The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin .
But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin.
A.S. Pushkin began his ascent to the literary Olympus with the poem "Ruslan and Lyudmila" in 1920. And his novel in verse "Eugene Onegin" was called an encyclopedia of Russian life. Romantic poems by A.S. Pushkin's "The Bronze Horseman" (1833), "The Fountain of Bakhchisaray", "Gypsies" opened the era of Russian romanticism. Many poets and writers considered A. S. Pushkin their teacher and continued the traditions of creating literary works laid down by him. One of these poets was M.Yu. Lermontov. His romantic poem "Mtsyri", the poetic story "Demon", many romantic poems are known.
Interesting that Russian poetry of the 19th century was closely connected with the social and political life of the country. Poets tried to comprehend the idea of their special purpose. The poet in Russia was considered a conductor of divine truth, a prophet. The poets urged the authorities to listen to their words. Vivid examples of understanding the role of the poet and influence on the political life of the country are the poems of A.S. Pushkin "Prophet", ode "Liberty", "The Poet and the Crowd", a poem by M.Yu. Lermontov "On the Death of a Poet" and many others.
Along with poetry, prose began to develop. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story "The Captain's Daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events: during the Pugachev rebellion. A.S. Pushkin did a tremendous job exploring this historical period. This work was largely political in nature and was directed to those in power.
A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol was designated the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster".
Literature inherited its publicism and satirical character from the 18th century. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism affects).
In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. At the same time, many writers implement the satirical trend in a grotesque form. Examples of grotesque satire are the works of N.V. Gogol "The Nose", M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin "Gentlemen Golovlevs", "History of one city".
Since the middle of the 19th century, Russian realistic literature has been developing, which is created against the background of the tense socio-political situation that prevailed in Russia during the reign of Nicholas I. The crisis of the feudal system is brewing, the contradictions between the authorities and the common people are strong. There is a need to create a realistic literature that sharply reacts to the socio-political situation in the country. Literary critic V.G. Belinsky marks a new realistic trend in literature. His position is being developed by N.A. Dobrolyubov, N.G. Chernyshevsky. A dispute arises between Westernizers and Slavophiles about the paths of Russia's historical development.
Writers turn to the socio-political problems of Russian reality. The genre of the realistic novel is developing. Their works are created by I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, L.N. Tolstoy, I.A. Goncharov. Socio-political and philosophical problems prevail. Literature is distinguished by a special psychologism.
The development of poetry somewhat subsides. It is worth noting the poetic works of Nekrasov, who was the first to introduce social issues into poetry. His poem “Who is living well in Russia?” is known, as well as many poems, where the hard and hopeless life of the people is comprehended.
The end of the 19th century was marked by the formation of pre-revolutionary sentiments. The realist tradition was beginning to fade. It was replaced by the so-called decadent literature, the hallmarks of which were mysticism, religiosity, as well as a premonition of changes in the socio-political life of the country. Subsequently, decadence grew into symbolism. This opens a new page in the history of Russian literature.
Russian literature of the 20th century: general characteristics
Description of the literary process of the 20th century, presentation of the main literary trends and trends. Realism. Modernism(symbolism, acmeism, futurism). literary vanguard.
Late XIX - early XX centuries. become the time of the bright flowering of Russian culture, its "silver age" ("golden age" was called Pushkin's time). In science, literature, art, new talents appeared one after another, bold innovations were born, different directions, groupings and styles competed. At the same time, the culture of the "Silver Age" was characterized by deep contradictions, characteristic of the entire Russian life of that time.
The rapid breakthrough of Russia in development, the clash of different ways and cultures changed the self-consciousness of the creative intelligentsia. Many were no longer satisfied with the description and study of visible reality, the analysis of social problems. I was attracted by deep, eternal questions - about the essence of life and death, good and evil, human nature. Revived interest in religion; the religious theme had a strong influence on the development of Russian culture at the beginning of the 20th century.
However, the critical era not only enriched literature and art: it constantly reminded writers, artists and poets of the coming social explosions, that the whole habitual way of life, the whole old culture, could perish. Some were waiting for these changes with joy, others with longing and horror, which brought pessimism and anguish into their work.
At the turn of the XIX and XX centuries. Literature developed under different historical conditions than before. If you look for a word that characterizes the most important features of the period under consideration, then it will be the word "crisis". Great scientific discoveries shook the classical ideas about the structure of the world, led to a paradoxical conclusion: "matter has disappeared." The new vision of the world, thus, will also determine the new face of the realism of the 20th century, which will differ significantly from the classical realism of its predecessors. Also devastating to the human spirit was a crisis of faith (" God dead!" exclaimed Nietzsche). This led to the fact that the man of the 20th century began to increasingly experience the influence of non-religious ideas. The cult of sensual pleasures, the apology of evil and death, the glorification of the self-will of the individual, the recognition of the right to violence that turned into terror - all these features testify to the deepest crisis of consciousness.
In Russian literature of the beginning of the 20th century, a crisis of old ideas about art and a sense of the exhaustion of past development will be felt, a reassessment of values will be formed.
Literature update, its modernization will cause the emergence of new trends and schools. The rethinking of the old means of expression and the revival of poetry will mark the onset of the "silver age" of Russian literature. This term is associated with the name N. Berdyaeva, who used it in one of the speeches in the salon of D. Merezhkovsky. Later, the art critic and editor of "Apollo" S. Makovsky reinforced this phrase by naming his book about Russian culture at the turn of the century "On Parnassus of the Silver Age." Several decades will pass and A. Akhmatova will write "... the silver month is bright / The silver age has grown cold."
The chronological framework of the period defined by this metaphor can be described as follows: 1892 - the exit from the era of timelessness, the beginning of the social upsurge in the country, the manifesto and collection "Symbols" by D. Merezhkovsky, the first stories of M. Gorky, etc.) - 1917. According to another point of view, the chronological end of this period can be considered 1921-1922 (the collapse of past illusions, which began after the death of A. Blok and N. Gumilyov mass emigration of figures of Russian culture from Russia, the expulsion of a group of writers, philosophers and historians from the country).
