We continue to explore the levels of the language system, based on . This lesson will focus on the morphology and spelling of unions. The topic is big, but ahead of the holidays, you can consider this task for the rest!
Lesson 17. Union. Morphology (grammatical meaning) and comments. Coordinating, subordinating and connecting syntactic connection. Spelling of separately coordinating conjunctions that is, that is and allied unions also, also, but, how ... so much , connecting unions and, besides, why . Spelling of subordinating conjunctions so that, so that, because, because and introductory word so acting as a union. Learning to create statements
I. Union - a service part of speech that is used to connect independent parts of speech in a sentence and the sentences themselves, for example: On a big tree what grew in front of my house, crows and magpies settled down.
Morphological analysis of the union.
- The syntactic function of unions is the role of fastening elements of both sentence members and sentences. According to their syntactic function, unions are divided into coordinating, subordinating, connecting.
- grammatical meanings.
- Structural structure.
Comments on morphological analysis
1. Coordinating, subordinating and joining unions got their name from the type of syntactic (grammatical) connection of independent parts of speech in a sentence and the sentences themselves - writing (compositions), subordinating (subordination) and joining (attachment).
writing the syntactic connection establishes equal relations between the independent parts of speech, which in the sentence become members of the sentence, and the sentences themselves. This is expressed in the fact that with a coordinative connection from one member of a sentence or sentence, it is impossible to raise a question to another member of the sentence or sentence, for example:
1) Masha And Petya went to school today.- Nouns Masha And Peter in this simple sentence they act in the syntactic role of subjects, and these subjects are interconnected by a coordinating connection as homogeneous members of the sentence.
2) Masha went to school today And Petya followed her.- In this complex sentence, with the help of a coordinating connection, two equal simple sentences are connected, which is why the whole sentence is called a compound sentence.
The fastening element of the members of the sentence and the sentence-parts in the compound sentence is the coordinating union And.
Subordinating syntactic connection establishes relations of subordination, dependencies between independent parts of speech - members of the sentence and the sentences themselves. This is expressed in the fact that with a subordinate relationship from one member of a sentence or sentence, you can put a question to another member of the sentence (compose a phrase) or sentence, for example:
1) Little Masha played with dolls.- In this simple sentence, a noun is connected by a subordinate connection Masha(subject) and adjective small(definition), verb played(predicate) and a noun with a preposition in dolls(addition).
The task. Connect with questions all the indicated parts of speech - members of the sentence.
2) [Petya saw] how(little Masha played with dolls).- In this complex sentence, from one simple sentence (main, enclosed in square brackets), you can raise a question to another simple sentence (subordinate, enclosed in parentheses): Petya saw(what?), how little Masha played with dolls. From the subordinating connection, with the help of which the main and subordinate clauses are connected, the entire complex sentence is called a complex sentence.
Subordinating conjunctions connect only simple sentences as part of a complex subordinate (in this case, the union how), the members of the sentence are not connected by subordinating conjunctions.
Connecting a syntactic connection is used in a statement divided into two parts. The attached second part acts as a clarification, explanation, additional judgment, development of the thought of the first part. At the same time, the logical stress falls on the second, attached, part. Both members of the proposal and the proposal can join, for example:
1) In his free time, Ivan sang, And great.- A circumstance expressed by an adverb is added in a simple sentence with the help of a union And.
2) In his free time, Ivan sang, besides he did it wonderfully.- Joins in a complex sentence the second simple sentence to the first with the help of a union besides.
2. writing
- connecting - and yes (in meaning And), also, likewise, also, neither ... nor etc. Masha and Petya went to school today.
- separating - or, either, then ... then, not that ... not that, either ... or etc. I don't know if it's raining or snowing outside.
- adversative - ah but yes (in meaning but),but, however, although, as etc. This not rain, but snow.
- comparative - so ... as, if not ... then, as much ... as far as, not only ... but And etc. I know mathematics as well as I can.
- explanatory - or, that is, that is etc. Sasha is an extraordinary, that is, simply wonderful, person.
The task. Look again at the examples and determine which words - parts of speech in each sentence are connected by conjunctions. Follow how, with the help of conjunctions, they connect, separate, contrast, compare and explain the concepts contained in these words.
Subordinating Unions according to the grammatical meanings they convey are divided into:
- defining - which, which, whose, where, where, from where … [A man] (which one?), whom I saw from the window, entered the door.
- explanatory - what, to, as if, how, as if not, whether … [Look] (what?), if anyone has come.
- temporary - when, while, for the time being, while … While dawn was breaking (when?, at what time?), [the ships had already left the harbor].
- causal - because, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, since … [I write poetry] (why?, for what reason?), because I can't help it.
- consequences - so (subordinate clauses of the effect connected by this union denote the effect of the cause contained in the main clause). [He dressed warmly], so that he is not afraid of the cold. (The frost is not terrible for him, due to the fact that he dressed warmly).
- target - so that, so that, so that, in order to, so that, so that … [Marina tried to behave](for what?, for what purpose?) so that she is not punished.
- comparative - like, like, like, like … [The snow was falling so quietly](how?) as if nature stood still for a while.
- conditional - if, how, if, whether ... whether, once ... then, if ... then etc. If you go out in the cold without a hat(under what condition?) , [you can get sick].
- concessions - although, despite the fact that, let (let) … Even though it's raining(although what?, in spite of what?) , [I'll still go for a walk].
The task. Determine where in a simple sentence a derivative preposition is used and where in a complex subordinate - a union.
1) Due to the fact that the author did not finish the story, it was not accepted by the publisher.
2) Due to the past heavy rains, the potato crop was in jeopardy.
Connecting unions - and, and, moreover, moreover, then, why … He studied well, and in all subjects.
3. As can be seen from the examples, unions are divided by structure into:
1) single ( and yes, also to etc.)
2) repeating ( and ... and, that ... that, whether ... whether etc.
3) double ( so ... as, not only ... but also, as much ... as etc.).
IMPORTANT! Conjunctions, like prepositions, can be complex and consist of several parts ( that is, not only ... but also, despite the fact that etc.), but represent one word.
additional information
1. In addition to unions, in a complex sentence, allied words are used as a link between the main and subordinate parts: pronouns what, which, what, adverbs how, when, where, where. They differ from unions in their syntactic function: allied words are independent parts of speech and act as members of a subordinate clause, they can be replaced by independent parts of speech; unions serve only to connect the main and subordinate parts and are not members of the sentence. Compare:
1) [I know], ( what soon will). - Union word, pronoun, subject, can be replaced by a noun in the nominative case: I know, winter will be soon. Please note that the logical stress falls on the allied word.
2) [I know], what(soon will winter). - Subordinating union. In the subordinate part to it, it is impossible to raise a question from any member of the sentence. It is in a sentence in an unstressed position.
2. Usually, it is easy to draw a line between the coordinating and subordinating union, but there is also homonymy of coordinating and subordinating unions, for example, the union how. Compare:
1) [Student doesn't know](what?) , how(to solve this problem).- Union how is in the subordinate clause and refers to the subordinating.
2) Brother works in a factory how engineer.- Union how connects the predicate works and the circumstance engineer in a simple sentence and refers to the coordinative ones.
3. The same union can be used with different meanings, on which the punctuation marks in the sentence also depend. For example, the conjunction or can have as a delimiter value, for example: Masha wants to learn to write or to read, and explanatory, for example: Behemoth in front of you or hippopotamus(the hippopotamus is also a hippopotamus).
II. Some coordinating and connecting conjunctions are indistinguishable by ear with combinations of adverbs and pronouns with prepositions and particles. The main thing when clarifying the part of speech in a sentence is to remember that: a) the union as a service part of speech cannot be questioned, b) an independent part of speech can only be replaced by a synonymous or similar independent one, and a service part by a service one.
1. Are written apart synonymous coordinating explanatory conjunctions that is, that is , for example: They drank as usual, that is, a lot.(A. Pushkin)
The task. Union then bi sh is obsolete. Saying a phrase today On the third day, that is, the day before yesterday, my friend and I were at an exhibition of paintings, what nuance we will give it?
2. Are written together 1) connecting unions too, also 2) adversative but 3) comparative as much ... as 4) connecting and, besides, why .
Connecting unions too And also are synonymous with each other, and both are synonymous with conjunction And, for example: I also (I also, and I) want to study at this school.
Unions, too, also need to be distinguished from the pronoun then and adverbs so with the same particle.
