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Self-esteem, according to psychologists, is the quality that allows us to reach unprecedented heights and contentment with ourselves, or turn into a worthless creature without any pretensions.

Definition of self-esteem

The definition of self-esteem is as follows: self-esteem is the process and result of a person evaluating his own qualities and merits.

Thus, self-esteem consists of two subspecies:

• self-esteem of a person - how a person evaluates himself and his position in life;
• specific-situational self-esteem - how a person evaluates himself in any particular situation.

The subject of interest of psychologists in everyday life is most often the first type - self-esteem of the individual.

Self-esteem level

A person with a sufficiently high level of self-esteem is self-confident, does not get lost in a difficult situation and is not afraid to set some difficult and difficult goals for himself. And most of the time he succeeds.

Low self-esteem, on the other hand, prevents us from achieving our desires and goals.

Interestingly, the level of self-esteem of a person may not correspond at all to his actual qualities and capabilities. This is primarily because self-esteem is influenced by many factors:

• opinions and attitudes of other people;
• degree of success;
• the level of self-esteem that a person seeks to achieve (claims);
• opinion of the individual about himself;
• emotional condition;
• degree of self-confidence;
• confidence or uncertainty in one's own ability to adequately respond to a difficult situation.

Sometimes you may realize that you underestimate yourself too much. But if you are too shy or have been constantly convinced (or even still being convinced) that you are not capable of anything, then most likely you do not even have a thought to doubt the assessment of others. In such cases, the help of a specialist is needed. After all, a correction started on time, with your great desire, of course, can bring wonderful results.

People who decide to meet with a psychologist learn to look at their actions, successes and failures from the other side, treat themselves with great respect and trust.

To begin with, a psychologist will determine your level of self-esteem. You will be offered special tables, with the help of which the psychologist finds out the features of a person's self-esteem, determines its adequacy and gives recommendations for correction.

Adequate self-esteem

Adequate self-esteem can be high, low or medium. If we are talking about overestimated or underestimated self-esteem, then it does not fit the definition of adequate.

Adequate self-esteem in this case means a correct assessment of one's capabilities, abilities and position in life.

The adequacy of self-esteem is determined by a psychologist by analyzing the real and desired (ideal) claims and capabilities of a person. A high level of self-esteem is usually characteristic of successful, self-confident people who set realistic goals and have enough strength and ability to achieve them.

Low self-esteem is formed in people who are too shy, seeking to avoid difficult situations and decisive actions. However, both examples refer to adequate self-esteem.

However, it happens that a person values ​​himself and his abilities too highly, unjustifiably elevates himself above the people around him, or vice versa. Such people fall under the definition of individuals with inadequate high or low self-esteem.

Features of self-esteem

The level of self-esteem of a person is formed from childhood. Parents who indulge their child in everything and praise him literally for any insignificant reason are unlikely to do the right thing, as they risk raising a person with inflated self-esteem, which in the future can have a very bad effect on him.

Psychologists, studying the features of self-esteem, found that this factor may depend on age and even gender.

In this regard, many studies have been written on the features of self-esteem of children of primary school age, the features of self-esteem of adolescents, and so on.

Different features of self-esteem can also appear in different situations. For example, the same person is able to relate to himself and define his capabilities in different ways in the workplace, surrounded by friends or in everyday private life.

Self-esteem of a woman

A woman's self-esteem can also have some features. Today, for example, one of the most studied topics is the features of self-esteem of women suffering from infertility.

A woman's self-esteem is generally different from a man's self-esteem. The main reason, according to psychologists, is that a modern woman, although she has more opportunities, still consciously denies herself some claims.

For example, only a small number of the fair sex allows themselves to claim a high leadership position or a bright political career. Often, as already mentioned, a woman denies herself this of her own free will, guided by the fact that these desires are characteristic of men and are approved by society as purely male claims.

Of course, this factor does not have the most favorable effect on a woman's self-esteem, especially if she has enough strength and ability to achieve her goal.

Self-esteem test

As already mentioned, the definition of self-esteem is the work of a psychologist. However, if you are interested in this topic, you can try to determine the level of self-esteem using popular self-esteem tests adapted for the general public.

For these purposes, I chose a simple self-esteem test that you can analyze on your own.

You are offered a series of questions to which you need to answer from the options presented. Each answer corresponds to a certain number of points, which you will need to calculate after passing the test.

Answer options

• Almost always - 4
• Often - 3
• Happens - 2
• Rare - 1
• Never - 0

Self-Assessment Test Questions

1. I am subject to needless worries.
2. I need the support of my friends.
3. I'm afraid to seem stupider than I am.
4. I'm not sure about my future.
5. I look worse than others.
6. I often get upset because people don't understand me.
7. I feel insecure if I have to talk to other people
8. I don't live up to other people's expectations
9. I often feel stiff.
10. I'm always looking for trouble.
11. I feel like I depend on people's opinions.
12. It seems to me that people are discussing me when I leave the room.
13. I'm not sure about my own safety.
14. There is no one to whom I can tell what I think.
15. When I do something successfully, other people don't give enough importance to it.

Analysis of the self-assessment test

Your result is less than 10 points . Unfortunately, you have signs of inflated self-esteem, you have something to work on. You often get involved in conflicts that arose from your own submission. People are scared off by your arrogance, which is why it is so difficult for you to make friends and close relationships. Try to correctly determine the reality of the level of your capabilities and claims.

Your score is over 30 points. Here, too, there is something to work on - in contrast to the example above, you clearly have low self-esteem. Try to treat yourself with great respect and faith in yourself. Trust people, and they will help you increase your self-esteem.

Your result is between 10 and 30 points. You can be congratulated - the adequacy and level of self-esteem you have in perfect order. In a difficult situation, you are quite capable of coping with yourself and even helping those who are not so confident in themselves.

This self-esteem test, of course, cannot be considered an accurate diagnosis of your level, however, it will allow you to understand what criteria are used to determine self-esteem.

From myself I want to add - believe in yourself and your strength. Don't let other people's opinions and circumstances take over you. If you doubt the adequacy of your own self-esteem or want to improve its level, it is best to contact a specialist who will give individual recommendations and help you cope with the situation.

Remember: often the reason for our failures is not the inability to achieve what we want, but self-doubt.

