Specify an idea of the whole. The manifestation of human psychology in mental images

The subject of psychology. Different ideas about the subject of psychology.

Soul(all researchers until the beginning of the 18th century)
Phenomena of consciousness (English empirical associationist psychology - D. Gartley, John Stuart Mill, A. Bain, Herbert Spencer)
Direct experience of the subject (structuralism - Wilhelm Wundt)
Intentional acts of consciousness (functionalism - Franz Brentano)
The origin of mental activities (psychophysiology - Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov)
Behavior (behaviorism - John Watson)
Unconscious (psychoanalysis - Sigmund Freud)
Information processing processes and the results of these processes (Gestalt psychology - Max Wertheimer)
Personal experience of a person (Humanistic psychology - Abraham Maslow, K. Rogers, Viktor Frankl, Rollo May)

Soul as a subject of study

The soul as a subject of psychology was recognized by all researchers until the beginning of the 18th century, before the main ideas were formed, and then the first system of psychology of the modern type.

Phenomena of consciousness as a subject of psychology

In the 18th century, the place of the soul was taken by the phenomena of consciousness, that is, the phenomena that a person actually observes, finds in “himself”, turning to his “inner mental activity”. These are thoughts, desires, feelings, memories known to everyone from personal experience. The founder of this understanding can be considered John Locke, who believed that, unlike the soul, the phenomena of consciousness are not something supposed, but actually given, and in this sense, the same indisputable facts of internal experience, which are the facts of external experience studied by other sciences.

Direct experience as a subject of psychology

Initially, the program developed by W. Wundt had the greatest success in building psychology as an independent experimental science. According to Wundt, the unique subject of psychology is the direct experience of the subject, comprehended through self-observation, introspection.

Intentional acts of consciousness as a subject of psychology

F. Brentano bases his teaching on such qualities of consciousness as activity and objectivity. Psychology must study not sensations and ideas per se, but those acts of "action" that the subject performs when he turns nothing into an object of awareness. Outside the act, the object does not exist.

The origin of mental activities as a subject of psychology

I. M. Sechenov accepted the postulate of the kinship of the mental and physiological “according to the mode of origin”, that is, according to the mechanism of accomplishment. Sechenov considered the understanding of a mental act as a process, a movement that has a definite beginning, course and end, as the main idea.

Behavior as a subject of psychology

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by the emergence and development of behaviorism as a reaction to unsuccessful experimental studies of "physiological psychology". The subject of behaviorism, or "behavioral psychology," is behavior. According to behaviorists, knowing the strength of the acting stimuli and taking into account the past experience of the “subject”, it is possible to study the processes of learning, the formation of new forms of behavior, without delving into its physiological mechanisms.

The Unconscious as a Subject of Psychology

According to the teachings of Z. Freud, human actions are controlled by deep motives that elude clear consciousness. These deep impulses should be the subject of psychological science. Freud created a method of psychoanalysis, with the help of which one can explore the deepest motives of a person and control them. The basis of the psychoanalytic method is the analysis of free associations, dreams, slips of the tongue, reservations, etc. The roots of a person's behavior are in his childhood.

Information processing processes and the results of these processes as a subject of psychology

Theories of the cognitive direction focus on the fact that human knowledge is not reduced to a simple sum of information received by the brain from the external environment or present in it from the moment of birth.

Personal experience of a person as a subject of psychology

Humanistic psychology departs from scientific psychology, assigning the main role to the personal experience of a person. A person, according to humanistic psychologists, is capable of self-esteem and can independently find a way to develop his personality (self-actualization). The subjectivity of this approach makes it difficult to establish the difference between a person's opinion of himself and what he really is. The ideas of this approach turned out to be useful for psychological practice, but did not contribute anything to the theory of psychology. Moreover, the subject of research within this direction has almost disappeared.

As a result, we can assume that the subject of psychology is mental processes, properties, states of a person and the laws of his behavior. An essential point in this is the consideration of the generation of consciousness, its functioning, development and connection with behavior and activity.

2 Methods of psychology. Basic requirements for each method.

The main methods of obtaining facts in psychology are observation, conversation and experiment. Each of these general methods has a number of modifications that refine but do not change their essence.

1. Observation is the oldest method of knowledge. Its primitive form - worldly observations - is used by every person in his daily practice. The general monitoring procedure consists of the following processes:

definition of the task and purpose (for what, for what purpose?);

choice of object, subject and situation (what to observe?);

choosing the method of observation that has the least effect on the object under study and provides the most necessary information (how to observe?);

choice of methods for recording the observed (how to keep records?);

processing and interpretation of the received information (what is the result?).

Observation is also an integral part of two other methods - conversation and experiment.

2. Conversation as a psychological method, it provides for direct or indirect, oral or written receipt from the student of information about his activities, in which the psychological phenomena characteristic of him are objectified. Types of interviews: history taking, interviews, questionnaires and psychological questionnaires. Anamnesis (Latin from memory) - information about the past of the student, received from him or - with an objective history - from persons who know him well. An interview is a type of conversation in which the task is to get the interviewee's answers to certain (usually pre-prepared) questions. In this case, when questions and answers are presented in writing, a survey takes place.

3. Experiment is the main method of psychological research - it is the active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions.

Observation as a method of psychological research.

Observation(in psychology) - a descriptive psychological research method, which consists in a purposeful and organized perception and registration of the behavior of the object under study. Observation is a purposeful, organized and in a certain way fixed perception of the object under study. In observation, phenomena are studied directly under the conditions in which they occur in real life.

