The relief of South America is varied. According to the nature of the geological structure and features of the modern relief, South America is divided into two heterogeneous parts. The eastern part of the mainland is the ancient South American platform; western - actively developing folded belt of the Andes. The elevated sections of the platform - shields - correspond in relief to the Brazilian and Guiana plateaus. The troughs of the South American platform correspond to the giant lowland plains - the Amazonian, Orinoc, the system of internal plains (the Gran Chaco plain, the Laplata lowland), and the young Patagonian platform to the plains of Patagonia.

The Amazonian lowland is filled with marine and continental sediments. It was formed as a result of the activity of the Amazon River, as a result of the accumulation of sediments brought by the course. In the west, the lowland is very flat, the river valleys are slightly incised, the heights barely reach 150 m. Its northern and southern margins, underlain by crystalline rocks of the shields, are elevated and gradually turn into plateaus.

The Brazilian Plateau is located in the east of the mainland. It is a ledge of the crystalline basement of the platform, between which there are troughs filled with sedimentary rocks and volcanic lavas. This is the largest rise within the platform. The Brazilian plateau has heights from 250-300 m in the north to 800-900 m in the southeast. The relief of the plateau is a relatively leveled surface, above which blocky massifs and plateaus rise.

In the north of the mainland, the Guiana Plateau (300-400 m) is confined to the vast ledge of the folded base of the platform. Its relief is dominated by stepped plateaus.

The vast plains and large sections of the plateaus of South America are convenient for the life and economic activity of the population. (Show on the map the largest lowlands and plateaus and determine their maximum heights.)

The Andes is the longest mountain range on land with a length of 9000 km. The Andes are one of the highest mountain ranges in the world. In height, it is second only to the Tibetan-Himalayan mountainous country. Twenty peaks of the Andes rise to a height of more than 6 thousand meters. The highest of them is the city of Aconcagua (6960 m).

The formation of the Andes is the result of the interaction of two lithospheric plates, when the oceanic Nazca plate “dived” under the continental South American one. At the same time, the edge of the continental plate was crumpled into folds, forming mountains. Currently, mountain building continues. This is evidenced by the eruptions of numerous volcanoes and the strongest catastrophic earthquakes. Among the large volcanoes, one can note such as Chimborazo (6267 m), Cotopaxi (5897 m). The west coast, occupied by the Andes, belongs to the Pacific "Ring of Fire".

The strongest in the world recorded in 11-12 points occurred in 1960 in Chile. In 2010, an earthquake in Chile claimed several hundred lives. Serious disasters occur in the Andes every 10-15 years.

The Andes mountain system consists of several meridianally elongated mountain ranges. Between the ridges lie internal plateaus and plateaus, with a height of 3500 to 4500 m.

Minerals of South America

The mainland is rich in minerals. The richest deposits of iron and manganese ores are confined to the ancient shields of the South American Platform: the center and outskirts of the Brazilian Plateau, as well as the north of the Guiana Plateau. The largest iron ore mining area is Carajas. In the northern part, on the outskirts of both plateaus, there are very large deposits of bauxite, a raw material for the aluminum industry. Bauxites occur at shallow depths and are mined by open pit mining.

Ores of copper (Peru, Chile), tin (Bolivia), lead and zinc (Peru) have been explored in the Andes. The foothills of the Andes, especially Venezuela and Colombia, are rich in oil and natural gas. Coal deposits are less significant (Ecuador, Argentina). Many Andean countries are famous for their mining of precious stones. First of all, this applies to the extraction of emeralds in Colombia. Of the precious metals in South America, the largest reserves of silver are in Peru. The Andes belt is also famous for some non-metallic minerals. Saltpeter occupies the first place among them. The famous Chilean saltpeter and iodine are mined in the dried-up reservoirs of the Atacama.

The relief of South America is more diverse in comparison with Africa and Australia. The high Andes in the west separate the main flat part of the mainland from the Pacific Ocean. South America is characterized by active seismicity. South America is called the "pantry of the world." The mainland is rich in natural resources necessary for the development of many sectors of the economy.