Demonstrative pronoun combinations then with particle same and adverbs So with particle same contain a comparison-correlation: pronouns with an object (the same person, phenomenon), adverbs - with a sign of action. Compared similar object and sign of action are contained in the context or are logically derived from it. In this case, the particle can be omitted altogether. For example:
1) I got an A in math. The same thing happened in Russian(the same event repeated).
2) The weather was good all summer last year. It was the same this year.(same as this year; same as last).
Often with a demonstrative pronoun then with particle same is the pronoun what, and with the adverb So with particle same- adverb how. For example:
1) I read the same as my friend(read the same as my friend; read the book as my friend).
2) Children will spend this summer the same way as the previous one.(same as the previous one; good, like the previous one).
The task. Try to explain why the expression in the same time it is written only in this way and not otherwise. Give an example of a sentence with this expression.
Adversarial alliance but synonymous in meaning with the adversative conjunction but and establishes opposition relations between the members of the sentence and the sentences, for example: It was getting cool, but (but) not so damp.
This union must be distinguished from the preposition behind with demonstrative pronoun then. When using a preposition with a pronoun, it should be remembered that the demonstrative pronoun then in this case determines the noun following it, for example: The girl hid behind that tree(for a neighboring, for a large tree).
The task. Opposing alliances but And but are not always synonymous. Based on the shades of meaning, choose which of the unions you will put instead of the ellipsis in the sentence We came to visit, ... there was no one at home. What other opposing conjunctions are suitable in this case?
Double comparative conjunction how...so much synonymous with repeating conjunction how... and, for example: As far as Sasha is truthful, so affable(both truthful and friendly).
This union must be distinguished from pronouns with a preposition for how much, for so much, acting in the meaning of the account, for example: How much Alyosha recovered in the camp, how much he lost weight at home from illness(gained five kilograms, lost five kilograms).
Affiliating unions and, besides, why, are used in connecting constructions in a simple and complex sentence, for example (pay attention to the synonyms given in brackets):
1) The speaker's speech was interesting, and (moreover, including) to all those present.
2) The sun was high, moreover (moreover, but) the heat subsided a little.
3) Sasha went without a hat in the cold, which is why (why) he fell ill.
It is necessary to distinguish combinations of prepositions with pronouns from unions at what, at that, for that, from what, which are never used in connecting structures.
Combination what does used in interrogative sentences: What are you doing here? and also in the answer to this question: I'm here for nothing.
The task. Explain the spelling of the particle in this expression.
Combinations with demonstrative pronouns at the same time, after that define the following nouns:
1) There is a first-aid post at that plant.(and not at the same time; with a large plant)
2) Behind that building is a wasteland.(and not behind another; behind a new building) (Compare adverb: I will eat, then (then) I will sleep.)
Combination from what in interrogative sentences always points to a noun with a preposition from, for example: What is this detail from? From the radio. This combination must be distinguished from a causal union from what , synonymous with union why, for example: From what(why, for what reason) Mainly cloudy? The sun has disappeared(because the sun has gone down).
III. Synonymous subordinating conjunctions are written together to, to, connecting a subordinate clause to the main clause in a complex sentence, for example: I came to the library to (to) borrow an interesting book.
These conjunctions should be distinguished from the pronoun what with particles would or b. Pronoun what can be replaced by a noun with an interrogative pronoun which, particle would rearrange to another place in the sentence (particle b omit altogether), for example:
2) Whatever you hear about the beauty of Seliger, it is better to visit these places yourself. (Whatever words you hear...)
The task. Explain, based on the significant parts included in the adverbial expression no matter what, used in a simple sentence, why it is written only this way and not otherwise. Explore the offer Come to me no matter what. What adverb is this adverb synonymous with?
There are quite a few complex subordinating conjunctions, which, representing one word, consist of several parts: because, because, due to the fact that, in view of the fact that, so, so long as, so that, as if, despite the fact that etc. All parts in such unions are written separately. For example:
1) In order to build a relationship, you must first make peace.
2) Mila has become so prettier, as if a rose has blossomed.
3) Despite the fact that the weather has deteriorated, the tour will still take place.
(On punctuation marks in sentences with complex subordinating conjunctions in topics devoted to complex sentences.)
The task. In the examples above, connect the main and subordinate clauses with logical questions.
Unions because, because which are used in a subordinate clause must be distinguished from pronouns with prepositions from that, by that in the main clause and allied words what or how in the adjunct. Unions because, because:
a) causal, they establish between the main and subordinate clauses the relationship of cause and effect;
b) are interchangeable;
c) can be divided into parts, leaving one part in the main clause, the other in the subordinate clause, - the logical stress will fall on the part left in the main clause. For example:
1) Peter did not come to school(why?, for what reason?) because (because) he was ill.
2) Peter did not come to school because (because) he was ill.
Pronouns with prepositions from that, by that with allied words what And how are used in different parts of a complex sentence - pronouns with prepositions in the main part, and allied words in the subordinate clause. From a pronoun with a preposition to a subordinate clause, a question is posed from what?, from what circumstances?, for what?, on what grounds?. In this case, the logical stress falls on both the pronoun in the main part and the allied word in the subordinate clause. For example:
1) The success of the election campaign depends on(from what?, from what circumstances?) what can be done at meetings with voters.
2) The end result can be seen from(by what signs?) How do you pass your exams.
The task. Read the offer. Give arguments confirming that the first highlighted words are a pronoun with a preposition and an allied word, and the second ones are a complex subordinating conjunction. By his voice because he inhaled the smell of forest water, looking around, I realized that Zuev did not want to hurry, not only because with extraordinary joy feels himself in familiar places.(K. Paustovsky)
The introductory word acts as a union so meaning "therefore". It always stands at the beginning of a sentence and, by right of the introductory word, is separated by a comma, for example: So (hence) the performance begins. This introductory word must be distinguished from the union combination And with an adverb So in a simple sentence, where the adverb So can be replaced by an adverb. For example: The boy fell and hurt himself so (very) painfully!
Sometimes in a complex sentence the adverb So acts as a demonstrative word in the main sentence, on which the logical stress falls, and the subordinate clause is joined by unions what or how, for example: The boy fell and hurt so badly(how painful?) that I had to see a doctor.
The task. Indicate the correct spelling of the highlighted word and its explanation.
You need to be a person of great soul to love these inconspicuous, quiet rivers, copses so much ...
1) to- always spelled
2) what would- always spelled separately
3) to- here it is a subordinating conjunction
4) what would- here it is a pronoun with a particle would
According to syntactic properties, unions are divided into coordinative
and subordinates.
Coordinating conjunctions connect homogeneous members of a simple
sentences and parts of compound sentences. Formal
a feature of the coordinating union is that, being located
waiting for connected components, it is not included in the syntactic
the structure of none of them. Whereas the subordinating conjunction belongs to
lives in the adnexal part, together with which it can occupy different positions
tions in relation to the main sentence: When the detachment entered the
kind, the sun was setting -> The sun was setting when the detachment entered the city ->
The sun was setting when the detachment entered the city.
Coordinating conjunctions connect components both functionally
equal: when composing, it is impossible to single out either the main or the dependent
my parts. At the same time, the homogeneity expressed by the coordinative conjunction
um, it's not the same. It can refer to the syntactic level -
union connects the same members of the sentence: I will get a cat and a parrot;
can be lexico-semantic - the union connects different forms
with their common or the same type of referential orientation: I say
with poets and about poets(V. Z. Sannikov); as well as communicative
uz connects functionally different members of the sentence: It is raining,
and strong; She will return, but not soon - adjective and adverb
connected by a coordinating union to a sentence, are read
also as a suggestion) 106 .
Coordinating unions are divided into: 1) connecting, 2) separating
telative, 3) adversative, in which gradational,
4) connecting and 5) explanatory.
Note. This classification is traditional. She (with not-
significant variations) is presented in many grammars
Russian language. V. 3. Sannikov proposed a division of coordinative
unions not on the basis of a syntactic relationship, but on the basis of
range. He singled out connecting, dividing and substituent
solid unions. Connecting unions connect parts, each of
which denotes a real / unreal fact. On the basis of re-
modality, adversatives are also classified as connective
unions (and, obviously, explanatory
unions). Separating unions are associated with the modality of possible
sti fact. Substitutive unions include unions of the type not... but, which
indicate that only the second part of the syntactic
structures denotes a real fact: Petya does not sleep, but reads(Peter,
reads instead of sleeping) 107 .
Connecting unions and, neither ... nor, yes(in the meaning of m), like... so
«... And. These unions express a connection that is not complicated by an additional
meanings, they are often used to refer to the listed
niya: And my Matryona became neither a peahen nor a crow(Krylov); And a sling
and an arrow and a crafty dagger spare the winner years(Pushkin). by the most
abstract from connecting unions is the union And, which, by
according to A. M. Peshkovsky, expresses the "pure idea of \u200b\u200bconnection." Union
And is not only used to express enum and join.