Where applicable

Together with introspection, observation is considered the oldest psychological method. Scientific observation has been widely used since the end of the 19th century in areas where the fixation of the characteristics of human behavior in various conditions is of particular importance - in clinical, social, educational psychology, developmental psychology, and since the beginning of the 20th century - in labor psychology. Surveillance is used when it is either impossible or inadmissible to interfere with the natural course of the process.

Types of observation

Observation as a method of research in psychology can be very different. It can be conscious and not, external and internal, continuous and selective, systematic and not.

Method features

Observation is used where the intervention of the experimenter will disrupt the process of human interaction with the environment. This method is indispensable when it is necessary to obtain a complete picture of what is happening and reflect the behavior of individuals in its entirety.

The main features of the observation method are:

direct connection between the observer and the observed object;

partiality (emotional coloring) of observation;

Difficulty (sometimes - impossibility) of repeated observation.

In the natural sciences, the observer, as a rule, does not influence the process (phenomenon) being studied. In psychology, there is a problem of interaction between the observer and the observed. If the subject knows that he is being observed, then the presence of the researcher influences his behavior. The limitations of the method of observation gave rise to other, more "perfect" methods of empirical research: experiment and measurement.

Subject of observation

The objects of observation are various features of behavior. The objects of research can be: The object of observation can be only that which can be objectively registered. Thus, the researcher does not observe the properties of the psyche, he registers only those manifestations of the object that are available for fixation. And only on the basis of the assumption that the psyche finds its manifestation in behavior, the psychologist can build hypotheses about mental properties, based on the data obtained during observation.

An experiment in psychology.

Psychological experiment- an experiment conducted in special conditions to obtain new scientific knowledge about psychology through the targeted intervention of a researcher in the life of the subject.

Various authors interpret the concept of "psychological experiment" ambiguously, often under the experiment in psychology, a complex of different independent empirical methods is considered ( actual experiment, observation, questioning, testing). However, traditionally in experimental psychology, the experiment is considered an independent method.

Psychological experiment (as part of psychological counseling)- a specially created situation designed for a more holistic (in various modalities) experience by the client of his own experience.

Main activities.

Communication is the first type of activity that occurs in the process of individual development of a person, followed by play, learning and work. All these activities are of a developmental nature, i.e. when the child is included and actively participates in them, his intellectual and personal development takes place.

Communication is considered as an activity aimed at the exchange of information between communicating people. It also pursues the goals of establishing mutual understanding, good personal and business relations, providing mutual assistance and teaching and educational influence of people on each other. Communication can be direct and indirect, verbal and non-verbal.

A game is a type of activity that does not result in the production of any material or ideal product (with the exception of business and design games for adults and children). Games often have the character of entertainment, they are aimed at getting rest. Sometimes games serve as a means of symbolic relaxation of tensions that have arisen under the influence of the actual needs of a person, which he is not able to weaken in any other way.

tactile perception

Touch is a complex form of sensitivity, including in its composition both

elementary and complex components. The first is the sensation of cold,

heat and pain, to the second - actually tactile sensations (touch and

pressure). Peripheral apparatus for sensing heat and cold are

"bulbs" scattered in the thickness of the skin. Pain apparatus is

free endings of thin nerve fibers that perceive pain signals,

peripheral apparatus of sensations of touch and pressure - peculiar

nerve formations known as Leisner bodies, Vater-Pacchini bodies,

also located in the thickness of the skin. The receptors just listed

devices are unevenly distributed over the skin surface: the thinner

sensitivity is required from the work of a particular organ, the more densely

the corresponding receptor components are located on its surface and so

the thresholds for distinguishing those signals that reach them are lower, otherwise

in other words, the more sensitive they are. Fineness of sensitivity

various surfaces of the body is provided not only by the density of distribution

peripheral receptors in the corresponding areas of the skin, but also relative

the area of those areas of the postcentral sections of the cerebral cortex, where

fibers come from the corresponding sections of the periphery. The more subtle

the function is performed by one or another area of the skin, the larger the area occupied by it

projection in the cerebral cortex. The most complex forms of tactile

sensitivity - a sense of localization of touch, a distinctive

sensitivity (sensation of the distance between two touches to close

skin areas), sensations of the direction of skin tension (if the skin of the forearm

lead to or away from the brush), the feel of a shape that is applied by touch

the point of making a figure of a circle or an image of a figure on the skin. to complex shapes

also includes deep sensitivity, which makes it possible to recognize in what

position are passively bent around the hand or give the right hand then

a position that is passively given to the left hand. In the implementation of these types

sensitivity involved complex secondary zones of postcentral

sections of the cortex. To study various types of sensitivity, use

different techniques, for example: Taber's experiment, in which the researcher simultaneously

touches two symmetrical points of the chest or face. Defeat one of

hemispheres is revealed in the fact that the patient, well capturing each individual

touch, ignores one of the touches on symmetrical points if

both touches are given simultaneously.

In this case, the feeling of touching the point opposite to the

the affected hemisphere. The study of "two-dimensional-spatial sense"

is performed as follows: the researcher draws a figure on the tip of the needle

skin of the forearm and offers to determine which figure has been drawn.

The inability to complete this task indicates the defeat of the secondary departments.

parietal cortex of the opposite hemisphere (N8 p.55-56).