This platform experienced a short-term uplift at the beginning of the Silurian as a result of the manifestation of the Taconian phase of folding in the Appalachian geosyncline. Regression has been replaced by transgression with wide distribution of carbonate deposits and reef formations.

Silurian deposits are represented by limestones and dolomites. There are many reef structures in the Lower Silurian sections, and halogen rocks appear in the Upper Silurian, especially in the east of the platform - anhydrites, gypsum and rock salt.

At the very end of the Silurian, huge salt pools arose in North America. The thickness of the Silurian is measured in several hundred meters. In depressions, it increases, for example, in the Michigan depression - up to 1.5 km.

gondwana

The southern continents in the Silurian still stand above sea level, and the Silurian precipitation is insignificant, but where they are present (along the periphery of Gondwana), they are represented by terrigenous formations.

In the South American part of Gondwana, a restructuring took place at the end of the Ordovician - the beginning of the Silurian, probably caused by the influence of the Caledonian folding. In the Silurian, the area of ​​the sea increased. Depressions of the meridional direction appeared. They accumulated significant thickness (up to 800-1200 m) clastic sediments with subordinate carbonate layers. In the Amazon Basin (latitudinal direction), marine sandy-argillaceous sediments 100 m thick are observed. In the Late Silurian and at the very beginning of the Devonian, uplifts again occurred as a result of Late Caledonian movements.

In the African part of Gondwana, sandy strata at the end of the Ordovician and in the Silurian were replaced by dark clays with graptolites. Carbonate muds appeared in the northern part of the basin. Along the margins of the area of ​​marine accumulation, coastal sands were deposited. The thickness of the Silurian rocks is usually small. On the Arabian Peninsula, the Silurian is represented by a continuous section of sandy-argillaceous formations of considerable thickness. At the end of the Silurian, a regression began everywhere in Africa, which was especially clearly manifested in Arabia.

The Australian part of Gondwana in the Silurian was mostly land.

History of the development of geosynclinal belts North Atlantic geosynclinal belt

Grampian geosynclinal region. Grampian geosyncline. A section of the Silurian of Wales, the stratotype locality where the Silurian system was identified, can be seen in Scheme III, col. incl.

The Silurian rests on the Ordovician with a structural unconformity caused by the Taconian orogeny. At the base of the Llandovery lie conglomerates and sandstones, above which are replaced by a sandy-clayey stratum with shell rocks; Pentamerides are numerous (the thickness of Llandovery reaches 1.5 km). Wenlock is lithologically diverse: in some areas of calcareous-argillaceous rocks and

limestones with remains of brachiopods and corals (300-400 m), in others - a thick layer of sandstones and siltstones (thickness -1.2 km). The Ludlov deposits are predominantly carbonate: limestone, calcareous shales, calcareous siltstones. There are numerous stromatoporates, corals, brachiopods (thickness - 0.5 km). There are fossil banks with Conchidium knighti. In the upper part of the stage, there is a layer of the so-called bone-bearing breccia, which consists of parts and fragments of the bone cover of armored fish.

The described section of three tiers refers to "shell" formations - shallow-water deposits of considerable thickness containing the indicated fauna.

Another type of section of the same stages is also known - in the form of a thin stratum of graptolitic shales. Clay material in this case was deposited in the deep sea areas. The third type of incision is mixed. It contains rocks of the first and second types.

The uppermost part of the Silurian section in England is distinguished as the Downton Stage (thickness -0.6-0.9 km). These are red and variegated sandy-argillaceous rocks with interlayers of red marls. They contain shells of ostracods and ichthyofauna. Downton is gradually replaced by the lower red-colored Devonian. All this is overlapped with structural unconformity by Middle Devonian conglomerates.

In Wales, the total thickness of the Silurian is 3 km. The deposits are folded and metamorphosed. Caledonian folding manifested itself repeatedly and was accompanied by magmatism.

In the Scandinavian part of the Grampian geosyncline, thick clastic strata accumulated, at first typically marine, and towards the end of the Silurian - continental.

Ural-Mongolian geosynclinal belt

Ural-Tien Shan geosynclinal region stretches from Novaya Zemlya to the southern Tien Shan.