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General characteristics of Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century The 19th century is called the "Golden Age" of Russian poetry and the century of Russian literature on a global scale. It should not be forgotten that the literary leap that took place in the 19th century was prepared by the entire course of the literary process of the 17th and 18th centuries. The 19th century is the time of the formation of the Russian literary language, which took shape largely thanks to A.S. Pushkin. But the 19th century began with the heyday of sentimentalism and the formation of romanticism. These literary trends found expression primarily in poetry. Poetic works of poets E.A. Baratynsky, K.N. Batyushkova, V.A. Zhukovsky, A.A. Feta, D.V. Davydova, N.M. Yazykov. Creativity F.I. Tyutchev's "Golden Age" of Russian poetry was completed. However, the central figure of this time was Alexander Sergeevich Pushkin. Pushkin Alexander Sergeevich (1799-1837)
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Along with poetry, prose began to develop. The prose writers of the beginning of the century were influenced by the English historical novels of W. Scott, whose translations were very popular. The development of Russian prose of the 19th century began with the prose works of A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol. Pushkin, under the influence of English historical novels, creates the story "The Captain's Daughter", where the action takes place against the backdrop of grandiose historical events during the Pugachev rebellion*. Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) * The Peasant War of 1773-1775 led by Emelyan Pugachev (Pugachevshchina, Pugachev uprising, Pugachev rebellion) is an uprising of the Yaik Cossacks, which grew into a full-scale peasant war led by E. I. Pugachev. Gogol Nikolai Vasilyevich (1809-1852)
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A.S. Pushkin and N.V. Gogol identified the main artistic types that would be developed by writers throughout the 19th century. This is the artistic type of the “superfluous person”, an example of which is Eugene Onegin in the novel by A.S. Pushkin, and the so-called type of "little man", which is shown by N.V. Gogol in his story "The Overcoat", as well as A.S. Pushkin in the story "The Stationmaster"
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Literature inherited from the 18th century publicism and satirical character. In the prose poem N.V. Gogol's "Dead Souls", the writer in a sharp satirical manner shows a swindler who buys up dead souls, various types of landowners who are the embodiment of various human vices (the influence of classicism * affects). In the same plan, the comedy "The Inspector General" is sustained. The works of A. S. Pushkin are also full of satirical images. Literature continues to satirically depict Russian reality. The tendency to depict the vices and shortcomings of Russian society is a characteristic feature of all Russian classical literature. It can be traced in the works of almost all writers of the 19th century. * Classicism is based on the ideas of rationalism. A work of art, from the point of view of classicism, should be built on the basis of strict canons, thereby revealing the harmony and logic of the universe itself. Interest for classicism is only eternal, unchanging - in each phenomenon, he seeks to recognize only essential, typological features, discarding random individual signs. The aesthetics of classicism attaches great importance to the social and educational function of art. Classicism takes many rules and canons from ancient art. Chichikov
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At the beginning of the 19th century, one of the most prominent figures in literature was N.M. Karamzin. Naturally prone to sensitivity and melancholy, he avidly perceived the influences of Western literature - Rousseau and his followers, French and German, Richardson's English novel, Stern's humor. Karamzin considered it his duty to visit famous writers, and for the first time in Russian literature he gave live information about the protagonists of European enlightenment. Karamzin's sentimental stories, "Poor Liza", and historical stories, in which the sentimental rhetoric of the future "History of the Russian State" is already manifested, were successful. For the first time, Russian history was presented by a talented, already famous writer, armed with many-sided studies, but at the same time in a beautiful, accessible form, in a tone of national pride and with sentimental eloquence, which should have been especially effective in popular reading. Karamzin was also of great importance as a translator of the literary language. Karamzin and his followers wanted to bring the literary language closer to colloquial speech, avoided heavy Slavic language, were not afraid of foreign words, and sought to impart elegance and lightness to the language. But Karamzin's school was short-lived: the ridiculous aspects of sensibility began to be evident, which, moreover, had neither valuable poetic nor social content; and most importantly, much more significant forces and with a more vital direction appeared in poetry. Karamzin Nikolai Mikhailovich (1766-1826)
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At the beginning of the century, the poetic activity of V.A. Zhukovsky. His first poems drew attention to themselves by the subtlety of feeling and the "sweetness of the verse." His name became famous when, in the twelfth year, "A Singer in the Camp of Russian Warriors" was written, filled with patriotic animation. Contemporaries did not notice the strangeness of the form, where Russian soldiers appeared in classical weapons and in romantic lighting: the classical convention had not yet been forgotten, they were beginning to get used to the romantic one. His poetry corresponded to a personal character, a religious and mystical mood brought him closer to Gogol. He was far from the latest literary circle. In the course of literary development, Zhukovsky, in addition to his translated works, which were always elegant and broadened the horizon of Russian poetry, also had the merit of a high understanding of the essence of poetry. His definition of poetry corresponded to his entire worldview. Poetry - "there is God in the holy dreams of the earth", and on the other hand, "poetry - there is virtue." The definition was too personal, but in any case, it placed poetry in the highest spheres of moral life. Zhukovsky's younger contemporary was K.N. Batyushkov, but his literary career was interrupted too early and sadly by the mental illness in which he lived the last decades of his life. It was a living and varied talent that did not have time to develop to full originality. In his poetry he is still dependent on European models, old and new; but he thought about other people's poetry, he himself was carried away by it, and what would have been a simple imitation before became his sincere, sometimes deep passion. He also had a peculiarity in the development of verse; here, together with Zhukovsky, he was Pushkin's immediate predecessor. Zhukovsky Vasily Andreevich (1783-1852) Batyushkov Konstantin Nikolaevich (1787-1855)
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A freer atmosphere of social life was in the reign of Alexander I *, responded with a great revival of literary interests. At this time, I.A. made his glory. Krylov. He began his literary career in the time of Catherine with comedies and a satirical magazine of average dignity. Having achieved success only in his mature years, he settled on the genre that best suited his talent. In part he retold the traditional plots of fables, but he also wrote many original ones and surpassed his predecessors Khemnitzer and Dmitriev. He retained a pseudo-classical manner, but at the same time a lot of lively wit, knowledge of Russian life and language. According to the general outlook of the world, he was a man of reason, rather indifferent to the unrest of life that took place around him, distrustful of hobbies. It was moderation, but at the same time skepticism. Krylov Ivan Andreevich (1768-1844) * 1801 - 1825 The reign of the Russian Emperor Alexander I. At the beginning of his reign, he carried out moderately liberal reforms. In foreign policy, he maneuvered between Great Britain and France. In 1805-1807 he participated in anti-French coalitions. In 1807-1812 he temporarily became close to France. He led successful wars with Turkey (1806-1812) and Sweden (1808-1809). Under Alexander I, Eastern Georgia (1801), Finland (1809), Bessarabia (1812), the Eastern Caucasus (1813), and the former Duchy of Warsaw (1815) were annexed to Russia. After the Patriotic War of 1812, in 1813-1814 he headed the anti-French coalition of European powers. He was one of the leaders of the Vienna Congress of 1814-1815 and the organizers of the Holy Alliance.
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Another very famous and revered writer of that time was N.I. Gnedich, whose main work was the translation of the Iliad: he put many years into the completion of this work, which aroused the astonishment of his contemporaries. In the translation of Gnedich, serious work on Homer is visible, but due to the old predilection for false-classical grandiloquence, Gnedich devoted too much space to Church Slavonic elements of the language, sometimes using words completely unknown in ordinary speech. In the field of drama at the beginning of the century, V.A. Ozerov: his tragedies were written in the classical spirit, with great ease of verse and sincerity of feeling. Ozerov's tragedies were a huge success, especially "Dmitry Donskoy", which caused patriotic enthusiasm. Gnedich Nikolay Ivanovich (1784 - 1833) Ozerov Vladislav Alexandrovich (1770 - 1816)
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The beginning of the 19th century is the time of the cultural and spiritual upsurge of Russia. The Patriotic War of 1812 accelerated the growth of the national self-consciousness of the Russian people, its strengthening. The general trend of this period is the growing democratization of culture, the coverage of education by ever wider sections of the people. The diverse strata of society not only join the culture developed by the Russian nobility, but also become the creators of Russian culture, setting its new motives and trends. The Church, subordinate to the state and having adopted the forms of Western learning, is a model of asceticism, affirming the Orthodox tradition. Having fully mastered the limits of European education, Russian culture is intensely looking for an image of national cultural identity, developing national forms of being in modern civilization. The growth of the national self-consciousness of the people during this period had a huge impact on the development of literature, fine arts, theater and music.
The 19th century is one of the most significant in Russian literature. It was this era that gave the world the names of the great classics, who influenced not only Russian, but also world culture. The main ideas inherent in the literature of this time are the growth of the human soul, the struggle between good and evil, the triumph of morality and purity.
Difference from the previous century
Giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the previous century was distinguished by a very calm development. Throughout the previous century, poets and writers sang of the dignity of man, tried to instill high moral ideals. And only at the end of the century more daring and bold works began to appear - the authors began to focus on human psychology, his experiences and feelings.
Reasons for flourishing
In the process of working on homework or a report on the topic “General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century”, a student may have a natural question: what caused these changes, why was literature able to reach such a high level of development? The reason for this was social events - this is the war with Turkey, and the invasion of Napoleonic troops, and the abolition of serfdom, and public reprisals against the oppositionists. All this led to the fact that completely new stylistic devices began to be applied in literature. Working on a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth mentioning that this era rightfully went down in history as the "Golden Age".
