy.
item 4 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 97
Question 1. What changes took place in the composition of employees in the process of industrialization?
In the composition of hired workers there is a stratification: administrative personnel, employees, skilled workers, unskilled.
Question 2. How did the position of employees?
These strata differed in terms of income and education.
item 5 questions and tasks to paragraph paragraph p. 98
Question. What new features did the trade union movement acquire in industrialized countries at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries? Name four or more differences.
Trade unions united on a national scale. Ties developed between the trade unions of different states. The International Secretariat of Trade Unions was created, which ensured cooperation and mutual support of trade union centers in different countries.
They united mainly highly skilled workers of the same profession. Subsequently, there was an association at the level of industries and the inclusion of unskilled workers in their organizations.
Questions and tasks for paragraph page 98
Question 1. Which of the following characterized the industrial and social development of the countries of Europe and the USA in the first half of the 19th century, and which - in the second:
1) export of machinery and equipment; 2) export of capital; 3) completion of the industrial revolution; 4) industrialization; 5) conveyor production; 6) concentration of production; 7) modernization of production; 8) monopolization of production and markets; 9) the first crisis of overproduction; 10) the transformation of trade unions into an influential political force; 11) stratification of employees; 12) merger of banking capital with industrial capital; 13) the formation of the labor movement; 14) formation of the working class; 15) centralization of production?
Completion of the industrial revolution; the formation of the working class; the formation of the labor movement; modernization of production; conveyor production; concentration of production; centralization of capital; merger of banking capital; overproduction crisis; monopolization of production and the market; export of capital; industrialization; stratification of hired workers; the transformation of trade unions into an influential political force.
Question 2. From this list, make pairs of concepts that mean the causes and consequences of the economic and social processes of the 19th century; explain your answer. Example: industrialization is the stratification of employees.
industrialization - stratification of hired workers;
completion of the industrial revolution - modernization of production - assembly line production;
the formation of the working class - the formation of the labor movement;
concentration of production - centralization of capital;
monopolization of production and the market - the merger of banking
capital - the export of capital;
crisis of overproduction - monopolization of markets.
Question 3. Think about why in the second half of the XIX century. in the industrial countries there were no longer such mass social movements as Chartism.
There were no mass social movements in the industrial countries, as the trade union movement developed, which fought for the rights of workers.
Question 1. What in the situation of society, and specifically the workers, worried the head of the Catholic Church at the end of the 19th century?
The Church wants the poor to live better, calls people to virtue and educates them morally.
Question 2. Why does the Pope offer workers to organize trade unions? What should be their activity?
The activities of trade unions should consist (in the opinion of the Pope) in turning to God, engaging in religious instruction, teaching what constitutes duties to God, what he believes, what he hopes for and what leads him to eternal salvation.
Question 3. Whose interests did the Church take care of by proposing the creation of Catholic trade unions?
Analyzing these statements, you understand that the Church does not care in the interests of the working class.