Each person should look into himself, if only because it is there, inside, that the solutions to most current problems are located. Only by “digging” in oneself can a person resolutely throw away the garbage located there in the same way as is done during a major cleaning of an apartment on New Year's Eve. At the same time, the necessary, useful things are located closer, and what is not for prying eyes, hides away.

Self-esteem is part of those processes that form self-consciousness. With self-esteem, a person tries to evaluate his qualities, properties and capabilities. This is done through self-observation, self-examination, self-reporting, and also through the continuous comparison of oneself with other people with whom one has to be in direct contact. Self-esteem is not a simple satisfaction of genetically determined curiosity, so characteristic of our distant ancestor (according to Darwin). The driving motive here is the motive of self-improvement, a healthy sense of pride and the desire for success. After all, human life is not a blitz tournament. It is rather a protracted struggle with oneself and for ssbm, forcing will and utmost sincerity in front of oneself.

Self-esteem not only makes it possible to see the real "I", but also to link it with your past and future. After all, on the one hand, the formation of self-esteem is carried out in the early years. On the other hand, self-esteem belongs to the most stable personality characteristics. Therefore, it allows a person to consider the roots of his strengths and weaknesses, to be convinced of their objectivity and to find more adequate models of his behavior in various everyday situations. According to T. Mann, a person who knows himself becomes a different person.

There are two components in the self-assessment structure:
- cognitive, reflecting everything that the individual has learned about himself from various sources of information;
- emotional, expressing one's own attitude to various aspects of one's personality (character traits, behavior, habits, etc.).

Self-esteem- the procedure is unpleasant. For those who have not given up on themselves, with self-esteem, it becomes possible to reflect on the most unidentified object on the planet - about oneself. Here the French poet F. Villon wrote:
I know how flies land on honey
I know death that prowls, ruining everything,
I know books, truths and rumors
I know EVERYTHING! But NOT YOURSELF!

And what is there to be surprised if, in the structure of the human brain, areas oriented towards displeasure, nature allotted less than 10% of the entire area. Here is a man who is inclined to flatter himself. Flattery is the food of the stupid, D. Swift said, but meanwhile, how many smart people are ready, from time to time, to taste at least a sip of this food.

American psychologist W. James suggested formula for self-esteem: Self-esteem = Success / Level of aspirations

The level of claims is the level that an individual seeks to achieve in various spheres of life (career, status, wealth, etc.), the ideal goal of his future actions. Success is the fact of achieving certain results, the implementation of a certain program of actions, reflecting the level of claims. The formula shows that self-esteem can be increased either by reducing the level of claims, or by increasing the effectiveness of one's actions.

Self-esteem can be adequate, overestimated and underestimated. With strong deviations from adequate self-esteem, a person may experience psychological discomfort and internal conflicts. The saddest thing is that the person himself is often not aware of the true causes of these phenomena and is looking for causes outside himself.

With a clearly overestimated self-esteem, a person:
- acquires a superiority complex (“I am the most correct”), or a 2-year-old complex (“I am the best”);
- has an idealized idea: about himself, about his abilities and capabilities, about his significance for the cause and for the people around him (trying to live according to this ideal "I", often gives rise to unjustified friction with other people; after all, as F. La Rochefoucauld said , ist the best way to get into trouble in life than to consider yourself better than others);
- ignores his failures for the sake of maintaining his psychological comfort, maintaining his usual high conceit; repels the dog, WHAT interferes with the prevailing idea of ​​\u200b\u200byou;
- interprets his weaknesses as strengths, passing off ordinary aggressiveness and stubbornness as will and determination;
- becomes inaccessible to others, "mentally deaf", loses feedback from others, does not listen to other people's opinions;
- external, connects his failure with external factors, other people's intrigues, intrigues, circumstances - with anything, but not with his own mistakes;
- regards a critical assessment of oneself by others with obvious distrust, referring all this to nit-picking and envy;
- as a rule, sets unrealistic goals;
- has a level of claims that exceeds its real capabilities;
- easily acquires such traits as arrogance, arrogance, striving for superiority, rudeness, aggressiveness, rigidity, quarrelsomeness;
- behaves underlined independently, which is perceived by others as arrogance and contempt (hence - a hidden or obvious negative attitude towards him);
- prone to persecution of neurotic and even hysterical manifestations (“I am more capable, smarter, more practical, more beautiful, kinder than most people; but I am the most unhappy and unlucky”);
- predictable, has stable standards of its behavior;
- has a characteristic appearance: straight posture, high head position, direct and long gaze, commanding notes in the voice.

With a clearly low self-esteem, a person:
- has a predominantly anxious, stuck, pedantic type of character accentuation, which is the psychological basis for such self-esteem;
- as a rule, not self-confident, shy, indecisive, overly cautious;
- more acutely needs the support and approval of others, depends on them;
- conformable, easily influenced by other people, recklessly follows their lead;
- suffering from an inferiority complex, seeks to assert himself, to fulfill himself (sometimes at any cost, which leads him to indiscriminate means of achieving his goals), to feverishly catch up, to prove to everyone (and above all to himself) his importance, that he is worth something;
-sets lower goals than he can achieve;
- often goes into his troubles and failures, exaggerating their role in his life;
- too demanding of himself and others, excessively self-critical, which often leads to isolation, envy, suspicion, vindictiveness and even cruelty;
- often becomes a bore, brings others around with trifles, causing conflicts both in the family and at work;
- has a characteristic appearance: the head is slightly pulled into the shoulders, the gait is indecisive, as if insinuating, when talking, it often takes its eyes to the side.

The adequacy of self-esteem is determined by the ratio of two opposite mental processes in a person:
- cognitive, contributing to adequacy;
- protective, acting in the direction opposite to reality.

The protective process is explained by the fact that any person has a sense of self-preservation, which in situations of self-esteem acts in the direction of self-justification of one's behavior and self-defense of one's inner psychological comfort. This happens even when a person is left alone with himself. It is difficult for a person to recognize chaos within himself. By the way, according to statistics collected by psychologists, only 40% of managers of different job levels evaluate themselves objectively. There is also such a figure: only 15% of people had a self-esteem that coincided with that which he received from his marriage partner. So our internal "moral police" is not up to par.