Orientation of literature
Russian literature of that time was distinguished by a very bold formulation of questions about the meaning of human existence, about the most pressing socio-political, moral and ethical problems. The significance of these questions she deduces far beyond the limits of her historical epoch. When preparing a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one must remember that it became one of the most powerful means of influencing both Russian and foreign readers, gaining fame as an influential force in the development of education.
Epoch phenomenon
If it is necessary to give a brief general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it can be noted that the common feature of this era was such a phenomenon as “literary centrism”. This means that literature has become a way of conveying ideas and opinions in political disputes. It has become a powerful tool for expressing ideology, defining value orientations and ideals.
It is impossible to say unequivocally whether this is good or bad. Of course, giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, one can reproach the literature of that time for being too "preaching", "mentoring". Indeed, it is often said that the desire to become a prophet can lead to inappropriate guardianship. And this is fraught with the development of intolerance towards dissent of any kind. Of course, there is some truth in such reasoning, however, when giving a general description of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is necessary to take into account the historical realities in which writers, poets, and critics of that time lived. AI Herzen, when he found himself in exile, described this phenomenon as follows: "For a people who have been deprived of freedom of speech and self-expression, literature remains almost the only outlet."
The role of literature in society
Almost the same thing was said by N. G. Chernyshevsky: “Literature in our country still concentrates the entire mental life of the people.” Pay attention to the word "yet" here. Chernyshevsky, who argued that literature is a textbook of life, still recognized that the mental life of the people should not be constantly concentrated in it. However, "for now", in those conditions of Russian reality, it was she who took on this function.
Modern society should be grateful to those writers and poets who, in the most difficult social conditions, despite persecution (it is worth remembering the same N. G. Chernyshevsky, F. M. Dostoevsky and others), with the help of their works contributed to the awakening of a bright man, spirituality, adherence to principles, active opposition to evil, honesty and mercy. Considering all this, we can agree with the opinion expressed by N. A. Nekrasov in his message to Leo Tolstoy in 1856: “The role of a writer in our country, first of all, is the role of a teacher.”
Common and different in the representatives of the "Golden Age"
When preparing materials on the topic “General characteristics of Russian classical literature of the 19th century”, it is worth saying that all representatives of the “Golden Age” were different, their world was unique and peculiar. Writers of that time are difficult to sum up under any one general image. After all, every true artist (this word means a poet, a composer, and a painter) creates his own world, guided by personal principles. For example, the world of Leo Tolstoy is not similar to the world of Dostoevsky. Saltykov-Shchedrin perceived and transformed reality differently than, for example, Goncharov. However, the representatives of the "Golden Age" also have a common feature - this is responsibility to the reader, talent, a high understanding of the role that literature plays in human life.
General characteristics of Russian literature of the 19th century: table
The "Golden Age" is the time of writers of completely different literary movements. To begin with, we will consider them in a summary table, after which each of the directions will be considered in more detail.
| Genre | When and where did it originate | Types of works | Representatives | Main features |
Classicism | 17th century, France | Ode, tragedy, epic | G. R. Derzhavin (“Anacreotic Songs”), Khersakov (“Bakharian”, “Poet”). | The national-historical theme prevails. The ode genre is predominantly developed. Has a satirical twist |
| Sentimentalism | In the second half XVIII in. in Western Europe and Russia, most fully formed in England | Tale, novel, elegy, memoir, travel | N. M. Karamzin (“Poor Liza”), early work of V. A. Zhukovsky (“Slavyanka”, “Sea”, “Evening”) | Subjectivity in assessing the events of the world. Feelings come first. Nature plays an important role. A protest is expressed against the corruption of high society. The cult of spiritual purity and morality. The rich inner world of the lower social strata is affirmed. |
Romanticism | Late 18th - first half of the 19th century, Europe, America | short story, poem, tale, novel | A. S. Pushkin (“Ruslan and Lyudmila”, “Boris Godunov”, “Little Tragedies”), M. Yu. Lermontov (“Mtsyri”, “Demon”), F. I. Tyutchev (“Insomnia”, “In the Village”, “Spring”), K. N. Batyushkov. | The subjective prevails over the objective. A look at reality through the "prism of the heart". The tendency to reflect the unconscious and intuitive in a person. Gravity for fantasy, the conventions of all norms. A penchant for the unusual and the sublime, a mixture of the high and the low, the comic and the tragic. The personality in the works of romanticism aspires to absolute freedom, moral perfection, to the ideal in an imperfect world. |
| Realism | XIX c., France, England. | Story, novel, poem | Late A. S. Pushkin (“Dubrovsky”, “Tales of Belkin”), N. V. Gogol (“Dead Souls”), I. A. Goncharov, A. S. Griboyedov (“Woe from Wit”), F. M. Dostoevsky ("Poor People", "Crime and Punishment"), L. N. Tolstoy ("War and Peace", "Anna Karenina"), N. G. Chernyshevsky ("What to Do?"), I. S. Turgenev (“Asya”, “Rudin”), M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin (“Poshekhon stories”, “Gogolevs”), N. A. Nekrasov (“Who should live well in Russia?”). | At the center of a literary work is objective reality. Realists seek to identify causal relationships in events. The principle of the typical is used: typical characters, circumstances, specific time are described. Usually realists turn to the problems of the present epoch. The ideal is reality itself. Increased attention to the social side of life. |
Russian literature of this era was a reflection of the leap that was made in the previous century. The "Golden Age" began mainly with the flowering of two currents - sentimentalism and romanticism. Since the middle of the century, the direction of realism has been gaining more and more power. Such is the general characteristic of Russian literature of the 19th century. The tablet will help the student to navigate the main trends and representatives of the "Golden Age". In the process of preparing for the lesson, it should be mentioned that the further socio-political situation in the country is becoming more and more tense, contradictions are growing between the oppressed classes and the common people. This leads to the fact that in the middle of the century the development of poetry somewhat calms down. And the end of an era is accompanied by revolutionary sentiments.
Classicism
This direction is worth mentioning, giving a general description of Russian literature of the early 19th century. After all, classicism, which arose a century ago before the beginning of the "Golden Age", primarily refers to its beginning. This term, translated from Latin, means "exemplary" and is directly related to the imitation of classical images. This direction arose in France in the 17th century. At its core, it was associated with absolute monarchy and the establishment of the nobility. It is characterized by ideas of high civic topics, strict observance of the norms of creativity, established rules. Classicism reflects real life in ideal images that gravitate towards a certain pattern. This direction strictly adheres to the hierarchy of genres - the highest place among them is occupied by tragedy, ode and epic. It is they who illuminate the most important problems for society, are designed to reflect the highest, heroic manifestations of human nature. As a rule, "high" genres were opposed to "low" ones - fables, comedies, satirical and other works that also reflected reality.
Sentimentalism
Giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, one cannot fail to mention such a direction as sentimentalism. The voice of the narrator plays an important role in it. This direction, as indicated in the table, is characterized by increased attention to the experiences of a person, to his inner world. This is the innovation of sentimentalism. In Russian literature, Karamzin's "Poor Lisa" occupies a special place among the works of sentimentalism.
Noteworthy are the words of the writer, which can characterize this direction: "And peasant women know how to love." Many argued that an ordinary person, a commoner and a peasant, is morally superior in many respects to a nobleman or a representative of high society. Landscape plays an important role in sentimentalism. This is not just a description of nature, but a reflection of the inner experiences of the characters.