However, there are more complex forms of tactile perception, in which

a person can determine the shape of an object by touch, and sometimes recognize it himself

thing. To move from the evaluation of individual features to the tactile

perception of the whole object, it is necessary that the hand be in motion, then

there is passive tactile perception replaced by active palpation

subject. The most interesting in the tactile perception of an object is

the fact of the gradual transformation of successively (successively) incoming

information about the individual features of the subject in its holistic (simultaneous)

For example, when touching a key, we first get the impression that we

we are dealing with something cold, smooth and long. At this phase, there

the assumption that we are feeling a metal rod or tube; or

metal pencil. Then our hand touches the ring of the key; first group

assumptions are immediately discarded. The palpation continues, and the groper

the finger moves to the beard of the key with its characteristic indentation. Here

there is a selection of the most information points, the union of all

successively perceived signs, and the hypothesis “this is the key!”

(N8 p.74). It can be seen that the process of recognizing the image of an object, which in vision

occurs immediately, in touch it has a detailed character, and occurs through

sequential chain of samples, with the selection of individual features, the creation of a series

alternatives and the formation of a final hypothesis. The process of tactile

perception was studied in detail by Soviet psychologists B.G. Ananiev, B.F.

Lomov, L.M. Wecker. The studies of these authors have shown a number of factors. Hand

the subject must actively feel the object. Passive object holding

by hand or hand by subject, does not lead to the desired result. Active

palpation of an object is usually performed with the participation of both hands. As

exercises, the palpation process can be gradually reduced, and if at first

its stages, for recognition, it was necessary to merge many of the selected features,

then during repeated palpation, the number of signs necessary for identification

subject, is reduced, so that at the end of one of the most informative

the sign is sufficient for the object to be identified.

Methods for studying attention.

Types of memorization

Memorization can be conscious or unconscious.

Unconscious there are two types of memorization: imprinting and involuntary memorization.

imprinting- this is the preservation in the memory of events, an image, a sensation for a long time (often forever) with a short contact with it. .

Involuntary memorization- saving in the memory of events as a result of random repetition.

Conscious memorization is the purposeful preservation of the necessary material in memory.

Conscious memory is also called arbitrary. In humans, this is the main type of memorization.

Conscious memory is the basis of study and learning. Arbitrary memorization is of two types: mechanical memorization (memorization) and semantic memorization (understanding).

Arbitrary memorization

Mechanical memorization - memorization- This is a purposeful repetition of the same material.

Semantic memorization- this is the preservation in memory not of the material itself - but of the relationship between the main blocks of the material, the logic connecting these blocks.

Conditions for effective memorization:

It takes at least 30 minutes to install the non-volatile memory. Usually the duration of this memory is related to the number and intensity of repetitions of the memorized material. In addition, the emotional background plays an important role - sharply negative or positive emotions allow you to remember the material once and for all without any repetition. By the way, the desire, the desire to remember this or that information improves the process of memorization.

The best memorization option is to study the material, break it into blocks (no more than 7 blocks), logical text analysis, selection of associations, memorization in comparison with something, and so on - in this case, memory is stored for a longer period. There is a cool way to fix something in memory - this is the connection of theses with well-known visual images (as the ancient Greek speakers did) - for example, there is a way home and there are theses that need to be remembered - and the first thesis, for example, is associated with exiting the subway, the second with a tree , the third with a store sign, and so on. The most undesirable option is learning, memorization. Usually it takes a long time to study, it is forgotten quickly (all students know this - they learned it, passed it, after three days - as if they had never taught).

24 Conservation: types and conditions of effective conservation.

Preservation - the process of active processing, systematization, generalization
material, mastering it. The retention of what has been learned depends on the depth of understanding.
A number of factors contribute to the retention of information:

o depth of understanding;

o installation (significance of information);

o application of acquired knowledge;

o repetition (the degree of use of the material in the activities of the individual).

Well-meaning material is remembered better. Preservation also depends on the attitude of the individual. Significant material for the individual is not forgotten. Forgetting occurs unevenly: immediately after memorization, forgetting is stronger, then it goes more slowly. That's why the repetition cannot be delayed, it must be repeated soon
after learning, until the material is forgotten.
Sometimes, when saving, the phenomenon of reminiscence is observed. Its essence is that
playback delayed by 2 to 3 days is better than
immediately after learning. Reminiscence is especially pronounced,
if the original reproduction was not meaningful enough. With
physiological point of view, reminiscence is explained by the fact that immediately after
memorization, according to the law of negative induction, inhibition occurs, and then
it is removed. It has been established that saving can be dynamic and
static.

Dynamic saving manifests itself in RAM, and
static - in the long-term. When dynamically saving material
changes little, when static, on the contrary, it is necessarily subjected to
reconstruction and some processing.
The strength of preservation is provided by repetition, which serves as a reinforcement
and protects against forgetting, i.e., from the extinction of temporary connections in the cortex
brain. Repetition should be varied, carried out in different
forms: in the process of repetition, facts must be compared, contrasted, their
must be brought into the system. With monotonous repetition, there is no
mental activity, interest in memorization decreases, and therefore does not
creates the conditions for sustainable preservation. Even more important for
conservation has the application of knowledge. When knowledge is applied, it
are remembered involuntarily

Types of thinking

Visual-effective, visual-figurative, figurative-associative, scenario and conceptual thinking. It is also abstract (abstract) thinking.

Productive thinking and thinking as internal chatter.

Productive thinking - finding a connection between objects and phenomena, solving a vital task. Inner chatter is relatively coherent, sometimes even logical, but inappropriate thinking fills the emptiness of the soul, creates the illusion that life is filled with something.