Ural geosyncline. Silurian deposits are widely developed in the Urals. On the western slope of the Urals, carbonate and terrigenous sediments (up to 2 km) accumulated quietly under miogeosynclinal conditions. On the eastern slope, in the eugeosyncline, lavas and tuffs, siliceous shales and limestones accumulate (thickness - 5 km). In the Silurian in the Urals, the main geotectonic structures were laid, which later turned into the existing anticlinoria and synclinoria. The Silurian of the Urals of the western and eastern slopes contains the same fauna, which indicates a single geosynclinal Ural basin in the Silurian. ,; On the territory of the western slope of the Urals and on Novaya Zemlya, miogeosynclinal conditions dominated, so carbonate and carbonate-argillaceous deposits (500-1500 m) with a diverse complex of organic remains accumulated here. Shallow coastal sand and pebble rocks are known on the western outskirts of the Northern Urals (Polyudov Ridge). In the west of the central part of the Urals, on Pai-Khoi and in places on Novaya Zemlya, black clayey graptolite shales are exposed.

Caledonian folding, in contrast to other geosynclines of the Ural-Mongolian belt, is not typical for the Urals; it did not cause structural unconformities, but the ultrabasic and basic intrusions of the central zone are considered Caledonian.

Silurian deposits are widespread in Kazakhstani part of the Ural-Mongolian belt. They are represented by typical geosynclinal formations of considerable thickness with the remains of a rich fauna. Horizons of brachiopod and coral limestones are characteristic.

In the context of Mt. Chingiztau Silurian is represented only by the lower section (see Scheme III, color inc). Silurian deposits (up to 2.5 km) accumulated in eugeosynclinal marine conditions with strong volcanism. Actively manifested Caledonian folding. The most pronounced is the last - Late Caledonian - phase of folding, which led to the retreat of the sea from the territory of the Chingiztau Ridge, to the completion of the first, actually geosynclinal, stage of its development.

tiya. The gently dipping Lower and Middle Devonian effusive rocks and felsic tuffs crowning the section accumulated already in terrestrial conditions. They are usually identified as volcanogenic molasses of the orogenic stage of development. The repeated intrusion of large granitoid intrusions is associated with folding.

Altai-Sayan folded region. Silurian deposits are known in the same place as the Ordovician, but in the west limestones and terrigenous rocks with rich fauna predominate, in the east (Western Sayan, Tuva) the role of coarse clastic rocks with depleted fauna increases. The thickness of the Silurian deposits in the west is 4.5 km, in the east - up to 7.5 km.

In the Silurian section of Western Tuva (see Scheme III, color incl.), the Silurian deposits (Chergak Group) overlie the Ordovician. They have a large thickness (2.5-3 km), consist of sandy-argillaceous rocks with interlayers, packs and lenses of limestones. The highest carbonate content is confined to the middle part of the section. The fauna is rich and varied. These are stromatoporates, tabulates, heliolithids, rugoses, crinoids, bryozoans, brachiopods, trilobites. Many local (endemic) forms. Evidently, in the Silurian there existed a shallow marine basin with small reefs, coral and crinoid thickets, and banks of brachiopods. The endemism of the fauna speaks of the difficult communication with other seas. By the end of the Silurian, the basin gradually shrank, became shallow, its salinity changed, and only euryhaline organisms survived in it.

In the Ordovician, Silurian and early Devonian in Western Tuva, a single huge (10 km) transgressive-regressive Tuva complex was formed with marine deposits in the middle part and red-colored continental rocks in the base and roof. The deposits of the Tuva complex are folded and intruded by small basic and felsic intrusions. The upper part of the section under consideration is composed of thick Lower Devonian terrestrial effusive rocks and red clastic rocks of the Middle Devonian. These are continental deposits of intermountain depressions formed during the regression caused by the Caledonian orogeny. - "In the section of Western Tuva, three structural floors that differ sharply from each other are clearly distinguished: the first is the Lower Cambrian; the second is the Ordovician, Silurian, lower Devonian; the third is the upper part of the Lower Devonian and the Middle Devonian. The floors record different stages of geological development: the first - eugeosynclinal, the third - orogenic, and the second - intermediate (transitional).At the second stage, the subsidence developed on an already consolidated basement, the regime resembled miogeosynclinal.Ore deposits of iron and copper are associated with acidic intrusions.