Romanticism
This is one of the most controversial phenomena of Russian literature of the Golden Age. For more than a century and a half, there have been disputes about what lies at its basis, and no one has yet given any recognized definition of this trend. The representatives of this trend themselves emphasized the originality of the literature of each individual people. One cannot but agree with this opinion - in every country romanticism acquires its own features. Also, giving a general description of the development of Russian literature of the 19th century, it is worth noting that almost all representatives of romanticism stood up for social ideals, but they did it in different ways.
Representatives of this movement dreamed not of improving life in its particular manifestations, but of the complete resolution of all contradictions. Many romantics in their works are dominated by the mood of fighting evil, protesting against the injustice reigning in the world. Romantics also tend to turn to the mythological, fantasy, folk tales. In contrast to the direction of classicism, a serious influence is given to the inner world of a person.
Realism
The purpose of this direction is a truthful description of the surrounding reality. It is realism that matures on the soil of a tense political situation. Writers begin to turn to social problems, to objective reality. The three main realists of this era are Dostoevsky, Tolstoy and Turgenev. The main theme of this direction is life, customs, events from the life of ordinary people from the lower classes.
INTRODUCTION
The 19th century is one of the most brilliant periods in the history of Russian literature. At this time, the greatest works of Russian classical literature were created, which received worldwide recognition. And their greatness was determined not only by artistic perfection, but also by the light of liberating ideas, humanism, and the tireless search for social justice.
All these qualities, which made Russian literature, in Gorky's words, "our pride", took shape and took shape in the first half of the 19th century. It was during this period that the foundations of the future literary flourishing were laid. At the same time, the literature of the beginning of the last century is the literature of the nobility: both writers and readers belonged to the first estate. Moreover, in the words of one contemporary, our literature was "dressed in guard uniforms and diplomatic tailcoats." Indeed, a significant part of the "writing brethren" served either in the army or in the public service, often holding high positions. The poets Derzhavin and Dmitriev were ministers, Griboyedov was a diplomat, Admiral Shishkov at various times combined with literary activity the positions of state secretary, member of the State Council, minister of education; A. Marlinsky - a popular novelist - was a guards officer, F.N. Glinka - writer and poet - lieutenant colonel, D. Davydov - hero of 1812, poet and fabulist - ended World War II as a colonel. There were also "undressed" - Pushkin, Karamzin.
But one way or another, most of the most prominent literary nobles of the early 19th century belonged to the highest and most enlightened strata of this class. The ideas of this noble "avant-garde" formed the basis of that great spiritual potential, thanks to which Russian literature subsequently acquired world significance.
RUSSIAN LITERATURE OF THE FIRST HALF OF THE XIX CENTURY
Journalism
A characteristic feature of the literary life of the first half of the 19th century was journalism - as G.R. Derzhavin, everything in literature was "journalized".
Indeed, the new works of Russian writers could see the light, primarily on the pages of magazines; they were the focus of artistic criticism and controversy; in magazines the reader could get information about the cultural life of the country, and sometimes even Europe.
Journals played a prominent role in public life, representing this or that ideological direction. So, "Northern Messenger" (1804-1805) I.I. Martynova, "Journal of Russian Literature" (1805) N.P. Brusilov, "Northern Mercury" (1805) and "Flower Garden" (1809-1810) by A.E. Izmailov and A.P. Benitsky were propagandists of educational ideas, "Russian Messenger" S.N. Glinka defended the principles of originality and opposed gallomania, etc.
The content of literary publications also had its own characteristics. For example, the epistolary form of presentation (that is, the form of writing) was very popular. At a time when letters were the only means of communication between correspondents living far from each other, they were written with care and length. The letters reflected not only everyday details, but also the mindset and feelings of the authors. Huge archives of epistolary literature (letters from N.M. Karamzin, V.A. Zhukovsky, P.A. Vyazemsky, and others) are invaluable material for the literary historian. All sorts of "letters" were constantly printed in the journals: "letters from travelers", "letters" political, historical, ethnographic. "Letters from Cairo" were replaced on the magazine pages by "Letter to Tver", "Letter to the publisher" was followed by an answer, and then "Answer to an answer", etc.
A large place among literary publications was given to poetry, which was very loved by readers. In the first half of the 19th century, solemn odes give way to lyrical poems, madrigals, as well as epigrams and pamphlets.
One of the most popular periodicals of the early 19th century was the Vestnik Evropy magazine, edited by N.M. Karamzin. The magazine was conceived as a socio-political and literary body designed to acquaint Russian readers with the social and cultural life of Europe. The editorial of the first issue of the journal informed that excerpts from 12 foreign editions would be published on its pages. This was facilitated by the personal interests of the editor. In his youth, traveling around Europe, Karamzin met many famous European scientists and writers (Kant, Wieland, etc.), studied French and German literature.
Now he wanted to acquaint Russian readers with the social and literary life of Europe. Along with this, the journal covered the novelties of Russian literature quite widely. Political news were separated into a separate section. At the same time, the magazine did not give dry newspaper information, but an independent interpretation of the facts of modern social and political life. Not only articles on the international situation were printed here, but also speeches by foreign statesmen, documents, letters, etc. Karamzin made great efforts to raise the importance of this department. And indeed, he was distinguished not only by the variety and abundance of materials, but also by the liveliness of presentation. “What variety, what freshness, what tact in the choice of articles,” Belinsky later enthusiastically wrote, “what a clever live transmission of political news, which was so interesting at that time! What clever and clever criticism for that time!” Shelgunov N.V. Memoirs // Shelgunov N.V. Shelgunova LP Mikhailov M. L. Memoirs. M., 1967. T. 1. S. 113.
Karamzin attracted the most prominent writers of those years to participate in the journal: Derzhavin, Kheraskov, Neledinsky-Meletsky, Dmitriev, Zhukovsky, V. L. Pushkin.
The reading public highly appreciated the magazine - its initial circulation was soon increased from 600 copies to 1200. Belinsky credited Karamzin with the fact that he "multiplied" readers in all classes of society and "created a Russian public."
The socio-political position of the journal was determined by the views of Karamzin himself. The worldview of the future outstanding writer and scientist was formed in the era of the rise of the anti-feudal struggle. As a child, he survived the Pugachev uprising, during the years of teaching he learned about the American Revolution and the creation of a republic - the United States of America.
As a young man, traveling around Europe, he witnessed the French Revolution. However, the events of the latter, especially the "extreme" of revolutionary action, provoked condemnation of the young Karamzin. He did not accept the ideas of the revolution, although he did not escape the influence of French philosophers and writers of the late 18th century. It is these progressive aspects of his worldview that will subsequently attract young contemporaries to him - Pushkin and his friends. At the same time, Karamzin was a staunch opponent of the revolutionary transformation of society, the ideas of social equality (while recognizing moral equality), and a supporter of monarchical rule in Russia. However, his monarchism was the monarchism of "the days of Alexander's beautiful beginnings", the monarchism of the era of liberal reforms. The ideas of the French Enlightenment and monarchist convictions formed a kind of fusion. Thus, Karamzin declares "that autocracy is compatible with freedom and begins to speak and write quite decisively on this subject." Sazhin V. The book of bitter truth. L., 1989. S. 8-9.
In 1804, Karamzin, in connection with his appointment as a court historiographer, departs from journalism, devoting himself entirely to scientific pursuits. After Karamzin's departure, Vestnik Evropy gradually changes its face: political reviews become smaller and drier, turning into a list of political events; the literary part is also made less meaningful. Only during the short leadership of Zhukovsky, the journal is updated with fresh forces. At that time, K.N. Batyushkov, N.I. Gnedich, P.A. Vyazemsky. From 1811 until the closure of the journal, M. Tkachenovsky became its editor, under which the direction of the journal completely changed. "Bulletin of Europe", in connection with the aggravation of Franco-Russian relations, takes an anti-French position. In the journal, more and more space is given to articles on the history of Russia, in which the patriarchal features of Russian life are idealized. In accordance with the accepted direction, the journal also participates in the discussion about the new literary language, resolutely speaking in defense of AS Shishkov and his supporters. In the 1920s, according to the apt expression of A. Bestuzhev, Vestnik Evropy "talked about antiquity and tried on the new with a rusty compass." Having lost readers, the magazine ceased to exist in 1830.