Rational and irrational thinking

Rational thinking is thinking that has a clear logic and goes to the goal. The opposite of irrational, and sometimes just incoherent thinking, the flow of thoughts outside of logic and purpose.

Primitive and advanced thinking

In the developed version, thinking is analysis, comparison, finding new connections and other operations with mental images in order to find productive, useful mental images.

Expanded (discursive) and folded thinking: intuition.

In an expanded form, inner speech, inner actions, images and sensations are heard, seen and felt, in an automatic and folded form they flicker and disappear from the field of consciousness. Expanded thinking is called in science discursive thinking, in life - reflection. Convoluted and instant comprehension is more often called intuition, grasping, vision of the essence.

Template and independent thinking

Template thinking is not thinking that does not use templates: this seems to be impossible in principle, templates are used everywhere. Template thinking does not use anything but templates, remains within the framework of templates only. Goes beyond patterns and ceases to be patterned thinking thinking is independent. Its main varieties are design and creative thinking.

Automatic and guided thinking

Automatic thinking occurs on its own, being implemented like a program, starting and ending on its own, without the will, knowledge and control of a person. It is more pleasant when a person still manages his own thinking.

Free and creative thinking

Free thinking is thinking that is not constrained by limiting patterns. A free-thinking person is not necessarily one who has not been brought up - it can also be one who has been brought up in the format of internally free thinking. Creative thinking is thinking that generates a new, unknown - and valuable - result from known premises.

Functions of thinking

1. Solving problems in an indirect way, that is, in a way that uses a variety of auxiliary techniques and tools designed to obtain the necessary knowledge. A person resorts to the help of thinking when direct knowledge is either impossible (people do not perceive ultrasound, infrared radiation, X-rays, the chemical composition of stars, the distance from the Earth to other planets, physiological processes in the cerebral cortex, etc.), or in in principle, it is possible, but not in modern conditions (archaeology, paleontology, geology, etc.), or it is possible, but irrational. Solving a problem indirectly means solving it, including with the help of mental operations. For example, when, waking up in the morning, a person goes to the window and sees that the roofs of the houses are wet, and there are puddles on the ground, he makes a conclusion: it rained at night. Man did not perceive rain directly, but learned about it indirectly, through other facts. Other examples: the doctor learns about the presence of an inflammatory process in the patient's body using additional means - a thermometer, test results, x-rays, etc.; the teacher can assess the degree of diligence of the student by his answer at the blackboard; You can find out what the air temperature is outside in different ways: directly, by sticking your hand out the window, and indirectly, using a thermometer. Indirect knowledge of objects and phenomena is carried out with the help of the perception of other objects or phenomena that are naturally associated with the first. These connections and relationships are usually hidden, they cannot be perceived directly, and mental operations are resorted to to reveal them.

2. Generalized reflection of reality. Only concrete objects can be perceived directly: this tree, this table, this book, this person. You can think about the subject in general (“Love the book - the source of knowledge”; “Man descended from the monkey”). It is thought that allows us to capture the similarity in the different and the different in the similar, to discover regular connections between phenomena and events.

A person can foresee what will happen in a particular case because it reflects the general properties of objects and phenomena. But it is not enough to notice the connection between two facts; it is also necessary to realize that it has a general character and is determined by the general properties of things, i.e., properties related to a whole group of similar objects and phenomena. Such a generalized reflection makes it possible to predict the future, to present it in the form of images that do not really exist.

3. Reflection of the most essential properties and connections of reality. In phenomena or objects, we single out the general, not taking into account the inessential, the non-principal. So, any clock is a mechanism for determining the time, and this is their main feature. Neither the shape, nor the size, nor the color, nor the material from which they are made, do not matter.

4. The main feature of human thinking is that it is inextricably linked with speech: the word denotes the common thing that objects and phenomena have. Language, speech is the material shell of thought. Only in speech form does a person's thought become available to other people. A person has no other means of reflecting the corresponding connections of the external world, except for those speech forms that are entrenched in his native language. Thought can neither arise, nor flow, nor exist outside of language, outside of speech.

Speech is an instrument of thought. Man thinks with the help of words. But it does not follow from this that the process of thinking is reduced to speech, that to think means to speak aloud or to oneself. The difference between the thought itself and its verbal expression lies in the fact that the same thought can be expressed in different languages or using different words ("The next summer is expected to be hot" - "The coming season between spring and autumn will be hot"). The same thought has a different speech form, but without any speech form it does not exist.

“I know, but I can’t put it into words” is a state when a person cannot move from expressing thoughts in inner speech to outer speech, finds it difficult to express it in a way understandable to other people.

28. Thinking as a process of problem solving. Problem situations and thinking.

Finding the problem and its formulation.

The process of problem solving begins with the formulation of a question in a problem situation. Such a formulation of the question is one of the most difficult stages in the process of solving the problem. To formulate a question, one must see the inconsistency of the problem situation, formulate these contradictions in one form or another.

In the process of formulating the question, one realizes what must be found,

defined. But at the same time, it is equally important to clearly distinguish in the problematic

situations, initial, known data, i.e. something that can be relied upon,

transform, one way or another use to find the unknown.

Promotion and analysis of hypotheses. Both the success of solving the problem and the creation of favorable

conditions for the development of thinking depend on the variety of hypotheses put forward. Exactly

wide variability of hypotheses allows from different sides, in different systems

ties consider the same object, find the most correct and economical

solution path. Putting forward hypotheses, as it were, anticipates future activities

person, allows you to foresee solutions and possible outcomes, and therefore

a person's experience of hypothesizing is essential for

development of the predictive function of thinking.