For more on this, see: V. Z. Sannikov. Russian writing constructions. Semanti-
ka. Pragmatics. Syntax. M., 1989. S. 13-25.
V. Z. Sannikov. Decree op. pp. 92-97.
Based on adverbs, particles, modal words (and then, and therefore,
and therefore, and therefore, and yet, and yet, and yet) as well as
the meaning of the combined parts, he can convey temporary, causes
but-investigative, concessive, conditional, adversative and attached
divisive values.
Divisive unions or, either, then... then. not that... not that, or... or,
either ... or, either ... either, or that, or not that express two main syn-
taxic relations: 1) meaning of mutual exclusion: Is she-
telegram - fell into a snowdrift and now lies deep under the snow, or
she fell on the path and was pulled away by some passer-by ...(Gaidar), 2)
order of precedence: That rain, then hail, then snow, like white fluff, then the sun,
glitter, azure and waterfalls...(Bunin); A storm clouds the sky. Whirlwinds of snow
nye twisting: The way the beast she will howl, Then she will cry like a child(Pushkin).
Note. V. 3. Sannikov noted the use in the dividing
meaning of the union And; to this meaning he cites an example from "The Miserly
knight" by Pushkin: The Baron is healthy. God willing - ten years, twenty,
and twenty five. and he will live thirty sh.
Opposing alliances ah, but, however, yes(meaning but) are
polysemantic, the context can modify their content; os-
new meaning of the union a comparative: Snow is still whitening in the fields,
and the waters are already rustling in the spring(Tyutchev), unions but, nevertheless, yes - contra-
body: She approaches - and in tears She looked at the noisy waters. hit,
sobbing into her chest, In the waves she decided to drown - However, she did not jump into the water
And continued on her way(Pushkin).
Gradational unions (they are also called double matchers)
unions) not only but. not only ... but, not only not ... but, not
so much, .. how much, not even that and others express a comparison or
opposition in terms of significance: He is not only handsome, but
and talented.
Affiliating unions yes and, yes and that, (and) moreover, (and) moreover,
too, also express additional information to what has been said: Water
there was a lot, and besides, it was not spoiled.
Explanatory conjunctions namely, that is, or, somehow express in
clarification and clarification: They drank as usual, that is, a lot(Push-
kin); Anna spent the whole day at home, that is, at the Oblonskys...(L. Tolstoy);
Pets, namely cats, have a calming effect on a person.
impressively; She is called so, that is, her nickname is Manilovka, and Zamanilovki
not here at all(Gogol).
Note. In some works, explanatory conjunctions delimit
are derived from coordinative ones and are recognized as lexemes that form
| There. S. 197. |
a special type of syntactic relations, intermediate between
subservient and submissive relationships.
Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions attach subordinate parts to the main
parts of a complex sentence. Some subordinate
solid conjunctions are also used in the construction of a simple sentence.
Yes, union how can be placed before the nominal part of the compound
called: House as a courtyard or enter into the circumstance of the image
actions: Like smoke dissipated dreams(Lermontov), union to maybe
attach the circumstance of the goal expressed by the infinitive:
Gathered to discuss a plan of action.Wed: Gathered to discuss the plan
actions.
Subordinating conjunctions are usually divided into semantic and ase-
mantic. The latter include unions that attach subordinate
nye explanatory sentences: what, how, to, as if. They are usually
compared with grammatical cases, since with the help of explanatory
native unions are often replaced by such syntactic places,
in which there may be a grammatical case (I hear the sound of the wind,
It is heard that 1 as 1 as if the wind is making noise; Dreaming of spring. Dreaming like
Spring; I remembered what happened. remember what happened). Like gram-
matic cases, explanatory conjunctions express syntactic
relations predetermined (given) by the semantics of that word (or
word forms) to which the subordinate clause refers. Izyas-
native union does not form the syntactic meaning of a complex preposition
position, but only expresses it.
However, it would be wrong to think that in terms of content
explanatory conjunctions are empty words. Explanatory conjunctions
differ from each other by the modal components of the meaning. Union
to expresses the desired modality (tell me to come)
as if - uncertainty (I see that someone is standing) that And how connection-
us with real modality.
Semantic subordinating conjunctions have their own meanings
niya. They define syntactic relations in the structure of a complex
suggestions.
Semantic unions are divided into groups according to their meaning: 1) tense
unions when, before, after, just... how, as soon as,
just barely 2) causal because, because, since, in view of that
that, especially since, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that
that, in connection with the fact that. due to the fact that, as a result of the fact that;
3) conditional if. if... then, if, if, provided
what if and etc.; 3) concessions despite the fact that, although, despite
to the fact that, in spite of the fact that, despite the fact that, regardless of
what; 4) consequences so, resulting in; 5) goals in order to, for that
so that, for the sake of, in order to, so that; 6) comparative
as, as if, as if, as if, as, as, as, as
as, as if; 7) comparative unions coinciding with subordinate
unions on a formal basis, but not opposite in meaning
assigned to coordinating conjunctions if... then, while, inter-
du those how, then how, as, how, than ... those. For example, Fathers
they didn’t go to each other’s, she hadn’t seen Alexei yet, while
(= a) young neighbors only talked about him(Pushkin).
Notes. 1. Comparative unions, due to the fact that they are not expressed
reap syntactic inequality, sometimes included in the composition
coordinative, especially in cases where it is possible to replace
union but 109 . 2. Among the comparative unions, it should be especially noted
union how, used in the structure of a simple sentence
in a function synonymous with preposition as (We know him as a teacher
tel 1 as a teacher). The specifics of the corresponding design
tions is that the union attaches a noun, case-
whose final form is chosen on the basis of agreement: is he(I. p.)
like it as a poet(I. p.), help him(D. p.) like a poet(D. p.), ce-
him him(V. p.) like a poet(V. p.), interested in him(T. p.) what is it in-
this(T. p.s. I'll tell you about it.(P. p.) how about a poet(P. p.) 110 .
allied words
Allied words (or relative pronouns) - this is a place-
nominal words of various parts of speech used in the construction
complex sentence as a subordinating conjunction.
Submission, formalized by an allied word, is usually called relative
telny.
The following lexemes are used as allied words: who what,
which, which, what, whose, where, where, from where, when, how, why, why,
why, how much.
Unlike unions, allied words are members of a sentence
a semantic question can be posed to them, and, what is important, they
are divided into subordinate parts on the basis of syntactic connection with other
components. For example, in a sentence The most amazing thing was
how quickly they agreed(Fadeev) word how forms phrases
adverb fast, in which the value of the degree is expressed, and in
therefore cannot be considered an alliance. Similarly, the union word what -
109 Modern Russian language. Part 2 / Ed. E. I. Dibrova. pp. 148-149.
110 For more on this see A. F. Priyatkina. Union "as" in the meaning of "as". Vladivostok
stock, 1975.
it is always or strongly controlled V. p. (Remember what you said ut-
rum), or I. p. subject (It's hard to understand what's going on).
The allied function of relative pronouns is based on
their properties. 1. When making subordinate explanatory clauses
pronoun sentences implement their interrogative semantics
and are selected depending on what the question is directed to: US
they asked who was coming, what happened when the cold came, why
planes do not fly, what summer is expected etc.
Note. lexeme when is a union if it attaches
exact time.
2. If the subordinate clause refers to a noun
or correlative pronoun, then the allied word realizes
its ability to be used anaphorically: most often it introduces
in the subordinate clause the component mentioned in the main part:
tell me about the letter you received; I am the one you are waiting for; we were
where you are going; on the birch that grows under my window, the jackdaws
nest.
Note. Relative pronouns-adjectives in the design
substantive clauses in gender and number are consistent with
noun in the main part to which they refer, and the form
case is determined by their place in the structure of the subordinate clause
zheniya. Cm. The places they passed through could not be named
picturesque(Turgenev) - prepositional case form for which
predetermined by the syntactic relationship with the verb passed (Where
passed? - Passed through ...), and the number is determined by agreement
with the word form places.
Line UMK VV Babaytseva. Russian language (5-9)
Russian language
Conjunctions and allied words: functions, features, differences
By the ninth grade, students should know what a union is, its functions, features in structure and meaning; correlation of conjunctions and meanings of compound sentences; be able to distinguish between subordinating conjunctions and allied words in complex sentences.Purpose of unions
Subordinating conjunctions and allied words in complex sentences
In the same, ninth grade, the guys learn that subordinate clauses are attached to the main clause or to another subordinate clause with subordinating conjunctions (simple and compound) or allied words.