Section 1 (1800s-1840s)
General issues
Periodization of the history of Russian literature in the first half of the 19th century
Russian literature has gone through a complex path of development, which is divided into several periods. The periodization of Russian literature still causes scientific controversy. The development of liters is in deep connection with general historical processes. The beginning of the 19th century was marked by the influence of Franz. Revolutions (1789-1794), the Patriotic War of 1812, the ideas of Alexander I on the abolition of serfdom, the emergence of secret societies and their consequences. All this is reflected in the literature. Therefore, the boundaries between periods in the literature are conditional.
There are several principles of periodization (chronological - by decades: romanticism - 20s, folklore - 30s, romantic idealism 40s; personal - depending on the reigning figure or influential literary figure - For example, the literature of Peter's time, Catherine's time, Alexander 1st, etc. Or the Lomonosov period, Karamzin, Pushkin; I.V. Kireevsky included between Karamzin and Pushkin the Zhukovsky period, and Chernyshevsky added the Gogol period to Pushkin.)
General periodization:
1st period Russian Literature 1800-1815 during this period, various creative techniques (romanticism, sentimentalism) are presented, Litra rethinks the whole experience. In 1801, there were no new works that would mark the beginning of a new literary time, but literary circles appear this year. Friendly Literary Society and the Free Society of Lovers of Literature, Sciences and Arts. Despite the fact that the first society existed for a short time, it marked the birth in literature and aesthetics of those principles and ideas that were to lead to romanticism in the future. The organization of the 2nd society was caused by the desire of scientists to carry out educational ideas. During this period, there is a struggle between the new and the old.
For the first time, sentimentalism dominates. Its supporters oppose classicism. Romanticism also emerges as a new literary movement. Belinsky connects this current with the name of Zhukovsky. Batiushkov also appeared next to Zhukovsky. Early Russian romanticism was reflected in the TV of these poets.
2nd period. 2nd half10x-1825
In Russian literature, a new revolutionary-romantic trend is emerging, which reaches a rise in the first half of the 20s in the TV-ve of Pushkin and the Decembrist poets. The ideological and creative originality of revolutionary romanticism is associated with historical events (a revolution that developed the ideals of freedom, fraternity and equality). During this period, literature is not limited to the revolutionary-romantic trend. It continues to develop the romanticism of Zhukovsky and his followers. Griboedov's work "Woe from Wit" and Pushkin's first chapters of "Eugene Onegin" and "Boris Godunov" complete the formation of the artistic realistic method. Therefore, 1825 becomes a turning point for Russian literature: the dominance of the romantic trend ends, Russian realism triumphs its first victories.
3rd period 1825 -1842 The establishment of realism, the formation of a realistic direction. But even after that, romantic currents continue to exist. The most characteristic and significant for this period were the realistic pro-I of Pushkin, the stories and comedies of Gogol, Lermontov's "GNV". This period ends with the appearance in 1842 of the first volume of Mer.Dush.
Such is the general course of the literary process in the first half of the 19th century. Started by romanticism, this process is further characterized by a gradual transition to realism and ends with the establishment of a realistic trend in Russian. literature.
The main directions of Russian literature in the first half of the XIX century.
Characteristics of the literary process of the first quarter of the 19th century.
Features of the development of Russian literature in the 1820s-1830s.
The 20-30s of the 19th century for Russia is a period full of historical events (the creation of Northern and Southern secret societies, the Decembrist uprising and their exile, the accession to the throne of Nicholas 1 and the “postponement” of the restriction of autocracy and the abolition of strong rights). Any clear contours of the future literary development are still only outlined. As long as everything is connected. Poetry is paramount. The poets of the Free Society and the classicist poets prepared the civil lyrics of the 1820s, the flowering of which is associated with the work of the Decembrists. It retains its primacy over prose and drama until the 1840s, which is explained by the higher development of the language of poetry than prose and drama.
Romanticism during this period went through the following stages:
1820s - the emergence and formation of a civil, or social, trend in the poetry of F.N. Glinka, P.A. Katenina, K.F. Ryleeva, V.K. Kuchelbeker, A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky; the maturity of psychological romanticism, in which the main figures were A.S. Pushkin, E.A. Baratynsky, P.A. Vyazemsky, N.M. languages;
1830s - the emergence of a philosophical trend in the poetry of Baratynsky, Lyubomudrov poets, Tyutchev, in the prose of V.F. Odoevsky; the penetration of romanticism into prose and its wide distribution in the genre of the story; the flourishing of romanticism in the work of Lermontov and signs of a crisis: the dominance of epigone (imitative) poetry, Benediktov's lyrics, "Caucasian" ("Eastern") stories by A.A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky;
However, the 20-30s. were not only the era of the flourishing of romanticism. At the same time, a new, most powerful and fruitful direction was developing in Russian literature - realism. “The desire to become natural, natural,” Belinsky noted, “is the meaning and soul of the history of our literature.” In the first decades of the XIX century. realism triumphed in Krylov's fables and Griboyedov's immortal comedy "Woe from Wit", imbued, in Belinsky's words, with "the deep truth of Russian life"
In general, in the 1920s, salon literature flourished, philosophical circles were formed. But after Nicholas the First ascended the throne, a decline in public sentiment is revealed (works with social analysis appear - “Who is to blame?”) One literary model is completed and replaced by another. Changes are felt, the previous aesthetic. the ideal is denied, the question of a new literary hero arises, the motive of time occupies a special place, the question arises of the role of our past and the role of history. This is how the category of historicism arises. There is also a category of nationality. Starting from the 20-30s, the question of folk literature arises.
Poetry
Prose
18. Russian romantic story of the 19th century: themes, problems, specifics of the genre (on the example of the works of one of the authors - A. Bestuzhev-Marlinsky, V. Odoevsky).
The main genre of Russian prose in the first third of the XIX century. was a romantic story that continued and updated the traditions of the Russian author's story that arose in the second half of the 18th century, when the peak of classicism was already behind us, and new artistic trends were emerging in literature. Then in the genre of the story there was a mixture of stylistic features and poetic principles, dating back both to the ancient classics and to European literary trends that replaced classicism.
Researchers of Herzen's work note that in his attitude towards the Western bourgeoisie, he was deeply right, that he "stopped before historical materialism." This stop caused his spiritual crisis after the defeat of the 1848 revolution.
Under these conditions, Herzen's "spiritual return" to his homeland, to Russia, takes place. Herzen thinks that Russia through communal peasant land tenure will be able to come to socialism sooner than the West. Herzen saw "socialism" in the liberation of the peasants with land, in communal landownership, in the peasant idea of "the right to land." In fact, in this doctrine, as in all Russian populism, there was not a grain of socialism. Nevertheless, Herzen's contribution to the liberation movement is great. His main merit is the creation of a free Russian press abroad. In 1853, he created the Free Russian Printing House in London.
In 1855, Herzen began to produce the "Polar Star", which revived the traditions of the Decembrists, and in 1857 - "The Bell", which, according to contemporaries, "stood up as a wall for the liberation of the peasants." The success of "The Bell" was exceptionally great. "The Bell" penetrated everywhere, everyone read it. Herzen began to receive a stream of correspondence, which he could no longer use in full in the newspaper. Herzen began to issue an addition to the "Bell" - "On trial!", which was composed exclusively of sent correspondence and notes.
Soon Herzen and his friend and associate N.P. Ogarev began to publish another periodical - "General Veche", designed for unprepared readers.
