The first caliph of the Arab state. Characteristic features of the Muslim social order

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the II millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples. In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, engaged in crafts and trade.

The other part wandered in the deserts and steppes, engaged in cattle breeding. Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. This oasis was inhabited by the Arab tribe Qureish, whose tribal nobility, using the geographical position of Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.

In addition, Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. Here was located the ancient pre-Islamic temple of the Kaaba. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Quraish Allah tribe (from Arabic ilah - master).

In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia, in connection with the movement of trade routes to Iran, the importance of trade falls. The population, which lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to look for sources of livelihood in agriculture. But there was little land suitable for agriculture. They had to be conquered.

For this, forces were needed and, consequently, the unification of fragmented tribes, moreover, worshiping different gods. The need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis was more and more clearly defined.

This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Mohammed (c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam. This religion is based on the dogmas of Judaism and Christianity: belief in one God and his prophet, the Last Judgment, afterlife retribution, unconditional obedience to the will of God (Arabic Islam-obedience).

The Jewish and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced by the names of the prophets and other biblical characters common to these religions: the biblical Abraham (Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Ilya (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus (Isa), Mary (Maryam) and others. Islam has common customs and prohibitions with Judaism. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, forbid portraying God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.

At the first stage of development, the new religious worldview of Islam was not supported by most of the tribesmen of Muhammad, and first of all by the nobility, as they feared that the new religion would lead to the cessation of the cult of the Kaaba as a religious center, and thereby deprive them of their income. In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina).

This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim chronology. The agricultural population of Yathrib (Medina), competing with merchants from Mecca, supported Muhammad. However, only in 630, having recruited the necessary number of supporters, did he get the opportunity to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit to the new religion, all the more it suited them that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.

Much later (c. 650), after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected into a single book of the Koran (translated from Arabic means reading), which became sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.

Later Islamic religious literature is called Sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who recognized the Koran and the Sunnah became known as Sunnis, and those who recognized only one Koran became Shiites. The Shiites recognize only his relatives as legitimate caliphs (deputies, deputies) of Muhammad, spiritual and secular heads of Muslims.

The economic crisis in Western Arabia in the 7th century, caused by the displacement of trade routes, the lack of land suitable for agriculture, and high population growth, pushed the leaders of the Arab tribes to seek a way out of the crisis by seizing foreign lands. This was also reflected in the Koran, which says that Islam should be the religion of all peoples, but for this it is necessary to fight against the infidels, exterminate them and take away their property (Koran, 2:186-189; 4:76-78, 86).

Guided by this specific task and the ideology of Islam, Muhammad's successors, the caliphs, launched a series of conquest campaigns. They conquered Palestine, Syria, Mesopotamia, Persia. Already in 638 they captured Jerusalem. Until the end of the 7th century under the rule of the Arabs were the countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia. In the 8th century Central Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, North-West Africa were captured.

In 711, Arab troops under the leadership of Tarik sailed from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from the name of Tarik came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tarik). Having quickly conquered the Iberian lands, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel.

By the middle of the IX century. Arabs captured Sicily, Sardinia, the southern regions of Italy, the island of Crete. At this, the Arab conquests stopped, but a long-term war was waged with the Byzantine Empire. Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.

The main Arab conquests were made under the caliphs Abu Bakr (632-634), Omar (634-644), Osman (644-656) and the caliphs from the Umayyad dynasty (661-750). Under the Umayyads, the capital of the Caliphate was moved to Syria in the city of Damascus.

The victories of the Arabs, the capture of vast areas by them were facilitated by the many years of mutually exhausting war between Byzantium and Persia, disunity and constant enmity between other states that were attacked by the Arabs. It should also be noted that the population of the countries occupied by the Arabs, suffering from the oppression of Byzantium and Persia, saw the Arabs as liberators, who reduced the tax burden primarily to those who converted to Islam.

Through the Arabs, Europe got acquainted with the cultural achievements of the Eastern peoples, primarily with the achievements in the field of exact sciences - mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.

In 750 the Umayyad dynasty in the eastern part of the Caliphate was overthrown. The caliphs were the Abbassids, descendants of the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad - Abbas. They moved the capital of the state to Baghdad.

In the western part of the Caliphate, in Spain, the Umayyads continued to rule, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Caliphate of Cordoba with its capital in the city of Cordoba.

The division of the Arab caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were the rulers of the provinces - emirs.

The Abbassid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbassid state ceased to exist.

The Spanish Umayyad Caliphate was also gradually shrinking. In the XI century. As a result of internecine struggle, the Caliphate of Cordoba broke up into a number of states. This was taken advantage of by the Christian states that arose in the northern part of Spain: the Leono-Castile, Aragonese, Portuguese kingdoms, which began to fight the Arabs for the liberation of the peninsula - the reconquista.

In 1085 they conquered the city of Toledo, in 1147 - Lisbon, in 1236 Cordoba fell. The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab Caliphate as a state ended.

The caliphate as an institution of the spiritual leadership of the Arabs by all Muslims continued to exist until 1517, when this function was transferred to the Turkish sultan, who captured Egypt, where the last caliphate, the spiritual head of all Muslims, lived.

The history of the Arab Caliphate, numbering only six centuries, was complex, ambiguous, and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution of human society on the planet.

Guided by the ideology of Islam, the Caliphs pursued a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of the former disparate tribes into a single state gave impetus to economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe.