As you can see, in some cases, simple subordinating conjunctions and allied words coincide (in spelling). How can a ninth grader distinguish a union from a union word (for example, what, how, when) in a complex sentence?
To distinguish a union from an allied word, you must remember:
1) Subordinating conjunctions are not members of the subordinate clause, but serve only to attach subordinate clauses to the main or other subordinate clause:
Allied words not only “attach” subordinate clauses to the main clause (or to another clause), but are also members of the clauses:
2) In some cases, the union can be omitted, but the allied word cannot:
3) Union can only be replaced by another union:
4) A union word can only be replaced by a union word or those words from the main clause to which the subordinate clause belongs, for example:
The authors of this textbook draw the attention of ninth-graders that the ability to distinguish between conjunctions and allied words is necessary for the correct intonation of a sentence, since often allied words are the semantic center, they are distinguished by logical stress.
We consolidate the knowledge gained about unions and allied words in practice
In a series of exercises aimed at developing the ability to distinguish between subordinating conjunctions and allied words is given. Here are some of these exercises.
This model or its fragments can be used both in grade 9 and in grades 7-8.
We believe that the proposed teaching model will help the teacher to “dot all the and” when studying conjunctions and allied words in the Russian language lessons: consider their functions, structural features and meanings of conjunctions, their use in complex sentences; features of the use of allied words in complex sentences.
V. Y. Apresyan, O. E. Pekelis, 2012
Subordinating unions are unions used to express a subordinating syntactic connection (see the articles Subordination and Union). In the general classification of unions, subordinating unions are opposed to coordinating ones.
1. Introduction
The classification of subordinating conjunctions is based on semantic principles. In accordance with AG-1954. [Grammar 1954: p. 1012] in this article the following groups of conjunctions are distinguished:
(1) causal conjunctions ( because, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, because, then that);
(2) conjunctions of consequence ( so, and then, and not that);
(3) target unions ( so that, so that, so that, so that, so that, so that);
(4) conditional conjunctions ( if, if, if, if, once, whether, as soon as, if (would, b), if, if, when, when);
(5) concessive alliances ( although, at least; for nothing; if only, if only; despite the fact that, despite the fact that; at least, at least, let, let; while, meanwhile, while; it would be good, let it be; only truth);
(6) temporary alliances ( barely, barely, as soon as, as, when, only, only, as soon as, after, as long as, until, until, until, until, until, until, before, before than, just, just, a little, a little, a little, before, while);
(7) comparative conjunctions ( as, that, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if (like), like, exactly, exactly (like), than, rather than).
(8) explanatory conjunctions ( what, what, as if, how);
The composition of the groups is given according to AG-1954, with the exception of the group of concessive unions (see): its composition is somewhat wider than what is proposed in the grammar. Concession unions are described in this article in accordance with the works of [V. Apresyan 2006. a, b, c] and [V. Apresyan 2010].
Unions are considered in each subsection only in their main meaning; for example union to(see ) has, in addition to the target ( He did it to help her.), the optimal value ( For him to be empty), which is used to express a negative wish; union though has, in addition to the concessive ( We went for a walk, even though it was very cold), also the value of free choice ( Come at least in a ball gown, even in a tracksuit), as well as many others, but they are not mentioned in this article.
2. Causal unions
List of causal unions: because, because, since, because, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that, in connection with the fact that, due to the fact that, because, then that.
Causal conjunctions constitute one of the largest groups among subordinating conjunctions; cf. Unions / p. 4. Statistics. Semantically, they form a very homogeneous group, with some semantic and stylistic variations.
General semantics of this group of unions X because<так как, ….> Y-‘Y is the cause of X’. Syntactically, all unions of this group introduce the valency of the cause, i.e. subjugate a causal subordinate clause.
2.1. union because
Union because the most neutral stylistically and therefore the most frequent (117.467. occurrences in the Main Corpus):
(1) Executives are not afraid to expand IT services,<...> because thanks to ITSM, they consider themselves insured against the risk of loss of IT management [N. Dubova]
(2) I ran around the kitchen, because my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time [O. Zueva]
Syntactically because differs in that it cannot occupy the initial position in the sentence. Wed:
(3) I ran around the kitchen, because my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time<…>["Dasha" (2004)]
(4) *That's why my onion was burning and the soup was running away at the same time, I was rushing around the kitchen.
This syntactic feature is apparently explained by the following semantic-communicative property because: this union introduces information about the causal relationship between the situations expressed by the dependent clause and the main one, as unknown to the Listener; the unknown, meanwhile, tends to coincide with the end of the statement - with the rheme (see Communicative structure).
2.2. Stylistically colored causal conjunctions
2.2.1. Unions because, insofar as, thanks to
Because,insofar as, thanks to somewhat shifted towards unnecessary and therefore less frequent:
(5) In this case, Newton's law of gravity is used, because the gravitational field of black holes at large distances is close to Newtonian. [Vestnik RAS (2004)]
(6) The fees charged are also drastically reduced, insofar as reducing the cost of translations. ["Questions of statistics" (2004)]
(7) Only thanks to we held on as a team of like-minded people, the magazine retained its face. ["Science and Life" (2009)]
All of these unions are rather slightly official in connotation and are rarely found in the Poetic Subcorpus (10 occurrences per million - because, 1 occurrence per million - insofar as, thanks to does not occur).
2.2.2. Union because of
Union because of tends to high style, which is why it is quite frequent in poetry:
(8) It was even more difficult for me because of I, after all, knew: he did not love the one / Who was no longer there ... [Z. Gippius]
(9) I would like to find a scapular, / Because of my time is near... [A. Akhmatova]
From a synonymous union because because of differs in that it cannot express a causal relationship between the proposition of the dependent clause and the epistemic modality included in the meaning of the main clause (see Illocutionary use of conjunctions). Wed inability to replace because on the because of in the relevant context:
(10) There was nothing to delay: I shot, in turn, at random; sure, the bullet hit him in the shoulder, because<*оттого что> suddenly he lowered his hand … [M. Y. Lermontov. Hero of our time (1839-1841)]
Because of, moreover, is not subject to the prohibition on the initial position in a sentence, which applies to because(cm. ). Wed:
(11) Because of <*because> Clara now knew his hardships, his languid smile squeezed her with sympathy. [BUT. Solzhenitsyn. In the first circle (1968)]
2.2.3. Unions due to, due to the fact that And due to the fact that
Due to, due to the fact that And due to the fact that- book associations:
(12) Had to curtail work due to The deposit turned out to be unsuitable for industrial exploitation. [IN. Skvortsov]
(13) Aerolites, or meteorites, are iron or stone masses that fall out of world space onto the Earth in the form of pieces of various sizes, melted from the surface due to the fact that they become hot as they travel rapidly through the atmosphere. [IN. Obruchev]
(14) I was suffocating in Moscow, in general in Russia, where, like a cancerous tumor, the national financial pyramid grew due to the fact that the government and the population, by mutual agreement, deceived themselves and each other. [IN. Skvortsov]
2.2.4. Union due to the fact that
Due to the fact that has an official shade:
(15) He<...>showed me two resolutions: one - on bringing me to justice under such and such an article of the criminal code and under such and such a note to it - and the other - on choosing a measure of restraint (a written undertaking not to leave) due to the fact that due to health reasons, the accused cannot participate in the investigation and trial [Yu. Dombrovsky]
2.2.5. Unions for And then what
For And then what outdated or high style; however for, like many other obsolete unions, it is quite widespread in modern newspaper language (30 occurrences per million in the Newspaper subcorpus).
(16) Therefore, those who do not know the matter should<...>take on it: for what is said in Scripture is said not only so that they know, but also so that they do it. [Bishop Ignatius (Bryanchaninov)]
(17) Developed countries will not want to let in all the migrants, for this means that you will have to part with your development, with your usual standard of living [RIA Novosti (2008)]
(18) I have never called you my sister before, then what could not be your brother then what we were uneven, then that you were deceived in me! [F. M. Dostoevsky]
Among other causal unions for stands apart: although this union is traditionally considered subordinating, due to a number of its formal properties for approaches the composition (for more details, see the article Composition).
2.3. Differences in the semantics of causal conjunctions
Unions thanks to,due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that And due to the fact that retain the semantic features of the prepositions from which they are formed (see the article Preposition); most of these features are described in [Levontina 1997], [Levontina 2004].