Solution of a mental problem. Further testing of the remaining hypotheses is

the third step in problem solving. And at this stage, sometimes it becomes necessary

additional clarification of the conditions of the problem, obtaining some new information,

further clarification, reformulation of the question.

The decision can be based on the passive use of the algorithm, i.e. as a direct

fulfillment of an already known order. A more creative approach to solving a mental problem would be to actively use an algorithm that can find its own

expression either in adapting it to the content of the task, or in transforming

Checking the solution of the problem. Here it is important to once again correlate the conditions of the problem, its question

and the results obtained. The solution verification process is also important because, during

her man manages to rethink the task. Such a rethinking is

possible because here the main efforts of a person can be directed not at

how to solve a given problem, but on the meaning of its solution, on those consequences that

may arise as a result of problem solving. During the verification process, you can see

the same problem in another communication system, you can find new, not yet solved

Problem situations in thinking:

In case of failure:

3.5. Despair, switching to another activity: "period of incubation rest" - "ripening of ideas", insight, inspiration, insight, instant awareness of the solution of some problem (intuitive thinking). Factors contributing to the "enlightenment":

a. high interest in the problem;

b. faith in success, in the possibility of solving the problem;

c. high awareness of the problem, accumulated experience;

d. high associative activity of the brain (during sleep, at high temperature, fever, with emotionally positive stimulation).

2. Logical substantiation of the found idea of the solution, logical proof of the correctness of the solution.

3. Implementation of the solution.

4. Verification of the found solution.

5. Correction (if necessary, return to stage 2). Mental activity is realized both at the level of consciousness and at the level of the unconscious, characterized by complex transitions and interactions of these levels. As a result of a successful (purposeful) action, a result is achieved that corresponds to the previously set goal, and the result that was not provided for in the conscious goal is a by-product (by-product of the action) in relation to it. The problem of the conscious and the unconscious was concretized into the problem of the relationship between the direct (conscious) and secondary (unconscious) products of action. The by-product of an action is also reflected by the subject. This reflection can participate in the subsequent regulation of actions, but it is not presented in a verbalized form, in the form of consciousness. A by-product "is formed under the influence of those specific properties of things and phenomena that are included in the action, but are not essential from the point of view of the goal."

Basic forms

1. The concept is the unity of essential properties, connections and relations of objects or phenomena reflected in thinking; a thought or a system of thoughts that singles out and generalizes objects of a certain class according to certain general and, in the aggregate, specific features for them;

2. Judgment - a form of thinking in which something is affirmed or denied about an object, its properties or relations between objects. The types of judgments and the relationship between them are studied in philosophical logic;

3. Inference - conclusion.

Methods for studying thinking.

observation method. At first glance, this method has nothing to do with the study of thinking. However, it is not. Observing the actions of a person in various natural situations, his facial expressions and pantomimes in the process of solving a problem, the peculiarities of his interaction with other people, you can learn a lot about thinking. For example, by observing the educational activity of a schoolchild at home, one can fix how regularly he solves the tasks proposed to him, how much time he spends on solving, what are the results of his efforts. The results of such observations can be the basis for judgments about the child's attitude to learning, which affects the solution of specific problems, about the organization of his mental activity, about the degree of formation of individual mental skills. Observing the play activity of a preschooler, one can state what type of games the child uses and make an assumption about the degree of development of his figurative thinking.

There are various ways to classify views (Figure 7.3).

By leading analyzers (by modality)

In accordance with the division of representations by representative systems (according to the leading analyzer), the following types of representations are distinguished:

visual (image of a person, place, landscape);
auditory (playing a musical melody);
olfactory (representation of some characteristic smell - for example, cucumber or perfume);
taste (ideas about the taste of food - sweet, bitter, etc.)
tactile (the idea of smoothness, roughness, softness, hardness of the object);
temperature (the idea of cold and heat);

Nevertheless, often several parsers are involved in the formation of representations at once. So, imagining a cucumber in the mind, a person simultaneously imagines its green color and pimply surface, its hardness, characteristic taste and smell.

Representations are formed in the process of human activity, therefore, depending on the profession, predominantly any one type of representation develops: for an artist - visual, for a composer - auditory, for an athlete and ballerina - motor, for a chemist - olfactory, etc.

According to the degree of generalization

Representations also differ in the degree of generalization. In this case, one speaks of single, general and schematized representations (as opposed to perceptions, which are always single).

Single representations are representations based on the perception of one specific object or phenomenon. Often they are accompanied by emotions. These representations underlie such a phenomenon of memory as recognition.

General representations - representations that generally reflect a number of similar subjects. This type of representation is most often formed with the participation of the second signal system and verbal concepts.

Schematized representations represent objects or phenomena in the form of conditional figures, graphic images, pictograms, etc. An example would be charts or graphs showing economic or demographic processes.

Origin

The third classification of representations is by origin. Within the framework of this typology, they are divided into representations that arose on the basis of , and .

Most of the representations of a person are images that arise on the basis of - that is, the primary sensory reflection of reality. From these images, in the process of individual life, the picture of the world of each individual person is gradually formed and corrected.

Representations formed on the basis of thinking are highly abstract and may have few concrete features. So most people have representations of such concepts as "justice" or "happiness", but it is difficult for them to fill these images with specific features.

Representations can also be formed on the basis, and this type of representation forms the basis of creativity - both artistic and scientific.