Being one of the youngest in the East, occupying the most offensive position among them, incorporating the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, the Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge impact on the spiritual life of Western Europe, representing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages. .

After the death of Muhammad, the Arabs were ruled caliphs military leaders elected by the entire community. The first four caliphs came from the inner circle of the prophet himself. Under them, the Arabs for the first time went beyond their ancestral lands. Caliph Omar, the most successful military leader, spread the influence of Islam to almost the entire Middle East. Under him, Syria, Egypt, Palestine were conquered - lands that previously belonged to the Christian world. The closest enemy of the Arabs in the struggle for land was Byzantium, which was going through hard times. A long war with the Persians and numerous internal problems undermined the power of the Byzantines, and it was not difficult for the Arabs to take away a number of territories from the empire and defeat the Byzantine army in several battles.

In a sense, the Arabs were "doomed to succeed" in their campaigns. First, excellent light cavalry provided the Arab army with mobility and superiority over infantry and heavy cavalry. Secondly, the Arabs, having captured the country, behaved in it in accordance with the precepts of Islam. Only the rich were deprived of their property, the conquerors did not touch the poor, and this could not but arouse sympathy for them. Unlike Christians, who often forced the local population to accept a new faith, the Arabs allowed religious freedom. The propaganda of Islam in the new lands was more of an economic nature. It happened in the following way. Having conquered the local population, the Arabs taxed it. Those who converted to Islam were exempted from a significant part of these taxes. Christians and Jews, who have long lived in many Middle Eastern countries, were not persecuted by the Arabs - they simply had to pay a tax on their faith.

The population in most of the conquered countries perceived the Arabs as liberators, especially since they retained a certain political independence for the conquered people. In the new lands, the Arabs founded paramilitary settlements and lived in their own closed, patriarchal-tribal world. But this state of affairs did not last long. In the rich cities of Syria, famous for their luxury, in Egypt with its centuries-old cultural traditions, noble Arabs were increasingly imbued with the habits of the local rich and nobility. For the first time, a split occurred in Arab society - adherents of patriarchal principles could not come to terms with the behavior of those who abandoned the custom of their fathers. Medina and the Mesopotamian settlements became the stronghold of the traditionalists. Their opponents - not only in the matter of foundations, but also in political terms - lived mainly in Syria.

In 661, there was a split between the two political factions of the Arab nobility. Caliph Ali, son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad, tried to reconcile traditionalists and supporters of the new way of life. However, these attempts came to nothing. Ali was assassinated by conspirators from the traditionalist sect, and his place was taken by Emir Muawiyah, head of the Arab community in Syria. Mu'awiya broke decisively with the military democracy of early Islam. The capital of the Caliphate was moved to Damascus, the ancient capital of Syria. In the era of the Damascus Caliphate, the Arab world resolutely expanded its borders.

By the 8th century, the Arabs had subjugated all of North Africa, and in 711 they launched an offensive against European lands. What a serious force the Arab army was can be judged at least by the fact that in just three years the Arabs completely took possession of the Iberian Peninsula.

Muawiyah and his heirs, the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty, created a state in a short time, the equal of which history has not yet known. Neither the dominions of Alexander the Great, nor even the Roman Empire in its heyday, extended as widely as the Umayyad Caliphate. The possessions of the caliphs stretched from the Atlantic Ocean to India and China. The Arabs owned almost all of Central Asia, all of Afghanistan, the northwestern territories of India. In the Caucasus, the Arabs conquered the Armenian and Georgian kingdoms, thus surpassing the ancient rulers of Assyria.

Under the Umayyads, the Arab state finally lost the features of the former patriarchal-tribal system. In the early years of Islam, the caliph, the religious head of the community, was chosen by general vote. Muawiya made this title hereditary. Formally, the caliph remained the spiritual ruler, but he was mainly engaged in secular affairs.

Supporters of a developed system of government, created according to the Middle Eastern models, won the dispute with the adherents of the old customs. Caliphate more and more began to resemble the eastern despotism of ancient times. Numerous officials subordinate to the caliph monitored the payment of taxes in all the lands of the caliphate. If during the first caliphs Muslims were exempted from taxes (with the exception of the "tithe" for the maintenance of the poor, commanded by the prophet himself), then during the time of the Umayyads, three main taxes were introduced. The tithe, which used to go to the income of the community, now went to the Caliph's treasury. Except for her, all the inhabitants caliphate they had to pay a land tax and a poll tax, the jiziyah, the same one that was previously levied only on non-Muslims living on Muslim land.

The Caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty took care to make the Caliphate a truly unified state. For this purpose, they introduced Arabic as the state language in all the territories subject to them. The Koran, the holy book of Islam, played an important role in the formation of the Arab state during this period. The Qur'an was a collection of sayings of the Prophet, written down by his first students. After the death of Muhammad, several texts-additions were created that made up the book of the Sunnah. On the basis of the Koran and the Sunnah, the officials of the caliph conducted the court, the Koran determined all the most important issues in the life of the Arabs. But if all Muslims recognized the Koran unconditionally - after all, these were sayings dictated by Allah himself - then the religious communities treated the Sunna differently. It was along this line that a religious split occurred in Arab society.

The Arabs called Sunnis those who recognized the Sunnah as a holy book along with the Koran. The Sunni movement in Islam was considered official, since it was supported by the caliph. Those who agreed to regard only the Koran as a holy book constituted a sect of Shiites (schismatics).