The mechanism of functioning of self-defense can be considered using a psychoanalytic understanding of the psychological structure of the personality. According to 3. Freud, as you know, there are three "kingdoms" in the world of the human psyche:
The id is an unconscious system driven by the pleasure principle. It is based on the needs of a biological and emotional nature, indomitable passions.
"I" is a conscious system that regulates the process of interaction with the outside world. This is a stronghold of prudence and sober judgment.
"Super-I" - a kind of internal "morality police", moral censorship. Its charter consists of the norms and prohibitions of society adopted by the individual.

Between "I" and "It" there are always relations of contradictions. The poor "I" always finds himself between three "tyrants": the outside world, the "Super-I" and the "It". The regulation of contradictions is carried out with the help of the mechanisms of psychological protection of a person, which are methods for achieving his peace of mind. The set of such techniques is quite large: lowering the levels of claims, aggression, self-isolation, transferring one's emotional states to another person, switching unwanted inclinations, etc.

Self-esteem is one of the most stable psychological characteristics of the human personality. It's hard to change her. It develops in early childhood and depends on both congenital factors and life circumstances. The attitude of others has the greatest influence on the self-esteem of the individual. After all, self-esteem is formed by constantly comparing yourself with other people. To learn to overcome yourself, you must:
- take a bold and sober look inside yourself;
- study your character, temperament and a number of other psychological properties, especially those that are important for interacting with other people;
- constantly delve into oneself, look for "psychological rubbish", trying to either throw it away (strong-willed overcoming), or hide it behind a facade (forming one's positive image).

Self-esteem is also related to self-esteem. You can’t run away from yourself and you can’t hide, so each of us must see ourselves from the outside: who am I; what others expect from me; where our interests coincide and diverge. Self-respecting people also have their own line of behavior: they are more balanced, not so aggressive, more independent.

Introduction……………………………………………………………………3

1. Self-esteem. Concept, types, structure………………………….4

2. Development of self-esteem………………………………………………..8

2.1. Stages of development of self-esteem………………………………..10

2.2. Factors affecting the development of self-esteem……….…..14

2.2.1. Family factors……………………………………14

2.2.2. Social factors………………………………...16

2.2.3. The principles of "self"………………………………....18

Conclusion……………………………………………………………...21

References……………………………………………………….23

Introduction

The intensive social development of our society, its democratization and humanization increase the requirements for the formation of an active, creative personality and make it especially significant to study the problems of the formation of regulatory processes that allow a person to act as a true subject of his own behavior and activity, independently determine the prospects for his development, ways and means of their implementation.

Among the factors that determine the formation of self-regulation mechanisms, the central place belongs to self-esteem, which determines the direction and level of activity of the subject, the formation of his value orientations, personal meanings and, ultimately, the "ceiling" of his achievements.

Self-assessment is the most important psychological factor in the formation of students' learning activities, plays a significant role in the formation of their individual characteristics and age characteristics. Questions related to its development are among the central problems of pedagogical and developmental psychology.

The ability to evaluate oneself is laid in early childhood, and its development and improvement occurs throughout a person’s life.

Theoretical problems of self-esteem have found the most complete development in the works of B.G. Ananyeva, L.I. Bozhovich, I.O. Kona, M.I. Lisina, A.I. Lipkina, V.V. Stolin, I.I. Lesnokova, E.V. Shorokhova, W. James, C. Cooley, J. Mead, E. Erickson, K. Rogers and others. Questions of the ontogenesis of self-esteem, the role in the formation of personality and self-consciousness, its structure and functions are discussed.

This paper will describe the concept of self-esteem, reveal its types, as well as directions for the development of self-esteem of the individual.

1. Self-esteem. Concept, types.

Personal self-esteem is the value that an individual attaches to himself or his individual qualities. The main criterion of self-assessment is the system of personal meanings of the individual. The main functions of self-esteem are regulatory, on the basis of which the tasks of personal choice are solved, and protective, providing relative stability and independence of the individual, while correcting the signals of the outside world. According to the definition of psychologist V.V. Stolin, self-esteem is "the consciousness of one's own identity, regardless of changing environmental conditions." It can also be said that self-esteem is a state when a person evaluates himself in different areas, giving an assessment to one or another of his qualities (attractiveness, sexuality, professionalism).

Adequate self-esteem

Self-assessment has a significant impact on the effectiveness of activities and the formation of personality at all stages of development. Adequate self-esteem gives a person self-confidence, allows you to successfully set and achieve goals in your career, business, personal life, creativity, gives such useful qualities as initiative, enterprise, the ability to adapt to the conditions of various societies. Low self-esteem accompanies a timid person, insecure in making decisions.

High self-esteem, as a rule, becomes an integral quality of a successful person, regardless of profession - be it politicians, businessmen, representatives of creative specialties. However, cases of inflated self-esteem are also common, when people hold too high an opinion of themselves, their own talents and abilities, while their real achievements, according to experts in a particular field, seem more or less modest. Why is that? Practical psychologists often identify two types of behavior (motivation) - striving for success and avoiding failure. If a person adheres to the first type of thinking, he is more positive, his attention is less focused on difficulties, and in this case, the opinions expressed in society are simply less significant for him and his level of self-esteem. A person who comes from the second position is less risk-averse, more cautious, and often finds confirmation in life of his fears that his path to goals is fraught with endless obstacles and anxieties. This type of behavior may not allow him to raise his self-esteem.

Low (low) self-esteem and its causes

Low (low) self-esteem is often due to the influence and assessment of parents in childhood, and in later life - the external assessment of society. It happens that a child in childhood is given low self-esteem by the next of kin, saying: “You can’t do it!”, Sometimes using physical force. Sometimes parents abuse the "tyranny of shoulds", causing the child to feel hyper-responsible, which can subsequently lead to emotional constraint and tightness. Often the elders say: “You must behave very decently, since your father is a respected person”, “You must obey your mother in everything”. In the mind of the child, a model of the standard is formed, in the event of the implementation of which he would become good and ideal, but since it is not realized, there is a discrepancy between the standard (ideal) and reality. The self-assessment of the individual is influenced by the comparison of the images of the ideal and the real I "- the greater the gap between them, the more likely the person's dissatisfaction with the reality of their achievements and the lower its level.

In adults, low self-esteem of the individual is maintained in cases where they attach too much importance to this or that event, or believe that they are losing in comparison with others. In doing so, they may be forgetting that failure is also a valuable resource of experience, and also that their individuality is no less unique than that of other people. Also important is the question of the criteria for assessment and self-assessment (how and what exactly to assess?). in some, even professional areas (not to mention personal relationships), they may remain relative or not clearly clarified.