Thus, the Caledonian epoch of tectogenesis covered the regions of northwestern Kazakhstan, partly the Altai Mountains, the northern Tien Shan and the eastern part of the Altai-Sayan folded region - the Western Sayan and Tuva, where the Caledonides arose.

Mediterranean geosynclinal belt

In the European part of this belt, conditions are preserved that are close to those previously described in the Ordovician. This is still the insular land of the Franco-Czech massif (Moldanub block) and marine conditions to the north and south of it (Prague synclinorium, see diagram III, color incl.). In northern Europe, sandstones, black shales, bituminous limestones (0.5 km thick) accumulate, siliceous shales appear, due to manifestations of underwater volcanic activity. In southern Europe, between the Franco-Bohemian Massif and the Atlas Mountains in Africa, the Silurian is represented by monotonous facies: black shales with graptolites, which are replaced by limestones at the top of the section.

AT Asian geosynclinal region the Silurian is known in Turkey, the Caucasus, in the mountainous structures of Iran, Afghanistan, and the Pamirs.

Here, under eugeosynclinal conditions, thick strata of terrigenous rocks and volcanic rocks of basic and felsic composition, or small terrigenous-carbonate facies accumulated in miogeosynclinal zones (Zagros Himalayas, etc.).

Minerals

deposits rock salt, industrial deposits oil and gas known on the North American (Canadian) and Siberian platforms. In the Silurian, deposits of oolitic iron ores Clinton (USA) and a number of smaller ones in Africa. Deposits associated with the Caledonian felsic intrusions gold Northern Kazakhstan, Kuznetsk Alatau and Mountain Shoria.

In late Caledonian intrusions in the Scandinavian mountains, iron, copper, chromite: Known in the Urals nickel, platinum, asbestos, jasper. Deposits associated with pegmatites rare metals in the Appalachians and Eastern Siberia.

Silurian limestones are a building material and a good ceramic raw material.

DEVONIAN PERIOD - D

General characteristic, stratigraphic divisions and stratotypes

The Devonian system was established in 1839 by the famous English geologists A. Sedgwick and R. Murchison in England in Devonshire, after whom it was named.

The duration of the Devonian period is 48 million years, its beginning is 408 million years, and its end is 360 million years ago.

"The sections of the Devonian of Great Britain are composed of continental facies and willows can be used as stratotypes to distinguish stages. Therefore, the division of the Devonian system was carried out in the Ardennes on the territory of Belgium, France and in the Rhine Slate Mountains on the territory of Germany. The Devonian system is divided into three sections (Table 8).

Table 8 General stratigraphic units of the Devonian system

The boundary between the Silurian and the Devonian, as mentioned above, is drawn at the base of the graptolite zone. Monograptus uniformis(Barrandien, Czech Republic). At present, this boundary is the only one officially adopted by the Stratigraphic Commission of the International Geological Congress. The upper limit has not been officially approved. In view of the fact that at the beginning of the Devonian period, an extensive regression continued, which began as early as the Silurian, a variety of facies settings arose with the corresponding fauna. This greatly complicates the division and comparison of sections and was the reason for the creation of a "combined" scale, consisting of tiers established in different regions. The tiered division of the Lower Devonian of Barrandien, the Rhineland, is based on the marine fauna, and the age-appropriate deposits of England are based on the remains of fish found in lagoonal-continental deposits.

Zhedinsky stage, named by A. Dumont in 1848 along the river. Zhedin in the Ardennes, unites the lower layers of the Devonian of the Ardenno-Rhine region. They are represented by coastal facies and lie transgressively on Cambrian deposits (hence the difficulties in determining the exact boundary with the Silurian). In the stratotype, the lower part is represented by the Fepan conglomerates 10–40 m thick, the Ebb arkoses 30 m thick, and the Mondrechon shales with sandstone interbeds. Sandstones and shales contain rich assemblages of brachiopods. In the upper part there are red and maroon shales with small calcareous concretions, interlayers of red

and green sandstones and quartzites. They are characterized by fish remains. The total thickness is lo 750 m.