Both Sunnis and Shiites were very numerous groups. Of course, the schism was not limited to religious differences. The Shia nobility was close to the family of the Prophet, the Shiites were led by relatives of the murdered caliph Ali. In addition to the Shiites, the caliphs were opposed by another, purely political sect - the Kharijites, who advocated a return to the original tribal patriarchy and retinue orders, in which all the warriors of the community chose the caliph, and the lands were divided equally among everyone.

The Umayyad dynasty lasted ninety years in power. In 750, the commander Abul-Abbas, a distant relative of the Prophet Muhammad, overthrew the last caliph and destroyed all his heirs, declaring himself caliph. The new dynasty - the Abbasids - turned out to be much more durable than the previous one, and lasted until 1055. Abbas, unlike the Umayyads, was a native of Mesopotamia, a stronghold of the Shia movement in Islam. Not wanting to have anything to do with the Syrian rulers, the new ruler moved the capital to Mesopotamia. In 762, the city of Baghdad was founded, which became the capital of the Arab world for several hundred years.

The structure of the new state turned out to be in many respects similar to the Persian despotisms. Under the caliph was the first minister - the vizier, the whole country was divided into provinces, in which the emirs appointed by the caliph ruled. All power was concentrated in the Caliph's palace. Numerous palace officials were, in essence, ministers, each responsible for his own sphere. Under the Abbasids, the number of departments increased dramatically, which at first helped to manage a vast country.

The postal service was responsible not only for the organization of the courier service (first created by the Assyrian rulers in the 2nd millennium BC). It was also the responsibility of the Minister of Posts to maintain state roads in fair condition and to provide hotels along these roads. Mesopotamian influence manifested itself in one of the most important branches of economic life - agriculture. Irrigation agriculture, practiced in Mesopotamia from ancient times, was widespread under the Abbasids. Officials from a special department monitored the construction of canals and dams, the state of the entire irrigation system.

Under the Abbasids, military power caliphate increased sharply. The regular army now consisted of one hundred and fifty thousand warriors, among whom were many mercenaries from barbarian tribes. The caliph also had at his disposal his personal guard, for which warriors were trained from early childhood.

By the end of his reign, Caliph Abbas earned the title of "Bloody" for cruel measures to restore order in the lands conquered by the Arabs. However, it was thanks to his cruelty that the Abbasid caliphate turned into a prosperous country with a highly developed economy for a long time.

First of all, agriculture flourished. Its development was facilitated by the thoughtful and consistent policy of the rulers in this regard. The rare variety of climatic conditions in various provinces allowed the caliphate to fully provide itself with all the necessary products. It was at this time that the Arabs began to attach great importance to gardening and floriculture. Luxury goods and perfumes produced in the Abbasid state were important foreign trade items.

It was under the Abbasids that the heyday of the Arab world began as one of the main industrial centers in the Middle Ages. Having conquered many countries with rich and long-standing handicraft traditions, the Arabs enriched and developed these traditions. Under the Abbasids, the East begins to trade in steel of the highest quality, the equal of which Europe did not know. Damascus steel blades were highly valued in the West.

The Arabs not only fought, but also traded with the Christian world. Small caravans or brave lone merchants penetrated far to the north and west of the borders of their country. Items made in the Abbasid Caliphate in the 9th-10th centuries were found even in the Baltic Sea area, in the territories of the Germanic and Slavic tribes. The fight against Byzantium, which the Muslim rulers waged almost incessantly, was caused not only by the desire to seize new lands. Byzantium, which had long-established trade relations and routes throughout the world known at that time, was the main competitor of Arab merchants. Goods from the countries of the East, India and China, which had previously reached the West through Byzantine merchants, also went through the Arabs. No matter how badly the Arabs were treated by Christians in the European West, the East for Europe already in the era of the Dark Ages became the main source of luxury goods.

The Abbasid Caliphate had many common features both with the European kingdoms of its era and with the ancient Eastern despotisms. Caliphs, unlike European rulers, managed to prevent excessive independence of emirs and other high-ranking officials. If in Europe the land provided to the local nobility for royal service almost always remained in hereditary ownership, then the Arab state in this regard was closer to the ancient Egyptian order. According to the laws of the caliphate, all land in the state belonged to the caliph. He endowed his close associates and subjects for the service, but after their death, allotments and all property were returned to the treasury. Only the caliph had the right to decide whether to leave the lands of the deceased to his heirs or not. Recall that the reason for the collapse of most European kingdoms during the Early Middle Ages was precisely the power that the barons and counts took into their own hands on the lands granted to them by the king in hereditary possession. Royal power extended only to the lands that belonged personally to the king, and some of his counts owned much more extensive territories.

But there was never complete peace in the Abbasid Caliphate. The inhabitants of the countries conquered by the Arabs constantly sought to regain independence, raising riots against fellow invaders. Emirs in the provinces also did not want to put up with their dependence on the favor of the supreme ruler. The collapse of the caliphate began almost immediately after its formation. The first to separate were the Moors, the North African Arabs who conquered the Pyrenees. The independent Emirate of Cordoba became a caliphate in the middle of the 10th century, securing sovereignty at the state level. The Moors in the Pyrenees maintained their independence longer than many other Islamic nations. Despite the constant wars against Europeans, despite the powerful onslaught of the Reconquista, when almost all of Spain returned to Christianity, until the middle of the 15th century there was a Moorish state in the Pyrenees, which eventually shrunk to the size of the Granada Caliphate - a small area around the Spanish city of Granada, the pearl of the Arab world , which amazed its European neighbors with its beauty. The famous Moorish style came to European architecture through Granada, finally conquered by Spain only in 1492.