According to the degree of willpower

Representations also differ in the degree of manifestation of volitional efforts. In this case, they are divided into involuntary and arbitrary.

Involuntary ideas are ideas that arise spontaneously, without activating the will and memory of a person, for example, dreams.

Arbitrary ideas are ideas that arise in a person under the influence of will, in the interests of the goal set by him. These representations are controlled by the human mind and play an important role in his professional activity.

Links

http://www.no-stress.ru

Literature

Shcherbatykh Yu.V. General psychology. - St. Petersburg: Peter, 2008.

Chapter 7 Views

7.1 The concept of representation

Performance- this is the process of mentally recreating images of objects and phenomena that at the moment do not affect the human senses.

The term "representation" has two meanings. One of them (noun) denotes the image of an object or phenomenon that was previously perceived by analyzers, but at the moment does not affect the senses. The second meaning of this term describes the process of reproduction of images (that is, it is a verb).

Representations as mental phenomena have both similarities and differences with such mental phenomena as perception and hallucinations. These similarities and differences are shown in Fig. 7.1 and 7.2

The physiological basis of representations is formed by "traces" in the cerebral cortex of the brain, remaining after real excitations of the central nervous system during perception. These "traces" are preserved due to the well-known "plasticity of the central nervous system.

7.2 Classification of representations

There are various ways to classify views (Figure 7.3):

In accordance with the division of representations by types of the leading analyzer, the following types of representations are distinguished:

visual (image of a person, place, landscape);

auditory (playing a musical melody);

olfactory (representation of some characteristic smell - for example, cucumber or perfume);

taste (ideas about the taste of food - sweet, bitter, etc.)

tactile (the idea of smoothness, roughness, softness, hardness of the object);

temperature (the idea of cold and heat);

Representations are formed in the process of human activity, therefore, depending on the profession, predominantly any one type of representation develops: for the artist - visual, for the composer - auditory, for the athlete and ballerina - motor, for the chemist - olfactory, etc.

Representations also differ in the degree of generalization. In this case, one speaks of single, general and schematized representations (as opposed to perceptions, which are always single).

General representations are representations that generally reflect a number of similar subjects. This type of representation is most often formed with the participation of the second signal system and verbal concepts.

Schematic representations represent objects or phenomena in the form of conditional figures, graphic images, pictograms, etc. An example is diagrams or graphs that display economic or demographic processes.

The third classification of representations is by origin. Within the framework of this typology, they are divided into representations that have arisen on the basis of sensations, perception, thinking and imagination. It should be noted that most of a person's ideas are images that arise on the basis of perception - that is, the primary sensory reflection of reality. From these images, in the process of individual life, the picture of the world of each individual person is gradually formed and corrected.

Representations can also be formed on the basis of imagination, and this type of representation forms the basis of creativity - both artistic and scientific.

Representations also differ in the degree of manifestation of volitional efforts. In this case, they are divided into involuntary and arbitrary. Involuntary ideas are ideas that arise spontaneously, without activating the will and memory of a person, for example, dreams.

Arbitrary ideas are ideas that arise in a person under the influence of the will, in the interests of the goal set by him. These representations are controlled by the human mind and play an important role in his professional activity.

1) in a narrow sense - an image of a previously perceived object or phenomenon that appears in the mind after the objectively represented is no longer present, as well as an image created by a productive imagination; 2) in a broader, more precise sense - the subject of thinking, feeling, excitement, fantasy or dreaming, when it is entirely visual, when the individual manages to put it in front of him as something perceived.

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PERFORMANCE

a visual sensual image of objects and situations of reality, given to consciousness, and, in contrast to perception, accompanied by a feeling of absence of what is represented. There are representations of memory and imagination. The best known are visual representations. There are also tactile representations (which play a special role in the life of the blind), auditory, olfactory, and others. Representations may relate to an individual object or event, but may also be general. However, the degree of their generality can be very different.

The philosophy of representation was of interest in two respects. First, as a vivid expression of a specific inner world of consciousness. It was believed that, unlike sensations and perceptions, which always refer the subject (perhaps erroneously) to external reality, representations exist as special ideal formations that have their own content, which may or may not correspond to something in reality. . In any case, the content of the representation from this point of view is directly given, it cannot be doubted as a fact of consciousness. Within the framework of this understanding, representations are something like pictures placed in the gallery of individual consciousness. The subject has direct access to these pictures, can examine them, look at them with an "inner eye" - this is introspection. (In the philosophy of I. Kant and A. Schopenhauer, a representation is understood extremely broadly - as including the entire content of consciousness.) Secondly, representations were analyzed in philosophy from the point of view of their role in obtaining knowledge about the world. Empiricist philosophers (D. Locke, D. Berkeley, D. Hume, E. Condillac, E. Mach and others) believed that it was representations that provided the possibility of thinking. According to their views, the entire content of knowledge is given in sensation and perception. But thinking deals with things that go beyond these limits. This fact can be explained, they believed, only by taking into account the existence of representations, which are nothing but traces, "copies" of past perceptions, and which differ from the perceptions that caused them only by greater vagueness and instability. It is known, for example, that mathematics deals with such objects which not only are not given in sensation and perception, but also cannot be represented. Thus, for example, it is impossible to imagine a “triangle in general” that would not be either equilateral or scalene, one of whose angles can be either oblique, or right, or obtuse, etc. However, the theorems of geometry are proved precisely for the “triangle in general ". Berkeley sees the solution to this problem in that the representation of a particular triangle plays the role of a representative of all other triangles. That. the understood representation (the content of which in this case becomes the meaning of the corresponding word) begins to play the role of a concept. Thinking from this point of view is nothing but a comparison and analysis of different perceptions and a combination of ideas.