Inflated self-esteem and its causes

It happens that parents or close relatives of a child tend to overestimate, admiring how well he (a) reads poetry or plays a musical instrument, how smart and quick-witted he is, but getting into another environment (for example, in a kindergarten or school) such a child sometimes he experiences dramatic feelings, because he is evaluated on a real scale, according to which his abilities are not so highly valued. In these cases, an overestimated parental assessment plays a cruel joke, causing a child's cognitive dissonance at a time when their own criteria for adequate self-esteem have not yet been developed. Then the overestimated level of self-esteem is replaced by an underestimated one, causing a psychological trauma in the child, all the more severe than it occurred at a later age.

Perfectionism and self-esteem

Perfectionism - the desire to meet the maximum criteria for excellence in certain areas - often serves as another reason for overestimated or underestimated self-esteem. The problem is that the evaluation criteria in certain areas may differ, and it is obviously impossible to achieve perfection in all possible areas (“to be an excellent student in all subjects”). In this case, in order to increase a person's self-esteem (or rather, to make self-esteem more adequate), it is worth highlighting separate areas with more or less general criteria and forming a separate self-esteem in them.

Structure of self-assessment is considered by researchers as consisting of two components - cognitive and emotional, functioning in an inseparable unity. The first reflects a person's knowledge of himself in varying degrees of formalization and generalization, the second - the attitude towards himself, the accumulating "affect on himself." A person acquires knowledge about himself in a social context, and they inevitably "grow" with emotions. However, the qualitative difference between the selected components gives their unity an internally differentiated character, and therefore the development of each of them has its own specifics. It is noted that self-assessment functions in two forms - general and particular (partial, specific, local).

More studied are the nature, characteristics and age dynamics of private self-assessments, reflecting the subject's assessment of his specific manifestations and qualities; less discussed are the problems of the formation and functioning of a general self-assessment. Everyone understands it as a one-dimensional variable that reflects the degree of self-esteem of an individual. High self-esteem is associated with the maximum activity of the individual, the productivity of his activity, the realization of creative potential. Such an approach to understanding general self-esteem leaves no room in the subject's attitude of dissatisfaction with himself, a critical attitude towards himself as a motivating force for development, the birth of a need for self-improvement. And the theoretical approach to understanding general self-assessment is implemented in studies that define it as a hierarchically built system of private self-assessments that are in constant interaction with each other. At the same time, the irreducibility of a holistic attitude towards oneself to a simple set of private self-assessments is emphasized. Such an understanding of general self-assessment makes it possible to characterize it according to the leading tendencies manifested in the functioning of private self-assessments - in terms of adequacy, criticality, reflexivity, stability.

Analysis of the data accumulated in the studies allowed scientists to identify the qualitative characteristics of general and private self-assessments. General self-esteem at different levels of development it is characterized by different completeness of reflection of the mental world of the personality, its physical data; different measure of consistency, coordination, integration of private self-assessments, stability and dynamism as a system. Private self-assessments differ not only in the specifics of the content reflected in them, but also in the degree of significance for the individual, the measure of generalization and emancipation from external assessments. Indicators that are equally related to one or another form of self-esteem functioning are presented, as a rule, in the form of oppositions: self-esteem is defined as adequate - inadequate, high - low, stable - dynamic, real - demonstrated, conscious - unconscious, accurate - inaccurate, confident - uncertain, etc.

Self-esteem functions in different modalities: categorical, reflecting an unambiguous assessment by the subject of his qualities, or problematic, realizing an ambiguous attitude towards himself, in our opinion, determined by a reflexive analysis of the evaluation situation, the admission of the possibility of its diverse trawl formations.

2. Development of self-esteem

Our self-assessments are a kind of cognitive schemes that summarize the past experience of the individual and organize new information regarding this aspect.<Я>. At the same time, self-esteem, especially when it comes to the abilities and potentialities of the individual, also expresses a certain level of claims. And it depends on many conditions. A boy boastful in his relations with his comrades can evaluate himself much more modestly in a conversation with a teacher. In other words, self-esteem can simply be a means of self-affirmation, creating a more favorable impression of yourself among others.

Self-assessment criteria are also ambiguous. An individual evaluates himself in two ways: 1) by comparing the level of his claims with the objective results of his activities and 2) by comparing himself with other people. The higher the level of claims, the more difficult it is to satisfy them. Successes and failures in any activity significantly affect an individual's assessment of his abilities in this type of activity: failures, most often, reduce claims, and success increases them. The moment of comparison is no less important: when evaluating oneself, an individual voluntarily or involuntarily compares himself with others, taking into account not only his own achievements, but also the entire social situation as a whole. The overall self-esteem of a person is also strongly influenced by his individual characteristics and how important the assessed quality or activity is to him. There are infinitely many private self-assessments. It is impossible to judge a person by them without knowing the system of his personal values, what qualities or areas of activity are the main ones for him.

Self-esteem is not constant, it changes depending on the circumstances. Assimilation of new assessments can change the meaning of previously learned ones. For example, a student who successfully passes exams considers himself a capable student. He is proud and pleased with himself, as it is recognized by others: his successes cause positive reactions from teachers, meet with support in the family and generally have a favorable social response. However, this positive self-esteem can be shaken as a result of a failure in exams or if, among peers, the value of academic performance is pushed into the background by some other value orientation, say, sports achievements. In addition, as an able student matures, he may discover that academic success alone does not bring happiness, nor is it a guarantee of success in other life situations. In this case, the overall self-esteem may decrease, but generally remain positive. There are three points essential to understanding self-esteem. First, an important role in its formation is played by the comparison of the image of the real<Я>with the ideal<Я>, i.e. with an idea of ​​what a person would like to be. Who achieves in reality the characteristics that determine for him the ideal<образ Я>he must have high self-esteem. If a person feels a gap between these characteristics and the reality of his achievements, his self-esteem is likely to be low.

The second factor, important for the formation of self-esteem, is associated with the internalization of social reactions to a given person. In other words, a person tends to evaluate himself the way he thinks others evaluate him. And, finally, another view of the nature and formation of self-esteem is that a person evaluates the success of his actions and manifestations through the prism of his identity. He feels satisfaction not from the fact that he simply does something well, but from the fact that he has chosen a certain business and does it well. In general, the picture looks in such a way that people make great efforts to ensure that with the greatest success<вписаться>into the structure of society.