Beginning in the middle of the 9th century, the collapse of the Abbasid state became irreversible. One by one, the North African provinces separated, followed by Central Asia. In the heart of the Arab world, the confrontation between Sunnis and Shiites has escalated even more sharply. In the middle of the 10th century, the Shiites captured Baghdad and for a long time ruled the remnants of the once mighty caliphate - Arabia and small territories in Mesopotamia. In 1055 the Caliphate was conquered by the Seljuk Turks. From that moment on, the world of Islam finally lost its unity. The Saracens, who had established themselves in the Middle East, did not abandon their attempts to seize Western European lands. In the 9th century, they captured Sicily, from where they were later driven out by the Normans. In the Crusades of the 12th-13th centuries, European crusader knights fought against Saracen troops.

The Turks from their Asia Minor territories moved to the lands of Byzantium. For several hundred years, they conquered the entire Balkan Peninsula, cruelly oppressing its former inhabitants - the Slavic peoples. And in 1453, the Ottoman Empire finally conquered Byzantium. The city was renamed Istanbul and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire.

Interesting information:

caliph - the spiritual and secular head of the Muslim community and the Muslim theocratic state (caliphate).
Umayyads - the dynasty of caliphs, who ruled in 661 - 750.
jiziya (Jizya) - a poll tax on non-Muslims in the countries of the medieval Arab world. Jiziya was paid only by adult men. Women, children, old people, monks, slaves and beggars were exempted from paying it.
Koran (from the Ar. "Kur'an" - reading) - a collection of sermons, prayers, parables, commandments and other speeches delivered by Muhammad and which formed the basis of Islam.
sunnah (from ar. "mode of action") - a sacred tradition in Islam, a collection of stories about the deeds, commandments and sayings of the prophet Muhammad. It is an explanation and addition to the Qur'an. Compiled in the 7th - 9th centuries.
Abbasids - a dynasty of Arab caliphs, who ruled in 750 - 1258.
Emir - a feudal ruler in the Arab world, a title corresponding to a European prince. Possessed secular and spiritual power. At first, emirs were appointed to the post of caliph, later this title became hereditary.

§ 9. The conquest of the Arabs and the creation of the Arab Caliphate

The beginning of the Arab conquests

The death of Muhammad led to uprisings against the Islamic state that broke out in different parts of Arabia. However, these uprisings were quickly suppressed, and the Muslims set about conquering other countries. The main opponents of the Arabs were the Byzantine Empire and Iran.

Arab warrior

Mohammed also sent a message to the Byzantine emperor calling for him to convert to Islam. It said: “Submit (convert to Islam) and you will be saved. Allah will give you a double reward. O people of the Scripture! Unite around the common Word for us and you!” The ruler of Constantinople did not consider it necessary to answer the prophet, but he soon felt the power of the Muslim weapons. The Byzantine army could not withstand the onslaught of the Arab cavalry, inspired by the new religion. Muslims gladly accepted death, hoping to taste the heavenly bliss promised by the prophet.

Muslim military successes

In the course of conquests, the army of the Arabs, led by the caliphs, subjugated the richest countries of the Middle East. Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia were taken away from the Byzantines. The Arabs captured the largest city of Syria, Damascus, and the holy city of Christians and Jews, Jerusalem. After several defeats, the Iranian state ceased to exist. In Africa, the Arabs conquered Egypt. The Byzantine army could not resist the conquerors here either. The largest city of Egypt, Alexandria, surrendered without a fight to the Muslims, who promised not to touch Christian churches for a rich ransom. Of their eastern possessions, the Byzantine emperors managed to save only Asia Minor. The Arabs besieged Constantinople more than once, but could not take it.

Muslims storm a fortress in Syria. Medieval drawing

Having subjugated North Africa, the Arabs at the beginning of the 8th century crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and landed in Spain. A small army of Arabs defeated the army of the Visigoth king. Despite stubborn resistance, the Visigoth cities fell one by one. By 718, all of Spain, except for a small area in the north of the country, was in the hands of the Arabs. Then they invaded the borders of the Frankish kingdom and were only stopped by Charles Martel at the battle of Poitiers.

Remember in what era and by whom the city of Alexandria was founded.

By the middle of the 8th century, as a result of the conquests, a huge Muslim state arose - the Arab Caliphate. It included lands with fertile soils - Egypt and Mesopotamia, which used to be the granaries of Ancient Rome and Byzantium. The Arabs captured all the gold deposits known at that time. They took control of the sea and land trade routes that connected the markets of the Mediterranean with the countries of the Far East, Central Asia, and the hinterland of Africa. All this made the caliphate the richest state in the world.

Campaigns and conquests of the Arabs. Arab Caliphate

The first caliphs and the schism in Islam

The first caliphs in their way of life differed little from ordinary Muslims. Like the Prophet Mohammed, they held temporal and spiritual power. During the period of conquests, caliphs had to be military leaders. Caliph Omar (634–644) became famous for his talent as a commander. He was known as a harsh but fair ruler who did not seek personal enrichment, although the Arab army took possession of huge treasures.