Of all Herzen's publications, The Bell had the greatest influence on readers. The Bells program was defined in an article published in the first issue. Herzen passionately wished that Russia would "finally get rid of unnecessary slingers that hinder her mighty development." And he considered “the first, necessary, urgent step”: “Freeing the word from censorship! The liberation of the peasants from the landowners! Liberation of the taxable class from beatings!
The pages of Kolokol described outrageous cases of landlord and bureaucratic abuses, acts of arbitrariness, cases of brazen embezzlement, bribery, etc. All this taken together painted such a terrible picture of life in a powerless feudal Russia that it involuntarily called readers to an active struggle against the existing system.
The half-hearted and not fully thought-out reforms of 1861 by Tsar Alexander II were hopelessly late. Serfdom was formally abolished, but how it was done outraged many in Russia. “The old serfdom has been replaced by a new one,” wrote Herzen and Ogarev angrily in Kolokol. - In general, serfdom has not been abolished. The people have been deceived by the king.
Herzen's publicistic speeches after the reform vividly show his sympathy for the people, who spontaneously rose up against the tsar's deceit. Without limiting themselves to the previous demands put forward in the first issue of Kolokol, Herzen and Ogarev now insist on the complete abolition of landownership, on the transfer of land into the hands of those who will work it themselves, on the election of all authorities by the people. Herzen did not see a revolutionary people in Russia in the 1940s, but he did see them in the 1960s. 19th century And he boldly took the side of revolutionary democracy against liberalism.
Herzen's journalism, especially during the period of publication of The Bell, also abounds in a remarkable variety of genres. One of the favorite forms of journalism Herzen had letters. He gave this journalistic form to a number of his journalistic works, published both in the 40s and later (“Letters from France”, “Letters from Italy”, “Letters to the Enemy”, “Letters to an Old Comrade”, etc.). d.). The style of Herzen, a journalist, a publicist, is the style of a political fighter, a passionate agitator, calling on his readers to take active action, to fight.
The form of Herzen's works corresponded to the language in which they were written. The language of Herzen's journalism is close to colloquial. Concise, very expressive, bright, it made an exceptional impression on readers.
“It is necessary to sharply cut the phrase, throw it, and, most importantly, squeeze it,” Herzen advised Ogarev and wrote that way himself.
The depth of ideological searches, courage and consistency of critical thought were combined in Herzen with a brilliant literary talent, with ardent devotion to the Motherland and the Russian people. These features gave particular importance to Herzen's journalistic activity. It was no longer addressed to the nobility, but to the bureaucracy, the bourgeoisie, the merchants, the peasantry; to all who were dissatisfied with tsarism, contributed to the awakening to the revolutionary struggle of a new social stratum - the raznochintsy.
In the history of Russian journalism A.I. Herzen played an outstanding role. As researchers of his work wrote, Herzen was the first to raise the great banner of struggle by addressing the masses with a free Russian word.
*AT. I. Lenin called Herzen one of the predecessors of the Russian
revolutionary social democracy. In the article "In Memory of Herzen", written in
1912, Lenin, with exceptional completeness and clarity, determined the place
Herzen in the history of the Russian revolutionary movement and social thought,
leading trends in the writer's worldview, what is in his views and
activities belonged to the people.
"WHO IS GUILTY"
"Who is guilty?" - a novel in two parts by Alexander Ivanovich Herzen in 1846. According to the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, "one of the first Russian socio-psychological novels."
Plot
The landowner Alexei Abramovich Negrov, who lives in the village, hires a new teacher for his son Misha, Dmitry Yakovlevich Krucifersky. He must prepare Misha to enter some military school.
The Negro family leads a boring and limited life: not accustomed to reading and other intellectual pursuits, not taking any active part in the management of the economy, it vegetates in insignificant occupations, indulges in gluttony and sleep. They are rough and uncouth. However, this way of life suits them perfectly, but it is completely alien to Lyuba, Negrov's illegitimate daughter. This brings her closer to Krucifersky, an educated young man unable to accept the Negro way of life. They fall in love. Dmitry Yakovlevich decides to open his feelings in a letter. The governess Eliza Avgustovna comes to his aid, noticing the feelings of Krucifersky, she arranges a meeting with her beloved. Timid by nature, Krucifersky decides to go on a nightly date, only to give a letter, but his courage is rewarded, he receives a kiss. To his horror, he discovers that in front of him is not Lyubonka, but Glafira Lvovna, Negrov's wife, he runs, forgetting the letter. The bewildered Glafira Lvovna, who was also an innocent victim of Eliza Avgustovna's deceit, after reading the letter, understands that, alas, she was not the subject of the teacher's love. Frustrated, she opens the letter to her husband. Aleksey Abramovich, on the other hand, found the letter very opportunely, he decides to marry the teacher to Lyubonka and get rid of his annoying daughter. Despite such ridiculous circumstances that preceded the marriage, the Krucifersky family life developed happily, the couple loved each other. The fruit of this love was the little boy Yasha. They lived in a close family circle, their only friend was Dr. Krupov.
At this time, in the city of NN, the center of the province, where the Negro estate is located, a wealthy landowner, Vladimir Beltov, who had been absent for a long time, arrives from abroad. He is going to participate in the noble elections. Despite all his efforts, the residents of NN do not accept Beltov into their circle, and the whole idea of elections turns out to be a waste of time for Beltov. Forced to stay in NN on some civil matter, Beltov is in despair that this attempt to find his place in life has failed. He is in almost complete isolation, his only friend in NN is Dr. Krupov. It is he who introduces Beltov to the Krucifersky family. Beltov and the Kruciferskys are very glad to make a new acquaintance. Beltov has someone to share his thoughts and thoughts with, the Kruciferskys find in him a highly developed person, capable of enriching their inner world. Beltov finds a special understanding with Lyubov Alexandrovna, they understand each other from a half-word, from a half-look, as Lyuba and Dmitry once understood each other in the Negrov family. The unanimity of Lyuba and Beltov develops into something big, into love. Unable to conceal his feelings, Beltov confesses to Kruciferskaya. And at once destroys the lives of three people. Lyubov Alexandrovna cannot leave her husband, she loves him, although Beltova also loves. Krucifersky understands that he is no longer loved as before. Beltov is tormented by the thought that he destroyed the life of the closest person and cannot be with him. Rumors spread throughout the city. Krucifersky drunk. Dr. Krupov feels himself responsible for what happened. In anger, he goes to Beltov to explain himself, Beltov assures him that he himself suffers no less than the Kruciferskys, that he has no control over his feelings, that Lyubov Alexandrovna, having found a soul closer than her husband, will never be happy as before. Seeing no other way out, Beltov agrees with Krupov that he must leave, he has already prepared himself for the journey, although he does not believe that this will help. And so he again leaves the fatherland.
Lyubov Alexandrovna is fading away. Krucifersky falls asleep. Parting did not bring happiness and peace. The future is sad and bleak.
The composition of the novel "Who is to blame?" very original. the first chapter of the first part has a proper romantic form expositions and plots of action - “A retired general and a teacher, determined to the place.” Followed by: “Biography of their Excellencies” and “Biography of Dmitry Yakovlevich Krucifersky.” The chapter “Life-life” is a chapter from the correct form of the narrative, but it follows Biography of Vladimir Beltov.
Herzen wanted to compose a novel from this kind of separate biographies, where “in footnotes it can be said that such and such married such and such.” “For me the story is a frame, ”- Herzen said. He painted mostly portraits, he was most interested in faces and biographies. “A person is a track record in which everything is noted,” Herzen writes, “a passport on which visas remain.”