Rationalist philosophers (R. Descartes, B. Spinoza, Hegel, neo-Kantians, etc.) emphasized the fundamental difference between representations and concepts, giving examples of such concepts that cannot be represented either in general or in a specific form: imaginary numbers and infinity in mathematics, concepts of truth, goodness, beauty, etc. Thinking from this point of view has nothing to do with ideas. Experimental study of thinking, undertaken in the beginning. 20th century The Würzburg school in teiholoshi significantly confirmed this opinion: it was found out that many processes of thinking are not accompanied by any visual images.

In the 20th century philosophical and psychological analysis of ideas has changed a lot in their traditional understanding. L. Wittgenpgen and then J. Ryle criticized the view of representations as "pictures" located in the inner world of consciousness. First, it is not clear who can perceive these "pictures". In the case of ordinary perception of objects of the real world or even real pictures, the subject uses his sense organs, which deliver sensory information to him. However, how can one perceive "inner pictures" that live only in the world of consciousness? What sense organs can be used in this case? And who owns these bodies? Secondly, it is very important that real paintings can be viewed. This examination may reveal details in them that were not clear at the beginning of the process of their perception. For example, if we are dealing with an image (picture or photograph) of a tiger, then we can count the number of stripes on its body. However, in principle, we cannot peer into our ideas, so the question of how many stripes the body of the tiger we have presented makes no sense. From this point of view, there are no real representations. What we experience as a representation actually hides other processes: comprehension of past events, thinking about what could have been if such and such conditions existed (when we are dealing with what is traditionally in psychology considered a representation of the imagination). There is no inner world of consciousness as special. All mental processes are associated with the orientation of the subject in the real world and with activities in it.

However, this understanding of representations was called into question by the facts obtained in cognitive psychology in the 1970s. R. Shepard, L. Cooper, and others set up experiments in which the subjects, in order to solve a certain problem, had to rotate visual images of certain objects in their imagination. It has been shown that the speed of an imaginary rotation directly depends on its nature and complexity. These facts cannot be understood, the experimenters believe, if it is not assumed that the subjects examine imaginary objects with their "mental eye", that is, their ideas; It means that the latter still exist! In connection with these facts, a sharp discussion arose in the philosophical and psychological literature about the existence of visual representations and their nature. A number of theorists of modern cognitive science (J. Fedor, S. Kosslin, and others) defend the view that visual representations are real as independent formations (although the opinion that representations belong to the world of consciousness as a special one is usually not accepted). Others (D. Dennett, Z. Pylishin, and others) believe that what the subject experiences as a visual representation is some kind of illusion of consciousness. Real processes that appear to the subject in the form of representations in a perverse way are in fact a special kind of comprehension, and they are closer to discursive description (though not verbal) than to perceptual examination. The experiments of R. Shepard and L. Cooper can be interpreted as intellectual tasks for understanding a special kind, in which the speed of obtaining a solution depends on the complexity of the task.

W. Neisser gives an original solution to this problem. From his point of view, representations are nothing more than schemes (cognitive maps) for collecting perceptual information, isolated from the perceptual cycle by the perceiver for use in other purposes. The schema is indeed not a "mental picture" in the world of consciousness, it cannot be looked at, unlike the object of perception. Her role is that she is the plan that guides the collection of information about the real world. At the same time, it is connected with the process of perception, for there is nothing else than perceptual anticipation (including anticipation of the perception of what would be given in our experience if such and such conditions were met). - in case of imagining). However, the idea is not just a pale "copy", an imprint of previous perceptions, as the representatives of the old philosophical empiricism believed. The point is that, firstly, perception, according to W. Neisser (he shares the position of J. Gibson on this point), is not an image, an ideal object that can leave “traces”, but the process of collecting perceptual information ; secondly, perceptual schemes, i.e. representations, being mainly the result of empirical experience, at the same time are partly innate, i.e. pre-experimental. The degree of visual experience of these schemes is very different. It is one thing to have a perceptual schema (i.e., representation) of a particular person or past event; another thing is the amodal scheme of the world, which underlies all other perceptual schemes. It is very difficult to consider visual tactile representations. However, interpreting them as perceptual schemas or cognitive maps provides a clue to their understanding. Modern philosophical and psychological analysis of representations leads to the following conclusions: 1) representation cannot be opposed to thinking (although not in the sense that philosophical empiricism had in mind). Thinking can be carried out without the participation of representations. However, representation somehow presupposes mental activity, in which it is included as a perceptual scheme and as a way of solving certain tasks for comprehension. Therefore, the widespread formula that representation (along with sensation and perception) belongs to the lower, sensual level of cognition, opposed to thinking, is completely unfounded; 2) representations are not visual “pictures” that exist in the inner world of consciousness and are examined by the “mental eye”, but forms of readiness for active cognitive activity in the outside world. Their content is not something only intrinsic to them, but coincides with the supposed characteristics of objects and events in the real world. Lit .: Berkeley D. Op. M-, 1973; MahE. Analysis of sensations and the relation of the physical to the psychic. M., 1908; Tvardovsky K. To the doctrine of the content and subject of representations. - In the book: He. Logic-philosophical and psychological studies. M., 1997; Arnheim R. Visual thinking, - In the book: Reader in general psychology. Psychology of thinking. M., 1981; Velichkovsky BM Modern cognitive psychology. M., 1982; Neisser U. Cognition and reality. M., 1981; RyleG. The Concept of Mind. L., 1945; Dennett D. Content and Consciousness. L., 1969; Idem. Two Approaches to Mental Images.-Idem. Brainstorms. Philosophical Essays on Mind and Psychology. Cambr. (Mass.), 1978; FodorJ. Imagistic Representation.-Idem. The language of Thought. N.Y., 1975; PylishinZ. Imagery and Artificial Intelligence.- Readings in Philosophy of Psychology, ed. by Ned Block, vol. 2. L, 1981.