Mosque of Omar in Jerusalem

After the death of Omar, Osman (644–656) was elected caliph. The new caliph came from a clan that was initially hostile to Muhammad, but then converted to Islam. When distributing the wealth captured during campaigns and appointing him to important positions, Osman gave preference to his relatives. The governors of the conquered regions, who possessed real military power, listened less and less to the Caliph, who lived in Medina. The Muslim nobility organized a conspiracy against Osman, and the caliph was killed on the threshold of his own house. At the same time, the blood of the ruler got on the list of the Koran, which he held in his hands.

Even more dramatic events unfolded under Caliph Ali (656-661). The internecine war and the subsequent assassination of Ali led to the split of Muslims into warring factions - Sunnis and Shiites. After the death of Ali in 661, the governor of Syria declared himself caliph. He did not go to Mecca or Medina, but remained in Damascus, founding the Umayyad dynasty.

The inner life of the Arab Caliphate

At the end of the 7th century, the caliphs from the "deputies" of the Prophet Muhammad turned into unlimited rulers, and their power from elective became hereditary. In the hands of the caliphs, untold wealth flowing from the conquered countries was concentrated. Every year, tons of silver and gold arrived in their capital in the form of tribute. The rulers could dispose of them at their discretion. The Muslim nobility, which consisted not only of Arabs, but also of representatives of other peoples who inhabited the caliphate, had a great influence on the affairs of the state. Noble Muslims - commanders and governors of the provinces quickly forgot the calls of the Prophet Muhammad to despise wealth and share their property with the poor. Imitating the nobles of the occupied countries, they erected magnificent palaces filled with treasures.

Trading at the Muslim Bazaar. Medieval drawing

The lands conquered by the Arabs were declared the property of the entire Muslim community. The people who lived on these lands had to pay a land tax or convert to Islam. In the conquered lands, the Arabs did not at first forcibly force the local population to become Muslims. The "People of the Scripture" - Christians and Jews who recognized the one God, were allowed to live according to the laws of their faith, but they had to pay a special soul tax. Muslims were intolerant of pagans: on pain of extermination, they were offered to convert to Islam. It was beneficial for the population of the conquered countries to convert to a new faith, since it was immediately exempted from taxes. Muslims paid only alms for the benefit of the poor.

Why were Muslims tolerant of the faith of Christians and Jews?

However, after a few decades, the attitude of Muslims towards people of other religions changed, and their oppression began. One of the caliphs issued a decree in which he ordered Christians and Jews “to wear a yellow dress from now on; do not wear a white dress, so as not to resemble Muslims; destroy the newly built temples, double the total tax; do not allow them to enter the Muslim baths ... do not take Muslims for personal services ... ". A Christian who dared to hit a Muslim was subject to the death penalty.

Caliph Haroun al-Rashid with his associates. Medieval miniature

What has changed in the attitude of Muslims towards representatives of other religions?

The collapse of the Arab Caliphate

The rule of the Umayyads caused discontent among the people, which was used by the opponents of the caliphs. In 750, the power of the Umayyads was overthrown, and they themselves were exterminated. The new rulers of the Muslim state were the Abbasids, who made the capital of the caliphate the city of Baghdad on the Tigris River in Mesopotamia. In the VIII-IX centuries, the Arab Caliphate reached the height of its power. However, the decline of this power was already close. About 80 million people lived on the lands of the Caliphate. The majority of the population were conquered peoples who converted to Islam. It was difficult to manage such a large state, and the caliphs retained their power only by force of arms. Here and there rebellions and uprisings broke out, which undermined the Islamic state. His strength was also undermined by the ongoing hostility between Sunnis and Shiites. The governors of outlying provinces refused to obey the authority of the Baghdad caliph and did not send him the due tribute. Gradually they created their own independent states.

Muslim warriors. Arabic miniature

Gradually, by the 10th century, the caliphate lost most of its possessions, retaining under its rule only the lands around Baghdad. Having become a mere toy in the hands of their army, the caliphs lost secular power, retaining authority only in matters of religion. In place of a huge power, many Muslim states arose in which Arabic was spoken. Despite the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, the faith of the Prophet Muhammad spread far beyond the borders of Arabia. It was carried to the countries of Asia, Africa, Europe not only by warriors, but also by merchants and preachers.

Using a map, list the countries and peoples conquered by the Arabs. Name the places of the most important victories and major defeats of the Arabs.

Muslim culture

The culture of the Arab Caliphate and the states formed in its place was closely connected with the Muslim religion.

Teaching in a madrasah. Arabic drawing

Learning to read, write, and do arithmetic was considered necessary for understanding and assimilation of the Qur'an. Its text was memorized, seeking to apply the wisdom of this book in all life situations. Primary schools were created to educate children 5-10 years old.

The state took care of the education of its subjects. By order of the caliphs, they were created madrasah, where teenagers and adults continued their education.

Muslim library. Medieval drawing

They gathered around the teacher, who read ancient texts and works of scientists, explaining incomprehensible places. In the madrasah, they studied the history and foundations of Islam, mathematics, medicine, geometry and other sciences.

Pages from an Arabic manuscript on medicine

The respect for knowledge that Muslims showed was combined with intolerance for everything that, in their opinion, was contrary to Islam. Often, during the conquests, Muslims destroyed and destroyed what they considered alien to their faith. At the court of the caliphs in Baghdad and in other large cities, "Houses of Wisdom" arose - a kind of academy of sciences. Here, scientists were engaged in translating into Arabic the works of authors from different countries and eras, including the famous sages of antiquity: Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes. It was the Arabs who introduced some of these works to medieval Europeans.