It should be emphasized that self-esteem, regardless of whether it is based on a person's own judgments about himself or interpretations of other people's judgments, individual ideals or culturally set standards, is always subjective.

2.1. Stages of development of self-esteem

Early age. Many children already at an early age mark their successes or failures in activities with appropriate emotional reactions to them. Most children of this age simply state the result achieved; some perceive success or failure, respectively, with positive and negative emotions. In the same age group, the first individual manifestations of self-esteem are observed, and mainly only after success in activity. The child not only rejoices in success, but shows a peculiar sense of pride, deliberately and expressively demonstrating his merits. However, even such elementary self-evaluative reactions at this age are still extremely rare.

At about 3.5 years old, children can already observe mass reactions to success and failure, obviously related to self-esteem. The child perceives the corresponding results of activity as depending on his abilities, and the result of his own activity is correlated with his personal capabilities and self-esteem.

The self-esteem of the child, the awareness of the requirements placed on him, appear by about three or four years on the basis of comparing himself with other people.

By middle school age many children develop the ability and ability to correctly assess themselves, their successes, failures, personal qualities, not only in play, but also in other activities: learning, work and communication.

Such an achievement should be considered as another step towards ensuring normal schooling in the future, since with the beginning of schooling, the child constantly has to evaluate himself in various activities, and if his self-esteem is inadequate, then self-improvement in this type of activity is usually delayed.

A special role in planning and predicting the results of a child's personal development is played by the idea of ​​how children of different ages perceive and evaluate their parents. Those parents who are a good role model and at the same time arouse a positive attitude of the child towards themselves are able to exert the strongest influence on his psychology and behavior. Some studies have found that children between the ages of three and eight are most affected by their parents, with some differences between boys and girls. Thus, in girls, the psychological influence of parents begins to be felt earlier and lasts longer than in boys. This time period covers years from three to eight years. As for boys, they change significantly under the influence of parents in the period of time from five to seven years, i.e. three years less.

At senior preschool age children attach great importance to the assessments given to them by adults. The child does not expect such an assessment, but actively seeks it himself, strives to receive praise, tries very hard to deserve it. All this indicates that the child has already entered a period of development that is sensitive for the formation and strengthening of his motivation to achieve success and a number of other vitally useful personal qualities that in the future will have to ensure the success of his educational, professional and other activities.

Junior school age. A feature of children of primary school age, which makes them related to preschoolers, but is even more intensified with school entry, is boundless trust in adults, mainly teachers, submission and imitation of them. Children of this age fully recognize the authority of an adult, almost unconditionally accept his assessments. Even characterizing himself as a person, the younger schoolchild basically only repeats what an adult says about him.

This directly relates to such an important personal education, which is fixed at this age, as self-esteem. It directly depends on the nature of the assessments given to an adult child and his success in various activities. In younger schoolchildren, unlike preschoolers, there are already various types of self-assessments: adequate, overestimated and underestimated.

Self-esteem in primary school age is formed mainly under the influence of teacher assessments.

Children attach particular importance to their intellectual abilities and how they are evaluated by others. It is important for children that a positive assessment is universally recognized.

Teenage years. The main new feature that appears in the psychology of a teenager compared to a child of primary school age is a higher level of self-awareness. Along with it, a clearly expressed need arises to correctly assess and use the available opportunities, to form and develop abilities, bringing them to the level at which they are in adults.

At this age, children become especially sensitive to the opinions of their peers and adults; for the first time, they face acute problems of a moral and ethical nature, related, in particular, to intimate human relationships.

Adolescence - as adolescence is sometimes called - is the time of the formation of a true individuality, independence in learning and work. Compared to younger children, adolescents show confidence in the ability to determine and control their own behavior, their thoughts and feelings. Adolescence is a time of heightened desire for self-knowledge and evaluation, for the formation of a holistic, consistent image of the “I”.

Between the ages of 12 and 14, when describing themselves and other people, adolescents, in contrast to younger children, begin to use less categorical judgments, including the words “sometimes”, “almost”, “I think” and others in self-description, which indicates a transition on the position of evaluative relativism, on understanding the ambiguity, inconstancy and diversity of a person's personal manifestations.

In the initial period of this age (10-11 years old), many adolescents (about a third) give themselves mostly negative personal characteristics. This attitude towards oneself remains in the future, at the age of 12 to 13 years. However, here it is already accompanied by some positive changes in self-perception, in particular, an increase in self-esteem and a higher assessment of oneself as a person.

As they grow older, the initially global negative self-assessments of adolescents become more differentiated, characterizing behavior in individual social situations, and then private actions.

In the development of reflection, i.e. the ability of adolescents to realize their own strengths and weaknesses, there is a tendency, as it were, of the opposite nature. In the initial period of adolescence, children are mainly aware of only their individual actions in certain life situations, then character traits, and, finally, global personality traits.

2.2. Factors affecting the development of self-esteem

2.2.1. Family factors

Whatever forms the family takes, it is still the most important unit of society. It is in the family that the child discovers for the first time whether he is loved, whether he is accepted for who he is, whether he succeeds or fails. According to many psychologists, it is in the first five years of life that a person’s personality structure is mainly formed, the foundations of the I-concept are laid. During this period, the child is especially vulnerable and dependent, emotionally dependent on the family, in which his needs are fully or partially satisfied. Therefore, it is very important to inform people, and, first of all, parents about the problems, difficulties and consequences that arise from the wrong attitude towards the child.

Self-esteem is related to family size and seniority among children. In Coopersmith's studies, 70% of children with low and moderate self-esteem were not firstborn. At the same time, only 42% of children in the group with high self-esteem were not firstborn. The first and only children in the family seem to have certain advantages: the conditions in which they develop are more favorable for the formation of high self-esteem.

According to the study, in boys with high self-esteem, relationships with brothers and sisters turned out to be more close than conflict. This harmony in relationships, apparently, extends beyond the family, because high self-esteem ensures a good command of the technique of social contacts, allows the individual to show his worth without making any special efforts. The child acquired in the family the ability to cooperate, the confidence that he is surrounded by love, care and attention. All this creates a solid foundation for its social development. In families of this type, jealousy and rivalry between children are rare.