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PERFORMANCE(in psychology) (eng. representation, mental representation) - a visual image of an object or phenomenon (event) that arises on the basis of past experience (data sensations and perceptions) by reproducing it in memory or in the imagination.

Since representations arise in the absence of objects related to them, they are usually less vivid and less detailed than perceptions (a mental process that gives a holistic image of an object or phenomenon), but at the same time more schematized and generalized: they reflect the most characteristic visual features, characteristic of a whole class of similar objects. However, the degree of generalization in the representation may be different; in this regard, individual and general representations are distinguished: individual representations are more individual and concrete in their visibility than general representations, but individual representations also contain a certain generalization, since they are summarized images of many perceptions of individual objects. This is the important cognitive role of representation as a transitional stage from perception to abstract-logical thinking (the natural ability of a healthy human brain to independently develop independent methods of “extracting” new knowledge from the surrounding reality). At the same time, representations differ from abstract concepts in their visibility, they have not yet identified internal, natural connections and relationships hidden from direct perception, as is the case in abstract concepts. Arbitrary operation of representations in the processes of memory, imagination and thinking is possible due to their regulation by the speech system. At the same time, through the language, further processing of representations into abstract concepts takes place.

Concepts are called abstract, the scope element of which is properties or relations. In other words, in these concepts, not objects are singled out and generalized, but their properties or relations. Examples. "Justice", "whiteness", "criminality", "caution", "inherence", "paternity", etc. are all abstract concepts.

A concept is called concrete, the volume elements of which are objects. Examples. "Chair", "table", "crime", "shadow", "music" - all these are concrete concepts)

representation reflection visibility generalization

Classification

By leading analyzers (by modality)

In accordance with the division of representations into representative systems (according to the modality of the leading analyzer), the following types of representations are distinguished:

visual (image of a person, place, landscape);

auditory (playing a musical melody);

olfactory (representation of some characteristic smell - for example, cucumber or perfume);

taste (ideas about the taste of food - sweet, bitter, etc.)

tactile (the idea of smoothness, roughness, softness, hardness of the object);

temperature (the idea of cold and heat);

According to the degree of generalization

Representations also differ in the degree of generalization. In this case, one speaks of single, general and schematized representations (as opposed to perceptions, which are always single).

Origin

Most of a person's ideas are images that arise on the basis of perception - that is, the primary sensory reflection of reality. From these images, in the process of individual life, the picture of the world of each individual person is gradually formed and corrected.

Representations can also be formed on the basis of imagination, and this type of representation forms the basis of creativity - both artistic and scientific.

According to the degree of willpower

Representations also differ in the degree of manifestation of volitional efforts. In this case, they are divided into involuntary and arbitrary.

Involuntary ideas are ideas that arise spontaneously, without activating the will and memory of a person, for example, dreams.

Properties

Representations are characterized by such basic properties as visibility, fragmentation, instability and generalization.

visibility

A person represents the image of the perceived object exclusively in a visual form. In this case, blurring of the outlines and the disappearance of a number of signs take place. The visibility of representations is poorer than the visibility of perception due to the loss of immediacy of reflection.

Fragmentation

The representation of objects and phenomena is characterized by uneven reproduction of their individual parts. Objects (or their fragments) that in previous perceptual experience had greater attractiveness or significance have an advantage. The fragmentation of representations, noted by G. Ebbinghaus and confirmed by modern researchers, consists in the fact that “with a careful analysis or an attempt to establish all sides or features of an object, the image of which is given in the representation, it usually turns out that some sides, features or parts are not represented at all ". If the instability of representation is an analogue of incomplete constancy, then fragmentation is the equivalent of incomplete integrity or an expression of its deficiency in representation compared to perception.

Instability

The image presented at a given moment in time (or its fragment) can be kept in active consciousness only for a certain time, after which it will begin to disappear, losing fragment after fragment. On the other hand, the image of representation does not arise immediately, but as the perception of new aspects and properties of the object, new temporary connections; gradually it is supplemented, changed and "cleared up". In essence, instability as a manifestation of impermanence is a negative equivalent or expression of the lack of constancy inherent in the perceptual image. It is well known to everyone from their own experience and consists in the “fluctuations” of the image and the fluidity of its components.

Generalization

The presented object, its image, has a certain information capacity, and the content (structure) of the representation image is schematized or reduced. As B.C. points out. Kuzin, a representation always includes an element of generalization. In it, the material of an individual perception is necessarily associated with the material of previous experience and previous perceptions. The new unites with the old. Representations are the result of all past perceptions of a particular object or phenomenon. Birch as an image of representation is the result of all past perceptions of birches, both directly and in images. Therefore, a representation, generalizing a specific object (or phenomenon), can simultaneously serve as a generalization of a whole class of similar objects due to the fact that the represented object does not directly affect the senses.

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