Despite the apparent fragmentation of the narrative, when the story from the author is replaced by letters from the characters, excerpts from the diary, biographical digressions, Herzen's novel is strictly consistent. “This story, despite the fact that it will consist of separate chapters and episodes, has such integrity that a torn sheet spoils everything,” writes Herzen.
He saw his task not in resolving the issue, but in identifying it correctly. Therefore, he chose a protocol epigraph: “And this case, due to the non-discovery of the perpetrators, to betray the will of God, but considering the case undecided, hand it over to the archive. Protocol.”
But he did not write a protocol, but a novel in which he investigated not “a case, but the law of modern reality.” That is why the question posed in the title of the book resounded with such force in the hearts of his contemporaries. Criticism saw the main idea of the novel in that the problem century receives from Herzen not a personal, but a general meaning: "It is not we who are to blame, but the lie whose nets have entangled us since childhood."
But Herzen was occupied with the problem of moral self-consciousness and personality. Among heroes of Herzen no villains who would knowingly and deliberately do evil to their neighbors. His heroes are children of the century, no better or worse than others; rather, even better than many, and in some of them there are pledges of amazing abilities and opportunities. Even General Negro, the owner of "white slaves", a feudal lord and a despot, according to the circumstances of his life, is depicted as a person in whom "life has crushed more than one opportunity." Herzen's thought was essentially social; he studied the psychology of his time and saw a direct connection between a person's character and his environment.
Herzen called history "the ladder of ascent". This thought meant, first of all, the spiritual rise of the individual above the conditions of life in a certain environment. So, in his novel "Who is to blame?" it is only there and then that the personality makes itself known when it separates from its environment; otherwise it is swallowed up by the emptiness of slavery and despotism.
And now Krucifersky, a dreamer and a romantic, enters the first step of the "ladder of ascent", confident that there is nothing accidental in life. He gives his hand to Lyuba, the daughter of Negro, helps her up. And she rises after him, but a step higher. Now she sees more than he does; she understands that Krucifersky, a timid and confused man, will no longer be able to take a single step forward and higher. And when she raises her head, her gaze falls on Beltov, who was on the same stairs much higher than she. And Lyuba herself holds out her hand to him ...
“Beauty and strength in general, but it acts by some kind of selective affinity,” writes Herzen. The mind also acts by selective affinity. That is why Lyubov Kruciferskaya and Vladimir Beltov could not fail to recognize each other: they had this affinity. what was known to her only as a sharp conjecture, was revealed to him as an integral knowledge.It was a nature "extremely active inside, open to all modern questions, encyclopedic, gifted with bold and sharp thinking." But the fact of the matter is that this meeting, accidental and at the same time irresistible, did not change anything in their lives, but only increased the severity of reality, external obstacles, exacerbated the feeling of loneliness and alienation. The life they wanted to change with their ascent was still and unchanging. It looks like a flat steppe in which nothing sways. Lyuba was the first to feel this when it seemed to her that she, along with Krucifersky, was lost among the silent expanses: “They were alone, they were in the steppe.” Herzen unfolds the metaphor in relation to Beltov, deriving it from the folk proverb “One is not a warrior in the field” : "I'm like a hero of folk tales ... I walked along all the crossroads and shouted:" Is there a man alive in the field? But the man did not respond alive... My misfortune!.. And one in the field is not a warrior... I left the field...” all four sides.
"Who is guilty?" - intellectual novel.His characters are thinking people, but they have their own "woe from the mind". And it consists in the fact that, with all their brilliant ideals, they were forced to live in a gray light, which is why their thoughts were seething “in empty action.” Even genius does not save Beltov from this “million torments”, from the consciousness that the gray light stronger than his brilliant ideals, if his lonely voice is lost among the silence of the steppe. This is where the feeling of depression and boredom arises: “Steppe - go wherever you want, in all directions - free will, but you won’t get anywhere ...”
There are also hints of desperation in the novel. Iskander wrote the history of the weakness and defeat of a strong man. Beltov, as if with peripheral vision, notices that "the door that opens closer and closer is not the one through which the gladiators enter, but the one through which they carry out their bodies." Such was the fate of Beltov, one of the galaxy of "superfluous people" of Russian literature, the heir Chatsky, Onegin and Pechorin. Many new ideas grew out of his sufferings, which found their development in Turgenev's "Rudin", in Nekrasov's poem "Sasha".
In this narrative, Herzen spoke not only about external barriers, but also about the internal weakness of a person brought up in conditions of slavery.
"Who is guilty?" - a question that did not give an unequivocal answer.It is not for nothing that the most prominent Russian thinkers, from Chernyshevsky and Nekrasov to Tolstoy and Dostoevsky, were looking for an answer to the Herzen question.
The novel "Who is to blame?" predicted the future. It was a prophetic book. Beltov, like Herzen, not only in the provincial city, among officials, but also in the capital's office - everywhere he found "perfect melancholy", "died of boredom." could not find a worthy job.
But even “on the other side” slavery settled. On the ruins of the revolution of 1848, the triumphant bourgeois created an empire of proprietors, casting aside good dreams of brotherhood, equality and justice. And Herzen, as predicted by his novel "Who is to blame?", like Beltov, became "a wanderer in Europe, a stranger at home, a stranger in a foreign land."
He did not renounce either the revolution or socialism. But he was overcome by weariness and disappointment. Like Beltov, Herzen “made and lived through the abyss.” But everything he experienced belonged to history. That is why his thoughts and memories are so significant. the question that started it all: “Who is to blame?”
Dramaturgy
A.S. Pushkin
Historical and philosophical poem
Two themes met in the poem: the theme of Peter, the “miraculous builder,” and the theme of the “little” man (this topic worried P. from the 1820s). The story of the tragic fate of an ordinary resident of St. Petersburg, who suffered during the flood, became the plot basis for historical and philosophical generalizations related to the role of Peter in the modern history of Russia, with the fate of his offspring - St. Petersburg.
The story about the flood forms the first semantic plan of the poem - historical.
The appearance of Peter1 from the “introduction” to the finale of the poem changes - it loses its human features and becomes more and more impersonal.
The elements prompted Yevgeny to think about his fate, a man woke up in him. Is human life worth nothing? The rebellious elements that destroyed Yevgeny's dreams of happiness subsided in the city, but overflowed into Yevgeny's soul.
The gap between the interests of a private person and the state is the central problem of the poem.
The poem "The Bronze Horseman" is Pushkin's grandiose philosophical reflection on the progressive course of history. The introduction is compositionally opposed to two parts in which the plot of the "Petersburg story" unfolds. It gives a majestic image of Peter - a reformer, carrying out a great national cause, which many generations dreamed of - strengthening the Russian state on the shores of the Baltic Sea:
From here we will threaten the Swede,
Here the city will be founded
To spite an arrogant neighbor
Nature here is destined for us
Cut a window to Europe...
Peter appears here both as a conqueror of nature itself, its elements, and as the embodiment of the victory of culture and civilization over the savagery and backwardness that had reigned for centuries “on the shore of desert waves” before him.
Pushkin composed a poetic hymn to the mighty power of the mind, will and creative labor of a person capable of such a miracle as the construction of a great and beautiful city, a symbol of a new, transformed Russia, from the "darkness of forests" and "swamp blat".
This is an example of a person who, it seemed, could foresee the turn in the course of history and turn Russia into its new direction, could, it turns out, become the “master of fate” not only of his own, but of all of Russia:
O mighty lord of destiny!
Are you not so above the abyss
At a height, in the bridle of an iron ...
Raised Russia on its hind legs?
Yes, Peter raised Russia on its hind legs, but also on its hind legs at the same time. Autocrat and tyrant. A man of power, corrupted by this power, using it for great and low things. A great person who humiliates the dignity of other people. Herzen wrote: “Peter I is the most complete type of the era or a genius-executioner called to life, for whom the state was everything, and man was nothing, he began our hard labor of history, lasting a century and a half and achieving colossal results.” These words can be put as an epigraph to The Bronze Horseman.