Yes, union thanks to indicates not only the cause, but also the desirability of the effect: He made a full recovery due to the fact that medical care was provided on time., but not * He died due to the fact that medical care was not provided on time.. Wed also:
(19) My fate was developing successfully thanks to Mother had well-established friends and well-married friends who were happy to help us. [L. Vertinskaya]
Unions due to And due to the fact that indicate a direct, close connection between cause and effect, and due to the fact that- to a more indirect one:
(20) Judgment was annulled due to the fact that <due to> gross violations in the conduct of the process were revealed. - direct connection
(21) Parkinson's disease develops due to the fact that the content of the neurotransmitter dopamine begins to decrease in the brain - an indirect connection
when weird:
(22) Parkinson's disease develops due to <due to the fact that>brain levels of the neurotransmitter dopamine begin to decline
In addition, for unions due to the fact that And due to the fact that characterized by the presence of an objective connection between events, and for the union due to the fact that - a motive that motivates a person to act in a certain way.
Due to the fact that often used metatextually, to indicate logical connections in inferences and conclusions: Demand for apartments has risen again, perhaps due to the fact that the supply remains low. Wed also:
(23) The constituent pairs of such elements have fairly close atomic weights due to the fact that are formed from a single proto-kernel [Geoinformatics (2003)]
3. Conjunctions of consequence
List of coercive unions so(cm. ), and then, not that(cm.
3.1. Union so and combination so / such + that
Unlike the meaning of ‘cause’, which is expressed in Russian by numerous unions (see), the meaning of ‘consequence’ is directly “served” by a single union - so. Union so is a semantic converse of the union because. Thus, the meaning of the union so can be defined through the meaning of ‘cause’: x, soY= 'X causes Y':
(24) She worked conscientiously, so panicles of palm leaves had to be changed every half an hour. [BUT. Dorofeev]
(25) Alyosha ate enough, so was very happy. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
Syntactically union so introduces the valency of the consequence, i.e. subordinates the subordinate clause of the consequence.
The meaning of ‘consequence’ can also be expressed by the adverb So or adjective such in the main clause in combination with the union what in the subordinate:
(26) So got scared what he seemed to be paralyzed, he could not take a step towards the black abyss and huddled against the bench. [IN. Bykov]
(27) It was written on Gosha's face such genuine confusion, what no one doubted his sincerity. [IN. Belousova]
3.2. Unions of threat: otherwise
Alliances "threats" and then... And not that... can be conditionally classified as conjunctions of the consequence, but in fact their semantics is more complicated. Phrases like X, but (not) thenY assume that if condition X is not met, then an undesirable situation Y will arise (i.e., failure to fulfill X entails unpleasant consequences Y):
(28) Get away otherwise <not that> will crush you; fall behind otherwise <not that> ladies in the face.
Their exact statistics are difficult due to homonymy with disjunctive conjunctions. otherwise And not that, which, however, are much rarer, as well as with the union but combined with a pronoun then.
4. Target alliances
List of target unions: so that, so that, so that, so that, so that, so that.
The meaning of 'goal', expressed by the unions of this group, has been repeatedly discussed in the linguistic literature; the classic work [Zholkovsky 1964] is devoted, in particular, to the word goal; prepositions with the meaning of purpose, first of all for And for the sake of are described in [Levontina 1997], [Levontina 2004], [V. Apresyan 1995].
4.1. Conjunctions in order to
Unions to And in order to express the same idea as the noun goal and preposition for. Their meanings combine the meanings of cause, desire and action: X toY means that the action X performed by the subject will be, in his opinion, the cause of the situation Y he desires. To - one of the most frequent subordinating unions (1479 per million uses in the Main Corpus):
(29) Mom and dad generally slept standing up, propping each other up, to don't collapse. (A. Dorofeev)
(30) The hammerer was dragged away from the stone, - to did not interfere. (V. Bykov)
(31) Indeed, store navigation is intuitively simple, in order to collect a basket and place an order, you need to do just a few simple steps (O. Feofilova)
To can also act as an explanatory union, for these uses, see.
4.2. Stylistically colored target unions
Other target unions - stylistically marked and, accordingly, less frequent, synonyms to.
So that- colloquial or poetic version of the union to(300. uses per million in the Main Corpus, 546. - in the Oral, 1662. - in the Poetic):
(32) This is what I use now, so that write a dissertation [LiveJournal Entry (2004)]
So as to and especially then to- book synonyms of the union to (so as to has a touch of formality and is often found in newspaper texts):
(33) Leonid Polezhaev, speaking in the Federation Council, proposed holding a referendum, so as to toughen criminal liability for illegal production and distribution of drugs. ["Weekly Magazine" (2003)]
(34) After all, we came then to put an end to all disputes that have been going on completely fruitlessly for the past seven years. [YU. Dombrovsky]
Union so that with the same meaning stylistically colored as obsolete, tall or, most commonly in modern parlance, jocular:
(35) Created distant skies, To contemplate from them all your creation ... [D. S. Merezhkovsky]
(36) Well, the powder will be kept warm for ten days, so that microbes of anthrax, if its spores turn out to be a powder, showed themselves in all, so to speak, completeness ... ["Criminal Chronicle" (2003)]
5. Conditional unions
List of conditional unions: if, if, if, if, once, whether, as soon as, if (would, b), if, if, when, when. All of them except whether, have the option of then(if... then, if b(s)... then and etc.).
5.1. union if
The main conditional union, if devoted to a large literature. In some works, it is considered a semantic primitive, i.e. a word that cannot be decomposed into simpler semantic components; in some works, including within the framework of the Moscow Semantic School, attempts are made to interpret it. Special attention to the union if is given in recent works [Sannikov 2008] and [Uryson 2011], each of which offers, in particular, its interpretation. However, these interpretations are not used in this article, due to their formal complexity, as well as reliance on semantic components that are more complex in meaning than the union if(meaning ‘probability’ as interpreted by Sannikov, meanings ‘hypothesis’ and ‘influence’ as interpreted by E. V. Uryson). This article adopts a point of view on the semantic primitiveness of the union if, however, material from the works of V. Z. Sannikov and E. U. Uryson is used to explain and present its uses.
Union if there are two main meanings - if"conditions" (see) and "comparative" if(cm. ).
5.1.1. If terms
bivalent union if"terms" ( ifX, thenY) introduces the idea of such a relationship between two situations X and Y, when the presence of one of them (X) makes the presence of the other (Y) very likely:
(37) If their gang will be opened, Oleg will automatically go to jail. [IN. Tokarev]
It is characterized by the use of the verb with the future tense. The work [Paducheva 2004: 103–104] considers the implicature ‘and if there is no X, then there is no Y’, i.e. condition is usually understood not only as sufficient, but also as necessary: If you call, I will come[meaning ‘and if not, then no’].
The work [Uryson 2011] provides a more detailed classification of uses if"terms":
(1) if"hypotheses" If the summer is dry, there will be no mushrooms(we are talking about single hypothetical situations);
(2) if “generalizations”: If we managed to get money somewhere, we immediately went for a bottle (we are talking about repeatedly repeated situations);
(3) if"given state of affairs": If you, Lelisha, ate the second lozenge, then I will bite off this apple again(M. Zoshchenko) - we are talking about a real-life situation that causes some other situation.
5.1.2. Comparative if
Much rarer and bookish usage, "comparative", rhetorical if can be illustrated with the following example:
(38) If Masha married at the age of seventeen and gave birth to eight children, her own sister Katya lived all her life in a monastery.
In this meaning if does not indicate the connection of situations, but reflects the speaker's idea of them as taking place simultaneously and contrasting with each other.
5.2. Unions once and for all
Union if in the meaning of "state of affairs" (see) the union is synonymous once, which also presents situation X as a given, which, according to the Speaker, "The addressee will not deny" [Iordanskaya, Melchuk 2007: 495]:
(39) Once he was so received at home, once made a criminal, they don’t shake hands, then he doesn’t need anyone either. [D. Granin]
Wed also the following example, where once used after if, as if reinforcing the hypothesis, which, being repeated, is already accepted as an axiom:
(40) Dostoevsky believed that if there is no God, then everything is permitted, and once allowed, then you can lose heart, despair. [D. Granin]
As soon as- book synonym if"state of affairs" and once(precise statistics are not possible due to homonymy with the noun once):
(41) And as soon as Ivanovsky crossed Europe to see his relatives, then it would not be difficult for him to take another five hundred steps to his, Yagudin's, home. [BUT. Rybakov]
(42) As soon as the world has become simpler, there is no place left for skilled work. [D. Bykov]
5.3. Unions if and if
Colloquial-reduced union if- a synonym for the conditional if in the meaning of "hypothesis" and sometimes in the meaning of "state of affairs" (see):
(43) He gave me a power of attorney for the right to conduct business and receive money, if such will follow. [BUT. Hair]
(44) If born a slave - it means that such is your bitter fate. [G. Nikolaev]
Examples on if"generalizations" (see) are not found in the Corpus, however, in principle, the following are possible:
(45) If money appeared, we immediately ran for a bottle.