Remember what Plato, Aristotle, Archimedes were famous for.

Trade and travel made the Arabs experts in geography. The maps and geographical works they compiled contained a description of all areas of the then Muslim world from Spain to India. Muslims knew about China, Korea, Siberia. The works “Wonders of the Countries”, “Wonders of the Earth”, the “Book of Ways and States”, as well as the “Book of the Picture of the Earth” contained detailed information about nature, peoples, cities, and the occupations of the inhabitants of various lands.

Miniature from an Arabic book

From distant India, Arab scientists borrowed a convenient decimal counting system, adopting from the Indians the numbers that we still call Arabic. The science of algebra, which also appeared in India, became known in Europe precisely under the Arabic name "al-jabr".

Great Mosque in Damascus. 8th century

Far beyond the borders of the Muslim world, the name of the scientist Ibn Sina, who lived at the end of the 10th - beginning of the 11th century (in Europe, his name was Avicenna), was known. He was the author of the medical works The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine.

The confluence of various cultural streams led to the emergence of Muslim poetry. She glorified victories in battles, sublime feelings of love, the joys of life.

The Arabs loved to listen and tell fairy tales. Wandering storytellers collected, composed and brought fantastic stories to different parts of the Muslim world. Gradually, they compiled a huge collection, called "A Thousand and One Nights." It includes tales not only of the Arabs, but also of the Greeks, Persians, Indians and other peoples. The most famous stories are about the brave Baghdad merchant Sinbad the Sailor, who made his risky journeys to distant lands.

View of the city of Aleppo in Syria. Medieval drawing

The laws of the Muslim religion forbid depicting God. Therefore, on the walls of buildings, in books, one can see only intricate patterns and ornaments, made up of Arabic letters that form words. Often these were quotations from the Koran or sayings of the Prophet Muhammad. In the Muslim East, widespread calligraphy. The Arabic language and Arabic writing were known in all countries whose inhabitants professed Islam.

Summing up

Arab conquests led to the emergence of a huge Arab Caliphate. In the countries included in it, the life of the people was organized in accordance with the requirements of the Islamic religion. Muslim Arabs sought to expand their knowledge of the world around them. They created a special world of culture, which was closely connected with the Muslim religion. Many of the achievements of the scientists of the Arab Caliphate exceeded the level of science in European countries of that time.

Sunnis - supporters of one of the groups in Islam, revering not only the Koran, but also the oral tradition about the deeds and sayings of Muhammad - the Sunnah.

Shiites - supporters of one of the groups in Islam, recognizing the Koran as the only holy book, considering only Ali and his descendants as the legitimate caliph.

Madrasah - an educational institution in Islamic countries.

Calligraphy - the art of beautiful and clear writing.

661 year. Beginning of the Umayyad dynasty.

750 year. The overthrow of the Umayyads, the beginning of the rule of the Abbasid dynasty.

“All knowledge is ultimately related to religion and is acquired in the name of Allah.”

Prophet Muhammad

one*. Tell us about the course of the Arab conquests. Why did Muslim Arabs manage to quickly conquer many countries of the East?

2. What was the attitude of the Arabs towards the conquered peoples? How did it change? Why?

3. What power did the caliphs have?

4. What changes have occurred in the Arab state by the tenth century compared with the time of the first caliphs?

5. What are the reasons for the collapse of the Arab Caliphate.

6. What impact did Islam have on the culture of the Arab Caliphate?

7. What knowledge was most valued by Muslim scholars? Why do you think?

8. What scientific knowledge did Europeans take from Muslims?

1. The famous book of fairy tales "A Thousand and One Nights" tells about the conversation between the caliph and a learned girl. “O Tawaddud, what sciences do you know well?” the caliph asked. The girl answered: “I know grammar, poetry, jurisprudence, interpretation of the Koran and vocabulary, I am familiar with music and the science of inheritance shares, and counting, and division, and land surveying, and the legends of the first people ... I studied exact sciences, and geometry, and philosophy , and healing, and logic, and rhetoric, and explanation, and memorized much of theology. I was devoted to poetry and played the lute, found out where the places of sounds are on it, and I know how to strike the strings so that they are in motion or at rest ... In short, I have reached the point that only people who have established themselves in science."

Name the sciences that were familiar to the Arab girl. Which of them are considered sciences today?

2. Using the text of the paragraph and the illustrations, make up a story about life in a medieval Muslim city using the words: caliph, palace, mosque, minaret, madrasah, bazaar.

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Features of the development of the countries of the East in the Middle Ages

Arab Caliphate

Features of the development of the countries of the East in the Middle Ages

The term "Middle Ages" is used to refer to the period in the history of the countries of the East of the first seventeen centuries of a new era.

Geographically, the Medieval East covers the territory of North Africa, the Near and Middle East, Central and Central Asia, India, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and the Far East.

In the historical arena during this period appeared peoples, like Arabs, Seljuk Turks, Mongols. New religions were born and civilizations arose on their basis.

The countries of the East in the Middle Ages were connected with Europe. Byzantium remained the bearer of the traditions of Greco-Roman culture. The Arab conquest of Spain and the campaigns of the Crusaders to the East contributed to the interaction of cultures. However, for the countries of South Asia and the Far East, acquaintance with Europeans took place only in the 15th-16th centuries.