... A hundred years pass, Peter's brilliant plan is realized. The appearance of St. Petersburg - "Peter's creations" - Pushkin draws with a sense of pride and admiration. The lyrical part of the introduction ends with a hymn to Peter and his cause, the inviolability of which is a guarantee of the dignity and greatness of Russia renewed by him:
Show off, city of Petrov, and stop
Unshakable, like Russia.
But the sublime pathos of the introduction is replaced by the sad story of subsequent chapters. What did Peter's reforms lead to? Is it better for an ordinary, poor person? Pushkin tells the story of the life of a poor official, Yevgeny, who is tenderly in love with Parasha.
Eugene's dreams of family happiness and personal independence are quite legitimate, but, alas, they are not destined to come true. The spontaneous perturbation of nature, opposed to the reasonable will of Peter, brings death to both Parasha and all the poor people.
Pushkin transfers the clash between the elements and the rational activity of Peter into a socio-philosophical plane. Eugene is no longer confronted by Peter the Transformer, but by that autocratic order, which is personified in a bronze statue (“an idol on a bronze horse”). Eugene feels the power of the despotism of Peter, who appeared to him in the form of the Bronze Horseman, a "proud idol." And he bravely challenges him: “You already! ... ". But the rebellion of a desperate loner is meaningless. Having barely challenged the idol, Eugene, horrified by his own audacity, runs away. Broken, crushed, he ends his days miserably.
And what about the proud horseman, "the ruler of half the world"? All the tension, all the climax of the poem in a terrible, mystical picture that followed the challenge of Eugene.
Runs and hears behind him
As if thunder rumbles
Heavy-voiced galloping
On the shaken pavement.
And, illuminated by the pale moon,
Stretch out your hand above
Behind him rushes the Bronze Horseman
On a galloping horse.
It turns out that the pitiful cry of the poor madman was enough for the proud idol to lose his peace and, with satanic zeal, began to pursue his victim.
Poems can be judged in different ways. In it, many saw the glorification of a strong state power that has the right to neglect the fate of an individual for the sake of the common good. But there is something else in Pushkin's poem - a hymn to humanism, sympathy for the "little man" who rebelled against the "fatal will."
The will of Peter, the inconsistency of his actions, is the point of symbolic conjugation of all the plot components of the story about the poor Petersburg official - natural, fantastic, historical, mysteriously connected with the fate of post-Petrine Russia.
The greatness of Peter, the progressiveness of his deeds turn into the death of a poor man who has the right to happiness. The conflict between the state and the individual is inevitable. The individual is always defeated when his interests collide with the autocratic order. Harmony between the individual and the state cannot be achieved on the basis of an unjust social order. This thought of Pushkin is confirmed by the entire tragic history of our country.
Issues
"Miserly knight."
As never before, Pushkin thought a lot about the meaning of money, wealth in a person’s life in Boldino, where he came because of money. The poet and money - these two "incompatible things" are nevertheless inextricably linked in the reality of life. Apparently, these thoughts of Pushkin gave a creative impetus to the creation of the tragedy "The Miserly Knight". The title itself, built as an oxymoron (a combination of words that are opposite in meaning), contains the main theme of the first "little tragedy".
(For reference: Tragedy in three scenes. The first is the knight Albert, poor, in need of money to repair his armor; despising money and usurers, he is forced to ask the Jew to extend the debt and lend more money. The action of this scene culminates in the proposal of the Jew to Albert to poison his father, a rich old baron. Albert is angry, then various little things of his behavior (quick quickness) can be judged that he really wants his father dead. The paradoxes are thickening. The second scene is entirely devoted to the antipode of Albert - his father Baron. The whole scene is a baron's monologue over the gold in the basement. Pushkin showed the bottomless complexity of avarice as a romantic passion. The third scene is at the Duke's. Antipodes meet. The father, out of avarice, tells the duke that his son tried to rob him and wished him dead. He lies, but - paradoxically - he guessed exactly what Albert was dreaming about. Albert declares to his father that he slandered him, this is both true and false at the same time. It is impossible to understand this interweaving of stinginess, envy, lies and truth.)
This, probably, was Pushkin's goal - to show the inexhaustible contradictory nature of every fact of life. None of the characters can be defined unambiguously.
The name "The Miserly Knight" indicates the baron as the main character. His monologue contains the main philosophical thesis of this tragedy.
"Mozart and Salieri"
The most common reading of this philosophical meaning comes down to the opposition of "Mozartianism" and "Salierism". At the same time, Mozart is perceived as a positive hero (“an easily vulnerable person”, “a brilliant musician”, he is characterized by “touching naivety” (), and Salieri as negative, whose main features are “deceit”, “thirst for fame, he is a “cold priest”, “mediocrity”, “villain”, he is not independent in music, etc. (. Such a contrasting, unambiguous opposition persists even with reservations that Salieri too suffers that he is “a victim of his love for art”, etc. The relationship between Mozart and Salieri and the conflict of tragedy as a whole ultimately come down to the fact that "genius and villainy" are not only incompatible, but the most terrible and paradoxical thing is that they are nonetheless an "union".
What is the difference between Mozart and Salieri, what is the essence of the conflict?
Salieri admits:
Dead sounds,
I tore apart the music like a corpse. believed
I algebra harmony (V, 306)
Usually in these words Salieri sees a rational, rational, and therefore “wrong” attitude towards music and art in general. However, one can see in them (V.V. Fedorov drew attention to this) and one more meaning: the music itself which Salieri knew, that is, music before Mozart, allowed such an attitude towards herself, she was rational, algebraically exact. “The harmony of pre-Cartian art is exhaustively verified by the “algebra” of consciousness. Mozart's music, in principle, goes beyond the boundaries of consciousness and thus denies it. Salieri's consciousness cannot contain Mozart. Mozart is impossible from his point of view<…>Mozart illegally combines in himself two mutually opposite principles for consciousness: idleness and immortal genius.
In other words, the conflict in Pushkin's tragedy does not consist in the confrontation between the successful genius of Mozart and the envious Salieri, not at all in the confrontation of personalities, but in the clash of two types of music, even two different "beginnings" in art and life. “Mozart is the illegal invasion of heaven on earth, the crime of heaven before the truth of the earth, and - as a result - the loss of his own truth. This universal loss of truth is the initial situation of the tragedy."
Everyone says: there is no truth on earth.
But there is no higher truth.
Mozart is heavenly truth, marvelous "heavenly song". Salieri - earthly truth, difficult knowledge of music by algebra, the consciousness of a mortal person, "which combines labor and glory as cause and effect" (Fedorov, 144). The heavenly principle strives for earthly incarnation, the earthly one dreams of a higher, heavenly one. The two principles of being, striving towards each other, form a tragic unity: "the earth turns out to be a form of content hostile to it, the sky turns out to be the content of a form hostile to it"
Mozart and Salieri are two hypostases of a single essence, harmony. “Heaven and earth, life and death, consciousness and direct creative force, genius and villainy are the moments necessary for the formation of harmony. The musical image is the achieved harmony of earth and sky, truth realized in beauty” (37).
Outcome. In my opinion, the main thing in tragedy: Pushkin is interested in the ratio of good and bad in art. A genius must break the rules, so he is always a breaker, a villain in some way. Art is never touchingly calm, it is always a struggle of passions. In this tragedy, Pushkin considered this in extreme, excessive incarnations.
"Stone Guest"
Unlike the previous tragedies of the cycle, there is no direct clash between the two antagonists in The Stone Guest. The statue of the commander cannot be evaluated as an equal character with don Juan . But there is still a collision. In each