Mothers of boys with high self-esteem say they know more than half of their son's friends. Conversely, a third of the mothers of boys with low self-esteem practically do not know at all which of their peers their son is friends with. It is likely that such ignorance of parents can be regarded as evidence of the child's distrust of them, due to his assessment of his role and position in the family.

Low self-esteem is closely related to the attempts of parents to form the child's ability to accommodate, that is, to adaptive behavior. This is expressed in the following requirements for him: obedience; the ability to adapt to other people; dependence on adults in everyday life; neatness; conflict-free interaction with peers. Apparently, success, achieved by the ability to adapt to the desires of other people, and not on the basis of personal achievements, leads to the formation of low self-esteem.

The desire of parents to put children in a subordinate, dependent position leads to a decrease in self-esteem. The child in this situation is psychologically broken, he does not trust the world around him, he lacks a sense of his own personal value.

Mothers of children with high self-esteem are satisfied with the relationship between their son and father. The children themselves also considered the father to be the main confidant. An important feature of the families of such a group is clear, predetermined powers in decision-making, unambiguous manifestation of authority and responsibility. One of the parents takes over the main decisions that the whole family agrees on. Less fundamental decisions on various everyday issues are generally made collectively. Appropriate standards of family behavior enjoy general support in such families. An atmosphere of mutual trust reigns here, each member of the family feels included in a common home circle. In most cases, the main decisions are made by the father, but, for the formation of high self-esteem, it is rather that these decisions are approved by the whole family. Thus, high self-esteem develops in children in families characterized by cohesion and solidarity.

2.2.2. Social factors

As mentioned above, general self-esteem is formed at primary school age. But there are also private self-assessments that are situational and capable of fluctuating. Fluctuations in private self-esteem cause situational changes in a person's life: success or failure, comparing oneself with others, the influence of society, etc.

If a person's self-esteem is determined by the opinion of other people about him, then there is reason to expect that among representatives of the upper classes it will be maximum. The position occupied by young people in society is based not on their own achievements, but on the social status of their parents. Therefore, it is quite possible that in adolescence, the sense of one's own worth is determined more by the opinions of relatives, friends, neighbors, than by social prestige as such.

The decline in general self-esteem under the influence of experimental failure is accompanied by thoughts of death in some people, and a successful test of a highly valued ability causes a significant increase in the level of self-esteem of other qualities. According to some data, an increase in general self-esteem under the influence of private success is more common than its decrease due to failure.

According to the American psychologist Ruth Wylie, who critically analyzed the existing empirical research, the presence or absence of shifts in self-esteem under the influence of experimental failure may depend on a number of factors: a person’s personality traits, for example, the general level of self-esteem and anxiety; specific qualities that have been depreciated in the experiment; how a person evaluates the source of information about his defeat or success and how much he trusts this source. Wylie concluded that in most cases, "a person is driven not only by the desire for self-assertion, but also by objective considerations. The deterioration in performance and the increase in anxiety due to experimental failure may be greater in people with low overall levels of self-esteem." In other words, any experimental or life situation is experienced and evaluated by the subject in the light of his long-term experience, including his past self-esteem. A person with low self-esteem will experience any private failure deeper harder than a calm and self-confident person.

2.2.3. Principles of "self"

A person's idea of ​​himself largely depends on how others evaluate him, especially if it is a collective, group assessment. Under the influence of favorable opinions, self-esteem increases, unfavorable opinions decrease. Often such a shift is quite stable, and along with the main self-assessments, quite often those that are not directly affected by the assessment of others also change. For example, in a person who receives inflated ratings on behalf of a group, over time, the overall level of claims rises, going beyond those qualities that were marked as positive.

Principle internalization of other people's estimates. Changes, under the influence of external assessments, of the “I-image”, as well as social and moral attitudes, are more significant if the subject thinks that significant persons for him (for example, workmates) are unanimous in assessing his qualities or behavior than in those cases when their opinions differ. Finally, different people are unequally sensitive and receptive to other people's opinions, ranging from complete indifference to a complete restructuring of their own "self" in accordance with the desires of others. The psychological complexity of internalization is well illustrated experimentally. Members of several small production teams (five to seven people each) were asked to evaluate the organizational and business qualities of everyone, including themselves, and predict how others would evaluate him for this quality. Three indicators were compared: self-assessment; an objective group rating obtained by averaging the ratings given to an individual by his fellow workers; estimated group score. It turned out that people with high self-esteem received a higher group score than people with low self-esteem; perceived and objective group ratings were also found to be related. However, the coincidence of self-assessments and estimated assessments turned out to be higher than that of self-assessments and objective group assessments. Only 40% of individuals with high self-esteem received a high group score, and only 26% of individuals with average self-esteem received an average group score. On the scale of business qualities, more than half of the individuals with high self-esteem received a low group rating.

The internalization of other people's opinions involves both social comparison and attributive processes (usually, people first attribute this or that attitude to themselves to others, and then accept or reject it as an evaluation criterion), and the selection of information in accordance with the already existing "I-image" and value criteria.

The principle of social comparison. Although many elements of our "I" look purely descriptive, factual, in most cases they are correlative and tacitly imply some kind of quantitative or qualitative comparison. First, the individual compares his present "I" with the past or future, and his claims - with achievements. Secondly, he compares himself to other people.

The first moment is already reflected in the famous formula of W. James:

Self esteem =
	Claims

One person is unbearably ashamed that he is the second, and not the first glove of the world, the other rejoices at the victory in regional competitions. The higher the level of claims, the more difficult it is to satisfy them. The validity of the James formula is proved not only by everyday experience, but also by many special experiments showing that successes and failures in any activity significantly affect the individual's self-esteem of his abilities.

But the process of social comparison is two-way. The individual perceives and evaluates himself in comparison with others, and others - in himself. The question arises: when does the “other” serve as the prototype of the “I”, and when, on the contrary, does the “I” serve as the starting point, the referent of the perception of the “other”? Although self-knowledge has always been considered difficult, people usually find it easier to judge themselves than others, and trust such judgments more, especially when it comes to internal states, motives, etc. Hence the proverb: "An alien soul is darkness." What seems to us to be "direct knowledge of oneself" is in fact the result of a complex process of attribution (attributing certain properties to oneself).