If - obsolete synonym for conditional if, also commonly used in newspaper language, in all uses, with a large percentage of the use of "state of affairs" (see):
(46) The guys and I will add if[V. Astafiev] - if"hypotheses"
(47) A if did not take him, then he ran away from home and came on his own [B. Ekimov] - if"generalizations"
(48) Tom occupies a very good position in society, if was in the Bolshoi, and in the Small, and in the Art, and besides, she was treated to free gifts [L. Ulitskaya]
(49) So, there is a matter, your honor, if came. [BUT. Panteleev]
(50) Well, well, say if already started. [A.N. Ostrovsky] - if"state of affairs"
5.4. Conditional conjunctions on would: if b (s), if b (s), if only
Union if and its variant if only(for the distribution of these options, see Subjunctive mood / clause 3.4.1) are added to the meaning of the main conditional union if the semantic component of the imaginary, unreality of the situation X, which in fact does not take place, which is why the situation Y following from it does not take place (the so-called counterfactual meaning, see Subjunctive mood / clause 2.1): If you were here, then we would go for a walk; If yes, if only, then mushrooms would grow in the mouth. Wed also:
(51) If If you wanted Sasha and I to live normally, you would have invested your money. [IN. Tokarev]
(52) You wouldn’t even go to a restaurant then, if I didn't pay for you. [BUT. Gelasimov]
(53) If honestly pay for the work, then all the repairmen from the depot would have fled long ago. [IN. Astafiev]
(54) If only knew right away, but would he have uttered even a word? [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(55) If only not potatoes on three household acres, then fellow villagers would swell from hunger. [BUT. Azole]
Simultaneous to it ( as long as, as long as, as long as, as long as), cm. ;
following it ( before, before, before), cm. .
The submission of temporary alliances in this article is largely based on [V. Apresyan 2010].
Another semantic feature is the time that passes between situations in case of their non-simultaneity. On this basis, unions formed from adverbs and particles with a low degree value are opposed to all the others, namely, unions barely, barely... as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, as soon as, just, just, just, just, just a little, just a little, just a little indicate the immediate precedence of one situation to another, the absence of a time interval between the onset of the initial and subsequent situations.
The main and most frequent temporary union when(390. 262. occurrences in the Main Corpus) is neutral with respect to these signs, and can introduce both precedence, and following, and simultaneity: When he came he washed the dishes[precedence], When he arrived, the dishes had already been washed.[following], When you work with acid, keep the window open.[simultaneity].
7.1. Conjunctions with precedence value
The conjunctions of this group introduce a situation that occurs before the situation introduced by the main clause.
7.1.1. Conjunctions indicating immediate precedence: as soon as, until and etc.
as soon as(15 020 entries in the Main Corpus) - the most frequent in this group:
(82) Consideration of the case took no more than thirty minutes - as soon as the court was presented with photographs of the place of the "violation", the question of the forbidden exit to the opposite side of the road disappeared by itself. ["Driving" (2003)]
Its colloquial synonyms how And only are much rarer, but their statistics are impossible due to homonymy with other meanings:
(83) False ubopovtsy (this has already become clear) threw a bound prisoner with the words, they say, how let's figure it out - we'll come and let go. ["Daily News" (2003)]
(84) Only get out of this hollow - and skiff! [M. Bubennov]
Other unions of this group - barely, barely(3 occurrences per million in the Main Body) , only, just only(7 occurrences per million in the main body), just a little(0.2 occurrences per million) , just a little, just a little(1.5. occurrences in the Main Corpus) - typical for written texts (in the Oral Corpus - single occurrences in the desired meaning):
(85) Barely it was dawn when Valentin Kazarka appeared on the pier. [BUT. Azole]
(86) Barely Nerzhin wrote down this conclusion on a piece of paper, just as he was arrested. [BUT. Solzhenitsyn]
(87) And only a point will appear, move, it soars and suddenly falls down like a stone! [M. Bulgakov]
(88) Just he opened the door, Tanya immediately saw him and went out [Yu. Trifonov]
(89) Just a little he will lose his temper, she will immediately go to her room - and on the key. [TO. Chukovsky]
(90) a little if he gets a free minute, he immediately starts sweeping the carpet by the dustpan, by the broom, otherwise he rinses the cups, vacuums the sofa, or starts a little laundry. [YU. Trifonov]
(91) But You didn't know that just a little If a person rejects a miracle, then he immediately rejects God, for a person seeks not so much God as miracles. [IN. Rozanov]
Statistics barely, a little And only difficult due to homonymy with particles.
Standing apart in this group is the frequency union until(14 682. occurrences in the Main Corpus), which indicates that upon reaching the situation introduced by the union, the situation described in the main sentence stops:
(92) Close the lid and simmer for about 30 minutes or till Chick not will become soft. [Recipes of national cuisines: France (2000-2005)]
Its exact statistics are difficult due to homonymy with the adverb till combined with particle not: The work has not been completed yet. Its synonyms, unions until(392. entries in the main body) and not yet(109. entries in the Main Corpus) are obsolete or colloquial:
(93) So Lieutenant Yegor Dremov fought, until misfortune happened to him [A. N. Tolstoy]
(94) Continuing the service, Gribovsky Goryushka did not know, not yet added provocation to the denunciation. [YU. Davydov]
Unions till, as long as And meanwhile in this meaning are possible, but much less common (see more about them):
(95) Wait until I will die... Soon I will die ... [Z. Prilepin]
(96) However, mother pushed her little son to her father, and had to endure, as long as the giant will pat on the head or clasp his cheeks with his large plump palms and give him a few greasy sweets. [BUT. Varlamov]
(97) If I was sitting on a math test, not disturbing anyone, calmly waiting, meanwhile my friend will solve the problem, then everything was attributed to this my laziness, and not stupidity. [F. Iskander]
7.1.2. Conjunctions that do not indicate immediate precedence: after, since
Union after(10 157 occurrences in the Main Corpus) can indicate both immediate and more distant following:
(99) I watched "Star" by Nikolai Lebedev almost a year later after the film was released. [L. Anninsky] - remote follow
Since(3 222. occurrences in the Main Corpus) indicates that a certain period of time passes between the onset of the first situation and the onset of the second:
(100) Seventeen years have passed since,how he told me this. [BUT. Gelasimov] - but not *immediately since,how he told me that
Since has an additional semantic component - namely, it assumes that both situations occurred quite a long time ago relative to the moment of speech:
(101) Spivakov and Pletnev have known each other for a very long time, since Misha studied with Flier, with whom Volodya was friendly and in his youth even lived at his house [S. Spivakova] - but not * Since he called her an hour ago, she was on pins and needles
7.2. Unions with the meaning of simultaneity of situations
The union is most stylistically neutral and frequent in this group. till(see other uses till And until also ):
(102) Scientists, businessmen and petty thieves<...>at the request of prosecutors, judges are sent to a pre-trial detention center for months, or even years, till investigation continues. [“MN Time” (2003)]
(103) Bye our crazy sultan / Promises us the way to the prison ... (B. Okudzhava)
Its precise statistics are impossible due to homonymy with the adverb till: We are still working on the article..