The formation of medieval societies of the East was characterized by the growth of productive forces - iron tools spread, artificial irrigation expanded and irrigation technology improved,

the leading trend of the historical process both in the East and in Europe was the establishment of feudal relations.

Pereodization of the history of the medieval East.

1st-6th centuries AD - the birth of feudalism;

7th-10th centuries - the period of early feudal relations;

XI-XII centuries - the pre-Mongolian period, the beginning of the heyday of feudalism, the formation of a class-corporate system of life, a cultural take-off;

13th century - the time of the Mongol conquest,

XIV-XVI centuries - post-Mongol period, conservation of the despotic form of power.

Eastern civilizations

Some civilizations in the East arose in antiquity; Buddhist and Hindu - on the Hindustan peninsula,

Taoist-Confucian - in China.

Others were born in the Middle Ages: Muslim civilization in the Near and Middle East,

Hindu-Muslim - in India,

Hindu and Muslim - in the countries of Southeast Asia, Buddhist - in Japan and Southeast Asia,

Confucian - in Japan and Korea.

Arab Caliphate (V-XI centuries AD)

On the territory of the Arabian Peninsula already in the II millennium BC. lived Arab tribes that were part of the Semitic group of peoples.

In the V-VI centuries. AD Arab tribes dominated the Arabian Peninsula. Part of the population of this peninsula lived in cities, oases, engaged in crafts and trade. The other part wandered in the deserts and steppes, engaged in cattle breeding.

Trade caravan routes between Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Ethiopia, and Judea passed through the Arabian Peninsula. The intersection of these paths was the Meccan oasis near the Red Sea. This oasis was inhabited by the Arab tribe Qureish, whose tribal nobility, using the geographical position of Mecca, received income from the transit of goods through their territory.

Besides Mecca became the religious center of Western Arabia. An ancient pre-Islamic temple was located here Kaaba. According to legend, this temple was erected by the biblical patriarch Abraham (Ibrahim) with his son Ismail. This temple is associated with a sacred stone that fell to the ground, which has been worshiped since ancient times, and with the cult of the god of the Kureysh tribe. Allah(from Arabic ilah - master).

REASONS FOR THE Rise of Islam: In the VI century. n, e. in Arabia, in connection with the movement of trade routes to Iran, the importance of trade falls. The population, which lost income from the caravan trade, was forced to look for sources of livelihood in agriculture. But there was little land suitable for agriculture. They had to be conquered. For this, forces were needed and, consequently, the unification of fragmented tribes, moreover, worshiping different gods. more and more clearly defined the need to introduce monotheism and unite the Arab tribes on this basis.

This idea was preached by adherents of the Hanif sect, one of whom was Muhammad(c. 570-632 or 633), who became the founder of a new religion for the Arabs - Islam.

This religion is based on the tenets of Judaism and Christianity. : belief in one god and his prophet,

terrible judgment,

afterlife reward,

unconditional submission to the will of God (arab. Islam-submission).

The Judaic and Christian roots of Islam are evidenced by general for these religions, the names of prophets and other biblical characters: biblical Abraham (Islamic Ibrahim), Aaron (Harun), David (Daud), Isaac (Ishak), Solomon (Suleiman), Elijah (Ilyas), Jacob (Yakub), Christian Jesus ( Isa), Maria (Maryam), etc.

Islam shares common customs and prohibitions with Judaism. Both religions prescribe the circumcision of boys, forbid portraying God and living beings, eating pork, drinking wine, etc.

In 622, Muhammad and his followers had to flee persecution from Mecca to the city of Yathrib (Medina). This year is considered the beginning of the Muslim chronology.

However, only in 630, having recruited the necessary number of supporters, did he get the opportunity to form military forces and capture Mecca, the local nobility of which was forced to submit to the new religion, all the more it suited them that Muhammad proclaimed the Kaaba the shrine of all Muslims.

Much later (c. 650), after the death of Muhammad, his sermons and sayings were collected into a single book. Koran(translated from Arabic means reading), which has become sacred to Muslims. The book includes 114 suras (chapters), which set out the main tenets of Islam, prescriptions and prohibitions.

Later Islamic religious literature is called sunnah. It contains legends about Muhammad. Muslims who recognized the Koran and the Sunnah began to be called Sunnis but those who recognize only one Quran, Shiites.

Shiites recognize as legal caliphs(governors, deputies) of Muhammad, spiritual and secular heads of Muslims only of his relatives.

Until the end of the 7th century under the rule of the Arabs were the countries of the Middle East, Persia, the Caucasus, Egypt and Tunisia.

In the 8th century Central Asia, Afghanistan, Western India, North-West Africa were captured.

In 711, Arab troops led by Tariq sailed from Africa to the Iberian Peninsula (from the name of Tariq came the name Gibraltar - Mount Tariq). Having quickly conquered the Iberian lands, they rushed to Gaul. However, in 732, at the battle of Poitiers, they were defeated by the Frankish king Charles Martel. By the middle of the IX century. Arabs captured Sicily, Sardinia, the southern regions of Italy, the island of Crete. At this, the Arab conquests stopped, but a long-term war was waged with the Byzantine Empire. Arabs besieged Constantinople twice.

The unification of many former disparate and warring states into a single state contributed to the development of economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Crafts, trade developed, cities grew. Within the Arab Caliphate, a culture developed rapidly, incorporating the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian heritage. Through the Arabs, Europe got acquainted with the cultural achievements of the Eastern peoples, primarily with the achievements in the field of exact sciences - mathematics, astronomy, geography, etc.