Although private self-assessments are important indicators, indicators of how a person perceives "sees" himself, they still remain local and do not allow judging the structure and dynamics of a person's self-consciousness as a whole. To grasp the human "I" in its unity, much more complex studies and theoretical models are needed.

Conclusion

Self-assessment is a multi-level, hierarchically organized entity that functions as a system that has specific characteristics and patterns of development, the system-forming factor of which is the means of its provision, determined by the level of development of the subject of self-assessment activity. The means of self-assessment can be direct borrowing of external assessments (internalized opinion of others), the subject's appeal to his emotional-need sphere, to non-specific conditions of activity, to the analysis of past experience and the objective and subjective factors inherent in the situation of self-assessment, i.e. to the analysis of activity and its object (act) and its own qualities manifested in it.

The most effective in ensuring the effectiveness and reliability of self-assessment as a mechanism for self-regulation are precisely these latter means, i.e. the subject's appeal to the analysis of the object, methods and results of activity (an act, its motive and consequences) and himself as its subject using socially specified evaluation criteria.

Self-esteem should be considered as a unity of structural and functional characteristics that are implemented in various areas of the subject's life and can be represented as a structural-dynamic model that reflects the complex interaction of elements, conditions and directions for the development of self-esteem, possible forms, types and levels of its representation.

Self-esteem can have a huge impact on the entire life path of a person. People with low self-esteem tend to be passive, suggestive, and less popular. These people are overly sensitive to criticism, considering it a confirmation of their inferiority. They have a hard time accepting compliments. Most often, low self-esteem becomes the cause of constant loneliness. The way we think about ourselves has a profound effect on our entire lives. And what we can achieve in life, one might say, directly depends on the attitude towards ourselves, on our self-esteem.

Thus, knowing oneself, one's self-esteem and the factors influencing its development and formation can significantly change the life of every person.

Bibliography

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11. www.psih.ru - website of psychology

Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation

Bashkir State Pedagogical University

abstract

Self-esteem

Performed:

student 402 group FP

Kalimullina L. R.

Self-esteem - a person's assessment of himself, his strengths and weaknesses, opportunities, qualities, his place among other people. This is the most essential and most studied side of the self-consciousness of the individual in psychology. With the help of self-esteem, the behavior of the individual is regulated.

Self-esteem is associated with one of the central needs for self-affirmation, with the desire of a person to find his place in life, to assert himself as a member of society in the eyes of others and in his own opinion.

Under the influence of the assessment of others, a person gradually develops his own attitude towards himself and self-esteem of his personality, as well as individual forms of his activity: communication, behavior, activities, experiences.

How does a person carry out self-esteem? A person becomes a person as a result of joint activity and communication. Everything that has developed and remained in the individual has arisen due to joint activity with other people and in communication with them, and is intended for this. A person includes in activity and communication. Essential guidelines for his behavior, all the time he compares what he does with what others expect of him, copes with their opinions, feelings and requirements. Ultimately, if we leave aside the satisfaction of natural needs, everything that a person does for himself (whether he learns, contributes to something or hinders), he does it at the same time for others, and perhaps to a greater extent for others than for himself, even if it seems to him that everything is just the opposite.

K. Marx owns a fair idea: he looks, as in a mirror, into another person, only relating to a person. In other words, knowing the qualities of another person, a person receives the necessary information that allows him to develop his own assessment. The already established assessments of one's own "I" are the result of a constant comparison of what a person observes in himself with what he sees in other people. A person, already knowing something about himself, looks at another person, compares himself with him, assumes that he is not indifferent to his personal qualities, actions, appearances; all this is included in the self-assessment of the individual and determines her psychological well-being. In other words, a person is guided by a reference group (real or ideal), whose ideals are her ideals, whose interests are her interests, etc. In the process of communication, she constantly checks herself against the standard, depending on the results of the test, whether she is satisfied with herself or dissatisfied. What is the psychological mechanism of this test?

Psychology has a number of experimental methods for identifying a person's self-esteem, its quantitative characteristics.

So, with the help of the rank correlation coefficient, an individual’s idea of ​​a sequential series of reference qualities (i.e., his “ideal self” is defined) can be compared with his “current self”, i.e., a series of qualities located in the sequence in which they to this person seem to be expressed in himself.

It is important that in the experiment the subject does not tell the experimenter information about his real and ideal "I", but makes the necessary calculations on his own according to the formula proposed to him, which relieves him of the fear of saying more about himself than he would like to, unnecessarily revealing himself. The obtained coefficients of self-esteem of the individual make it possible to judge what the “I-image” is in quantitative terms.

There is an idea that each person has a kind of “internal pressure gauge”, the readings of which indicate how he evaluates himself, what his state of health is, whether he is satisfied with himself or not. The value of this total assessment of satisfaction with one's qualities is very high. Too high and too low self-esteem can become an internal source of personality conflicts. Of course, this conflict can manifest itself in different ways.

Self-esteem can be optimal and suboptimal.

With optimal, adequate self-esteem, a person correctly correlates his capabilities and abilities, is quite critical of himself, seeks to realistically look at his failures and successes, tries to set achievable goals that can be achieved in practice. And he approaches the assessment of what has been achieved not only with his own measures, but also tries to foresee how other people will react to this: work mates and relatives. In other words, adequate self-esteem is the result of a constant search for a real measure, that is, without too much overestimation, but also without excessive criticality to one's communication, activity, and experiences. Such a self-assessment is best for specific conditions and situations. The optimal self-assessments include “high level” and “above average” (a person deservedly appreciates, respects himself, but knows his weaknesses and strives for self-improvement, self-development). But self-esteem might. and suboptimal - excessively high or too low.

On the basis of inadequately inflated self-esteem, a person develops a misconception about himself, an idealized image of his personality and capabilities, his value for others, for the common cause. In such cases, a person goes to ignore failures in order to maintain the usual high assessment of himself, his actions and deeds. Inflated self-esteem will also lead to the fact that a person tends to overestimate himself in situations that do not give a reason for this. As a result, he often encountered opposition from those around him who rejected his claims, became embittered, showed suspicion, suspiciousness or deliberate arrogance, aggression, and in the end, he could lose the necessary interpersonal contacts, become isolated. There is an acute emotional “repulsion” of everything that violates the self-image. The perception of reality is distorted, the attitude towards it becomes inadequate - purely emotional. The rational link of evaluation falls out completely. Therefore, a fair remark begins to be perceived as a nitpick, and an objective assessment of the results of the work - as unfairly underestimated. Failure appears as a consequence of someone's intrigues or unfavorable circumstances that in no way depend on the actions of the individual himself.