Union as long as - obsolete or colloquial (2729. occurrences in the Main Corpus), union meanwhile(1250 entries in the main building) – obsolete or colloquial:
(104) But I, the high priest of the Jews, as long as I'm alive, I won't let my faith be desecrated, and I'll defend the people! [M. Bulgakov]
(105) As long as our President was preparing to send the Federal Assembly<...>, as long as he adapted himself to say about the need for a steady further improvement in the well-being of the people<...>, in the city of Volzhsky, located in the vicinity of Volgograd, events took place that made all this melody recitation meaningless. [Crime Chronicle (2003)]
(106) In these few seconds, meanwhile he ran to the other end, she managed to swing quite strongly. [F. Iskander]
Unused Union as(1667. occurrences in the Main Corpus) indicates not just the simultaneous existence of situations, but the gradual increase in the situation described in the main sentence, against the background and because of the gradual increase in the situation introduced by the union, i.e. as contains a component of causality, causality (for conjunctions of cause, see):
(107) Visual acuity improved as narrowed the outer opening of the eye. [BUT. Zaitsev]
(108) As trips were shortened, connections were broken, he began to suffer. [D. Granin]
rare union while describes the parallel unfolding of two situations:
(109) While the Supreme Court was considering the case of citizen A. A. Zhukov, many taxpayers calculated the amounts that they might have to pay extra for several years ["Accounting" (2004)]
Its exact statistics are difficult because of its polysemy, and its concessive meaning (see), which does not imply mandatory simultaneity, is much more frequent:
(110) It is also pointed out that Big Western Money will not come to Russia now, while under the old system, they came or promised to come ["Tomorrow" (2003)]
7.3. Conjunctions with the meaning of following
The conjunctions of this group introduce a situation that follows the situation introduced by the main clause. Stylistically neutral union before(8 526 entries in the Main Corpus) - the most frequent in this group:
(111) Before to proceed to the consideration of specific data on the composition of the jury, we will make a number of general remarks. (A. Afanasiev)
It usually introduces controlled actions, cf. weirdness ? We got everything cleaned up before it started to rain. and especially in preposition to the main clause ?? Before it started to rain, we cleaned everything.
Union before(2236. occurrences in the Main Corpus) is also stylistically neutral and, although it can introduce purposeful actions ( Before she began to sing, the Rotarov fans shouted: come on Rotaru!(I. Kio)) is mainly used in the context of uncontrolled events, processes and influences:
(112) Here she died before I was born, and she and I lived in the same century [E. Grishkovets]
(113) But before the stone was thrown, it had kinetic energy [V. Lukashik, E. Ivanova. Collection of problems in physics. 7-9. class (2003)]
(114) Often people knock on a neighbor's door long before before the smell of a decaying corpse will spread throughout the apartment. [BUT. Azole]
Synonym before(731. entry in the Main Corpus) - obsolete or bookish synonym before:
(115) Before I managed to answer something, she burst into tears [A. I. Herzen. The Thieving Magpie (1846)]
(116) Before an ear may appear above the ground, something inevitable must happen to the seed under the ground: it must dissolve, as it were, disappear [Metropolitan Anthony (Bloom). "The Beginning of the Gospel of Jesus Christ, the Son of God." Discourses on the Gospel of Mark (1990-1992)]
8. Comparative conjunctions
List of comparative unions: like, as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, as, exactly, as, than than.
The work [Sannikov 2008] provides arguments in favor of the special status of comparative constructions and, accordingly, comparative conjunctions.
Comparative constructions come close to coordinating ones (see Essay) in the following ways:
(1) unlike subordinating conjunctions, coordinating and comparative conjunctions can attach syntactic units of a lower level than a clause:
(117) Dialed the code of Moscow and Sasha's phone number. [IN. Tokarev]
(118) Lid, how door, shut up after me... [Oh. Pavlov]
(2) the compared members, like the composed ones, have a dual syntactic status: on the one hand, there is a syntactic connection between the compared members (comparatives), on the other hand, there is a syntactic connection of each of the comparatives with the main word, i.e. comparative and subordinating connections are “superimposed” [Sannikov 2008: 395] on each other.
(119) <…>how grove in september, / Showers brains with alcohol [S. Yesenin]
This is not possible for composed members: cf. Katya and Misha came vs. impossibility * And Katya Misha came.
In this article, as in traditional Russian studies, comparative conjunctions are considered as part of subordinating ones.
For more information about comparative constructions, see the special article Comparative constructions.
8.1. union as
Basic Comparative Union, how(statistics not possible due to homonymy with temporary how, which is part of complex temporary unions (see), and very frequent explanatory how(see )), can attach members of a sentence or whole sentences:
(120) Driven in these questions, how bullets in the forehead [A. Gelasimov]
(121) All my soldiers<...>Abdulka loved and remembered like sons. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(122) The elephant's head is empty, how the streets of the city are empty during the hours of midday heat [A. Dorofeev]
In a comparative sense, it is semantically trivalent (although syntactically associated only with the second comparat) and has the following semantics: PZ as Q 'The object P (comparison object) and the object Q (comparison standard) have a common attribute Z', see Comparative Constructions / Definition .
What- obsolete poetic synonym how:
(123) And Razin dreams of the bottom: / Flowers - what carpet boards [M. Tsvetaeva]
For what characteristic is the failure to mention the sign by which the comparison is made: And she is like death, / The mouth is bitten into the blood(M. Tsvetaeva) instead of She is as pale as death. Its statistics are impossible due to homonomy with one of the most frequent conjunctions of the Russian language - explanatory what, as well as with the pronoun what in the nominative case (see).
8.2. Synonyms as with a narrower meaning: as if, as if, exactly, etc.
Most other comparative conjunctions are as if as if), as if(statistics not possible due to homonymy with explanatory as if)as if, as if, as if (like), as if (as if),(on the distribution of options with would and without would see Comparative constructions / item 2.2), exactly(statistics not possible due to homonymy with much more frequent adverbs and short adjectives) , exactly (would)(statistics is impossible due to homonymy with a much more frequent adverb and a short adjective), just like- synonyms how, only with a narrower meaning, namely, they all emphasize that the two comparators are not equivalent, but only superficially similar. They are often used for figurative comparisons of really distant objects belonging to completely different classes; compare:
(124) Light as if <as if would, like> fluff
(125) The numbers somehow caught on in my head, as if pillow studded with sewing needles. [BUT. Dorofeev]
(126) This whole tin plane was shaking, like malarial fever. [IN. Bykov]
(127) The cloak dangled strangely on the shoulders - dull and scratched, exactly catering aluminum utensils. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(128) Sitting smooth Mother of God, / Yes, pearls will be lowered on a string [M. Tsvetaeva]
Wherein as if, as if, as if, as if, as if, exactly book unions, exactly - folk poetry. Syntactically, they can join both sentence members (see examples above) and whole sentences:
(129) He loved only himself in the world<...>lustfully, lustfully, as if one flesh lusted incessantly for another, more beautiful. [ABOUT. Pavlov]
(130) Light high consonance to the accompaniment of calm basses - like in a communal apartment, a neighbor walks behind the wall. [BUT. Slapovsky]
(131) The floorboards in the hall creak by themselves, exactly someone came and walks [V. Pietsukh]
(132) And Razin dreams - ringing: / Smooth droplets silver drops [M. Tsvetaeva]
For the choice of union depending on the syntactic type of the comparative construction, see Comparative constructions / clause 3.2.2.
8.3. Union, just like
Union similar to - book synonym for union how, which has the following syntactic restriction: it can link entire sentences, but not individual members of the sentence; compare:
(133) Similar to You may not notice the stupidity of a beautiful woman, so you may not notice the magnificence of a stupid man. [F. Iskander]
(134) Similar to the shadow of a person gives an idea of his figure, so anti-Semitism gives an idea of the historical fate and path of the Jews. [IN. Grossman]
but not * I love Katya like a daughter.
Use with an adverb So also characteristic of the union how when it links sentences:
(135) How little girls tirelessly dress up dolls, So and Pavel spent hours collecting and disassembling cardboard models of a person and his individual organs [L. Ulitskaya]
8.4. Unions of what and what
comparative union how and its synonym than (than) fundamentally different in their semantics from other comparative conjunctions. If most comparative conjunctions convey the idea of similarity between two objects on the basis of a common feature, how And than convey the idea of a difference between two objects on some basis: He is smarter than her;He will have to spend more time there than he expected.. The meaning of these unions can be formulated as follows: PZ than<нежели> Q‘P differs from Q in regard to the degree to which it has the attribute Z’. How And than are used with the comparative degree of an adjective or adverb that expresses a sign, according to the degree of which two objects are distinguished:
(136) At that moment he was more afraid of the Elector, how those that were on the tower [V. Bykov]
(137) Both flowers were even more fragrant with nectar, how oregano. [IN. Kologriv]
(138) Passing the hollow, which turned out to be much more extensive, than it seemed to Travkin during observation, the sappers stopped. [E. Kazakevich]
(139) And the knight had to beg a little more and longer after that, than he assumed. [M. Bulgakov]
Union than usually qualifies as bookish, which is refuted by corpus data - its general frequency, as well as statistics on the Oral and Newspaper corpus (in percentage terms 0.0057 in the Main corpus, 0.0024 in the Gazetny, 0.0012 in the Oral corpus).
9. Explanatory conjunctions
List of explanatory conjunctions: what, to, (as) as if, as.
(140) I know what he no longer works there; He said, what she's left; I want to, to You came; They say, as if <as if>he left He watched how carry hay.