In the western part of the Caliphate, in Spain, the Umayyads continued to rule, who did not recognize the Abbasids and founded the Caliphate of Cordoba with its capital in the city of Cordoba.

The division of the Arab caliphate into two parts was the beginning of the creation of smaller Arab states, the heads of which were the rulers of the provinces - emirs.

The Abbassid Caliphate waged constant wars with Byzantium. In 1258, after the Mongols defeated the Arab army and captured Baghdad, the Abbassid state ceased to exist.

The last Arab state on the Iberian Peninsula - the Emirate of Granada - existed until 1492. With its fall, the history of the Arab Caliphate as a state ended.

The history of the Arab Caliphate, numbering only six centuries, was complex, ambiguous, and at the same time left a significant mark on the evolution of human society on the planet.

The difficult economic situation of the population of the Arabian Peninsula in the VI-VII centuries. in connection with the movement of trade routes to another zone necessitated the search for sources of livelihood. To solve this problem, the tribes living here embarked on the path of establishing a new religion - Islam, which was supposed to become not only the religion of all peoples, but also called for a fight against infidels (gentiles). Guided by the ideology of Islam, the Caliphs pursued a broad policy of conquest, turning the Arab Caliphate into an empire. The unification of the former disparate tribes into a single state gave impetus to economic and cultural communication between the peoples of Asia, Africa and Europe. Being one of the youngest in the East, occupying the most offensive position among them, incorporating the Greco-Roman, Iranian and Indian cultural heritage, the Arab (Islamic) civilization had a huge impact on the spiritual life of Western Europe, representing a significant military threat throughout the Middle Ages. .

After the death of Muhammad, the Arabs were ruled by caliphs. are the successors of the Prophet. Under the first four caliphs, his closest associates and relatives, the Arabs went beyond the Arabian Peninsula and attacked Byzantium and Iran. The main force of their army was the cavalry. The Arabs conquered the richest Byzantine provinces - Syria, Palestine, Egypt and the vast Iranian kingdom. At the beginning of the 8th century in North Africa, they subjugated the Berber tribes and converted them to Islam. In 711, the Arabs crossed into Europe, to the Iberian Peninsula, and almost completely conquered the kingdom of the Visigoths; But later, in a collision with the Franks (732), the Arabs were driven back to South In the east, they subjugated the peoples of Transcaucasia and Central Asia, breaking their stubborn resistance.After conquering Eastern Iran and Afghanistan, the Arabs penetrated into Northwestern India.

So during the VII - the first half of the VIII century. a huge state arose - the Arab Caliphate, stretching from the shores of the Atlantic Ocean to the borders of India and China. Damascus became its capital.
In the middle of the 7th century under Caliph Ali, Muhammad's cousin, civil strife broke out in the country, leading to a split of Muslims into Sunnis and Shiites.

Sunnis recognize as holy books not only the Koran, but also the Sunnah - a collection of stories from the life of Muhammad, and also believe that the caliph should be the head of the Muslim church. Shiites reject the Sunnah as a holy book and demand that the believers be led by imams - spiritual mentors from the Ali family.

After the assassination of Ali, the Caliphs from the Umayyad dynasty, who relied on the Sunnis, seized power. The Shiite uprising against the Umayyads began in Central Asia and spread to Iran and Iraq, which was used by the Abbasids - the descendants of Muhammad's uncle, Abbas. The caliph's troops were defeated, the caliph himself fled to Syria, and then to Egypt, where he was killed by the rebels. Almost all the Umayyads were exterminated (one of the fleeing Umayyads created an independent Arab state in Spain - the Emirate of Cardova, from the 10th century - the Caliphate of Cordoba). In 750, power in the caliphate passed to the Abbasid dynasty. Iranian landowners who supported the Abbasids received high positions in the state. They could even hold the post of vizier - the highest official, assistant to the caliph.
All land in the state was the property of the caliph. Emirs (governors) from among his closest relatives collected taxes in the provinces, supported the army at the expense of this, and led conquest campaigns. Tax breaks for Muslims forced many inhabitants of the conquered countries to convert to Islam. As a result, during her time, Islam was accepted by the majority of the population of Syria, Egypt, a significant part of Africa, Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, parts of Hindustan and Indonesia.

Under the Abbasids, the conquests of the Arabs almost ceased: only the islands of Sicily, Cyprus, Crete and part of the south of Italy were annexed. during the reign of the legendary Harun ar-Rashid (766-809), a contemporary of Charlemagne.
In the VIII-IX centuries. a series of uprisings swept through the caliphate. Particularly significant was the movement of the Karmatians (one of the branches of the Shiites), who even managed to create their own state, which lasted for about a century and a half.

The huge caliphate did not remain united for long. The guards, recruited from captured Turks (immigrants from Central Asia), and the governors-emirs, who became independent rulers, acquired more and more power in it. In the ninth century Egypt and other provinces in North Africa, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan separated from the Baghdad Caliphate. Under the rule of the caliph was only Mesopotamia, but the caliph remained the head of the Sunni Muslims.
In the middle of the XI century. the Seljuk Turks (named after their leader Seljuk), who had captured, by that time, part of Central Asia, conquered most of the possessions of the Arabs in the Middle East. In 1055 they captured Baghdad. The Caliph crowned the ruler of the Seljuk Turks and gave him the title of Sultan.

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