A person with inflated inadequate self-esteem does not want to admit that all this is a consequence of his own mistakes, laziness, lack of knowledge, abilities or wrong behavior. There is a severe emotional state - the affect of inadequacy, the main reason for which is the persistence of the prevailing stereotype of an overestimation of the personality itself. If high self-esteem is plastic, changes in accordance with the real state of affairs - it increases with success and decreases with failures, then this can contribute to the development of the individual, because she has to make every effort to achieve her goals, develop her abilities and will.

Self-esteem can also be underestimated, that is, below the real capabilities of the individual. Usually this leads to self-doubt, shyness and lack of daring, the inability to realize their abilities. Excessively low self-esteem may indicate the development of an inferiority complex, stability, self-doubt, refusal of initiative, indifference, self-blame and anxiety. Such people do not set difficult goals for themselves, they are limited to solving everyday tasks, they are too critical of themselves.

Too high or too low self-esteem violate the process of self-management, exercise self-control. This is especially noticeable in communication, where people with high and low self-esteem are the cause of conflicts. With an overestimated self-esteem, conflicts arise due to a disdainful attitude towards other people and disrespectful treatment of them, too harsh and unreasonable statements addressed to them, intolerance towards other people's opinions, manifestations of arrogance and arrogance. Low self-criticism prevents them from even noticing how they offend others with arrogance and unquestioning judgments.

With low self-esteem, conflicts can arise due to the excessive criticality of these people. They are very demanding of others, do not forgive any mistake or mistake, tend to constantly emphasize the shortcomings of others. And although this is done with the best of intentions, it still causes conflicts due to the fact that not many can tolerate systematic “sawing”. When they see only the bad in you and constantly point to it, then there is a dislike for the source of such assessments, thoughts and actions.

The effect of inadequacy was mentioned above. This psychological state arises as an attempt by individuals with high self-esteem to protect themselves from real circumstances and maintain their usual self-esteem. Unfortunately, this leads to disruption of relationships with other people. The experience of resentment and injustice allows you to feel good, to remain at the proper height in your own eyes, to consider yourself injured or offended. This elevates a person in his own eyes and eliminates dissatisfaction with himself. The need for inflated self-esteem is satisfied, and there is no need to change it, that is, to come to grips with self-government. This is not the best way to behave, and the weakness of such an attitude is revealed immediately or after some time. Inevitably, conflicts arise with people who have different ideas about this person, his abilities, opportunities and values ​​for society. The affect of inadequacy is a psychological defense, it is a temporary measure, since it does not solve the main problem, namely: a radical change in suboptimal self-esteem, which is the cause of unfavorable interpersonal relationships. Psychological defense is suitable as a technique, as a means of solving the simplest problem, but is not suitable for advancing the main, strategic goals, designed for one's life.

In psychological research, self-esteem is interpreted as a personal formation that is directly involved in the regulation of behavior and activity, as an autonomous characteristic of the personality, its central component, which is formed with the active participation of the personality itself and reflects the quality of its inner world in a peculiar way (L. I. Bozhovich, A. G Kovalev, K. K. Platonov and others). The leading role is given to self-assessment in the framework of the study of the problems of self-consciousness: it is characterized as the core of this process, an indicator of the individual level of its development, an integrating principle, its personal aspect, organically included in the process of self-consciousness (K. G. Ananiev, I. O. Kon, A. G. Spirkin, V. V. Stolin and others).

Consider, for example, several definitions of the concept of "self-esteem".

The psychological dictionary edited by V. P. Zinchenko, B. G. Meshcheryakova claims that self-esteem (English self-esteem) - value, significance, which the individual endows himself as a whole and certain aspects of his personality, activities, behaviour.

I. I. Chesnokova writes that self-esteem is usually understood as an internalized mechanism of social contacts, orientations and values, which is transformed into an assessment by a person of himself, his capabilities, qualities and place among other people.

According to A. A. Rean, self-esteem is a component of self-consciousness, which includes, along with knowledge about oneself, a person’s assessment of his physical characteristics, abilities, moral qualities and actions.

The definitions given in the Psychological Dictionary, by A. A. Rean and I. I. Chesnokova, in our opinion, do not reveal the ways of forming self-esteem, do not give its sufficient essential characteristic. Therefore, in this term paper, we will use the definition of A. V. Zakharova: self-esteem is a form of reflection by a person of himself as a special object of knowledge, representing accepted values, personal meanings, a measure of orientation towards socially developed requirements for behavior and activity.

Self-esteem is reflected in the situation of self-esteem. It is an intellectual-reflexive action: a person considers himself, his actions and qualities as an object of evaluation and at the same time is a carrier of these qualities, i.e. active subject.

The leading role is assigned to self-esteem in the framework of the study of self-consciousness problems: it is characterized as the core of this process, an indicator of the individual level of its development, its personal aspect, organically included in the process of self-knowledge. In addition, self-esteem is included in the structure of self-consciousness. For example, R. Burns understands the self-concept as a set of attitudes “to oneself”. Accordingly, he identifies the following components:

1) the image of "I" - the idea of ​​the individual about himself;

2) self-assessment - an affective assessment of this representation, which may have a different intensity, since specific features of the image of "I" can cause more or less strong emotions associated with their acceptance or condemnation;

3) potential behavioral response, i.e. those specific actions that can be caused by the image of "I" and self-esteem.

S.L. Rubinshtein notes that self-esteem, as an essential component of a person’s holistic self-awareness, is a necessary condition for a person’s harmonious relationship, both with himself and with other people with whom he enters into communication and interaction.

Psychological research convincingly proves that the characteristics of self-esteem affect both the emotional state and the degree of satisfaction with one's work, study, life, and relationships with others. However, self-esteem itself also depends on the factors described above.

Thus, self-esteem is a form of reflection by a person of himself as a special object of cognition, representing accepted values, personal meanings, a measure of orientation towards socially developed requirements for behavior and activity. Self-esteem is a component of the self-concept. It determines the nature of a person's social behavior, his activity, the need for achievements, setting goals and productivity. Therefore, many scientists agree that self-esteem is, if not the core of personality, then at least one of the most important personal formations.