This distinction has syntactic and semantic consequences. So, the main clause in the composition of a complex explanatory sentence is not a component (see Glossary) and therefore cannot be used in isolation; cf. wrong * He said, *I want to, *They say, *He was watching. For other subordinating conjunctions, this is not necessary or uncharacteristic. Wed:
(141) I will come if <when> she will come; I will come, because <although> it will not be; I decided to return to Moscow in advance, to everything was there by the time the children arrived; The rain is over so you can go for a walk.
(142) I will come; I decided to return to Moscow in advance; The rain is over.
Semantically explanatory conjunctions are the least filled of all subordinating conjunctions.
Accurate statistics of these unions is impossible due to their homonymy with allied words ( what how), pronouns ( what), pronominal adverbs ( how), target unions ( to), comparative conjunctions ( how, as if).
Stylistically neutral union what - the most common of all explanatory (and of all subordinating) conjunctions. In some contexts, instead of what used to. Office of subordinate clauses with union what and, less often, to characteristic of many classes of verbs, including verbs of speech ( say that<чтобы> ; claim that; report that;insist that <to> etc.), for mental predicates ( think that; understand that; know that; think that), verbs of perception ( see that; to hear that; make sure, etc.) and many others:
(143) And you they say, what your friend has already left… [E. Grishkovets. Simultaneously (2004)]
(144) PA He speaks, to I didn't approach her with it. [L. Ulitskaya. Case of Kukotsky (2000)]
(145) Key stubbornly insisted, what Vertinsky is an outstanding poet, as proof of which he cited the line: "Hallelujah, like a blue bird." [IN. P. Kataev. My Diamond Crown (1975-1977)]
(146) Mom hard insisted that we got it right. [BUT. Alexin. Division of property (1979)]
Between what And to there is a compatibility-semantic distribution: when a speech verb conveys not only the content of someone else's speech, but also the wish of the subject of speech, as in examples (144) and (146), what is replaced by to. Wed impossibility in interpreting the transmission of wishes # She says I didn't hit on her(the only possible interpretation is ‘She denies there was any molestation’), # She insisted that we understood her correctly.(the only possible interpretation is ‘She claims we got her right’).
Verbs of speech ( talk, chat, weave), mental predicates with an unreliability value ( seem to wonder) and some other classes of verbs can also govern clauses with book conjunctions as if And as if, indicating the unreliability of the reported:
(147) What are you telling me as if don't play anything but Tchaikovsky! [FROM. Spivakov]
(148) So it seems to us, as if the stars are falling. ["Murzilka" (2003)]
(149) Rumors spread as if another monetary reform is coming. ["Results" (2003)]
(150) It seemed as if a whole family of grasshoppers settled in an abandoned children's coffin. [YU. Dombrovsky]
For verbs of perception it is often possible to manage a stylistically neutral conjunction how: see how; hear how; watch how etc.
Verbs with a volitional meaning are characterized by the control of a stylistically neutral conjunction to: want to; require that; ask that etc.:
What can introduce facts or opinions, but not situations; cf. know that… And consider…, but not * watch that.
How introduces situations, but not facts and opinions: watch how, but not * know how[in the meaning of an explanatory conjunction] and not * count how.
To, as if And as if cannot enter facts (cannot * know to, *know that, *know as if).
Explanatory conjunctions what And how must be distinguished from allied words, which, unlike unions, are members of the subordinate clause, obeying directly the verb in the subordinate clause; also, unlike unions, they carry a phrasal accent:
(151) I know ¯ what\ we need to do, I saw, ¯ how\ they treat her.
Due to their semantic unsaturation, explanatory conjunctions can be omitted: I know (what), he has already come.
Bibliography
- Apresyan V.Yu. (a) Concession as a backbone meaning // Questions of Linguistics, 2. 2006, pp. 85–110.
- Apresyan V.Yu. (b) From although before even if
- Apresyan V.Yu. (c) Concession in language // Linguistic picture of the world and systemic lexicography. Apresyan Yu.D. (Ed.) pp. 615–712. M. 2006.
- Apresyan V.Yu. For And for the sake of: similarities and differences // Questions of linguistics, 3. 1995. P. 17–27.
- Apresyan V.Yu. Dictionary entries of the fields 'correspondence and inconsistency with reality', 'small number and degree', 'compliance' and 'organization' // Prospectus of the Active Dictionary of the Russian Language under the general supervision of Academician Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 2010.
- Grammar 1954. - Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Institute of Linguistics. Grammar of Russian language. v.2. Syntax. part 2. M. 1954.
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- Levontina I.B. Dictionary entries of words FOR, BECAUSE of the New explanatory dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language under the guidance of Yu.D. Apresyan. M. 2004. (2nd ed.).
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Main literature
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- Apresyan Yu.D., Boguslavsky I.M., Iomdin L.L., Sannikov V.Z. Theoretical problems of Russian syntax: the interaction of grammar and vocabulary. Rep. ed. Yu.D. Apresyan. Languages of Slavic cultures. M. 2010.
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- Comrie V. Subordination, coordination: Form, semantics, pragmatics // Vajda E.J. (Ed.) Subordination and Coordination Strategies in North Asian Languages. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. 2008. P. 1–16.
In general, this meaning has its own, quite numerous lexical means of expression - therefore, therefore, therefore- however, they are adverbs, not conjunctions (cf. their ability to be used with conjunctions - and therefore, therefore, and therefore).
Syntactically unions if only And if only are of a complex nature. On the one hand, they combine the properties of conjunctions and particles (cf. the possibility of being used in combination with other coordinating unions - but only, but only); on the other hand, they combine the properties of coordinating and subordinating: in example (77) if only forms a dependent clause, like a typical subordinating conjunction, and in example (78) it joins in combination with the conjunction but an independent clause, while another concessive union appears in the dependent one - let be.
/>Coordinating conjunctions are divided into the following groups according to their meaning:
1. Connecting unions: And, Yes (=And), And...And, neither...neither, too, also. Express the value of homogeneity, similarity in the enumeration of the same type of events, situations.
- Still the grass is full of transparent tears,
- AND thunder rumbles in the distance.
- (A. A. Blok)
- "Hey Dunya! - the caretaker shouted, - put the samovar Yes go get some cream."
- (A. S. Pushkin)
Recurring union neither...neither used in negation, strengthening it. Unions too And also along with the main meaning of the connection, shades of identification and attachment are brought in.
- Daughter studied at home and grew up well, boy too studied badly.
- (L. N. Tolstoy)
2. Opposing alliances .
The general meaning of opposition, incompatibility is manifested in two types of relationships: comparisons and contrasts. Comparison is expressed by unions but, same, opposition - unions but, but, but, Yes (=but), but, only.
- People crossed flooded places without much difficulty, horses same got it again.
- (V.K. Arseniev)
- Heard the ringing Yes you don't know where he is.
- The song over the house fell silent, but over the pond the nightingale started his own.
- (V. G. Korolenko)
3. Dividing alliances or, or, or...or, or...or express relations of mutual exclusion, alternative, choice.
- Or howling storms
- You, my friend, are tired
- Or dozing under the buzz
- Your spindle?
- (A. S. Pushkin)
- Or the whole world went crazy or he, Valka, began to go crazy.
- (V. I. Belov)
Union then...then relations are transferred alternation.
- That truth breathes everything in it,
- That everything in it is feigned and false!
- (M. Yu. Lermontov)
Relations indistinction expressed by repeated conjunctions either...either, not that...not that.
- Not that thoughts, not that memories, not that dreams wandered in Olenin's head.
- (L. N. Tolstoy)
4. Comparative or gradation unions: how...so, Not only...but also, but...but, if not...then.
- Siberia has many features how in nature, so in human manners.
- (I. A. Goncharov)
- We Not only before the coup but we entered it.
- (A. I. Herzen)
Unions how...so, Not only...but also emphasize the mandatory nature of the connection, enhance the meaning of similarity, similarity.
5. Connecting unions: And, yes and, yes and...then. They serve to connect words in a phrase and sentence, add new information to the content. Lekant P. A. highlights " special connecting": and, besides, Besides, otherwise, not that, not that.
- My sister was a good cook yes and sewed well.
- Kashtanka ran back and forth and did not find the owner, meanwhile it was getting dark. (In the meantime, an affiliative union.)
- (A.P. Chekhov)
6. Explanatory unions: i.e, namely, somehow, or. They express the relationship of refinement between the members of the sentence, parts of the complex sentence and independent sentences.
- I stayed here for a week i.e until Sunday or Monday.