The name "Siegen Stage" was first used by E. Kaiser, designating the greywackes in the Rhine Slate Mountains. Siegen greywackes are most fully represented in the Siegerland region, where lagoonal and coastal-marine facies with remains of fish, bivalves and brachiopods are developed. The thickness of the deposits in the stratotype section is 4 km.

The Emsian stage was established by C. Dorlodo in 1900 in the Ems town near Koblenz in the Rhineland. The deposits of this stage are represented by a sequence of sandstones, quartzites, and shales with interlayers of volcanic rocks. The thickness reaches 2 km. In the layers there are accumulations of brachiopods, bivalves, and occasionally corals (Fig. 51).

Previously, the Siegen and Ems stages were combined into one stage, which was called the Koblenz-Kim. However, according to the decision of the International Stratigraphic Commission, the Lower Devonian is now accepted in the volume of three stages.

The Eifelian Stage was named by A. Dumont in 1848 after the Eifel Mountains, where the stratotype section is located. The volume of the stage was modified and, after the work of M. Düsseldorf in 1937, it was accepted as the volume of calceol and upper cultivated Laukh layers with a stratotype in the Wetteldorf section of the Eifel Mountains. Here, a sequence of marls, platy limestones, calcareous sandstones and coral-stromatoporous limestones (about 450 m thick) is exposed. In the thickness of a large number of corals of the genera Favosites, Calceola, Damophyllum, remains of cephalopods and conodonts.

The Givetian Stage was identified in the Ardennes by J. Gosselet in 1879. The name comes from the city of Givet, located in Northern France. This stage combines deposits characterized by stringocephalic brachiopods, the presence of conodonts, corals, and, less commonly, trilobites. The stage is composed of limestones and calcareous shales, organogenic and organogenic-detrital limestones.

The Frasnian Stage was established in 1879 by J. Gosselet in Belgium. The name was received from the village. Fran near the city of Couvin. In the stratotype section, it is composed of shales and reef coral-stromato-porous limestones (about 500 m thick). Characterized by brachiopods, conodonts, corals and bivalves.

* The Famennian stage was first identified in the Ardennes by A. Dumont in 1855. It got its name from the Famenn area in Belgium. Sandstones, shales with intercalations of limestones are developed here. In stratotic terrain, it is characterized by great variability. Marine sediments contain conodonts, corals, and brachiopods, while lagoon sediments contain fish remains and plant imprints.

In the 1960s, Czechoslovak researchers suggested that instead of the Zhedino and Siegen stages, the Lochkovian and Pragian stages should be distinguished, which were established in the marine sections of the Barrandov trough in the Bohemian massif not far from Prague, which are well characterized by fauna. There is also a recognized border between the Silurian and the Devonian, drawn between the Przhidolsky and Lochkovian stages. In 1985, the International Subcommittee on Devonian Stratigraphy recommended the Lochkovian and Pragian stages of the Czech Republic as typical for the Lower Devonian. Since then, geologists have been using precisely these stages, although the former Zhedinsky and Siegen stages roughly corresponding to them have not been formally abolished. This explains the "dual power" in the lower part of the tiered scale of the Devonian system.

Characteristic sections of the Devonian system are shown in schemes IV and V, col. incl.

organic world

The organic world of the Devonian period was rich and varied. Terrestrial vegetation has made significant progress. The beginning of the Devonian period was characterized by the wide distribution of "psilaphites" (rhinophytes), which reached their peak at that time.

Rice. 51. Characteristic fossil remains of Devonian organisms

Brachiopods:/ - Euryspirifer(early and middle Devonian), 2a, 6 - Stringocephalus(average Devonian), 3-Karpinskia(Early Devonian), 4 - Cyrtospirifer(mostly Late Devonian), 5a, b - Hypothyridina(Middle and Late Devonian); cephalopods:6 - Clymenia(Late Devonian), 7 - Timanites(Late Devonian) 8-Tornoceras(Late Devonian); crinoids:9 - Cupressocrinites(Middle Devonian); rugosa corals:10-Calceola(Early - Middle Devonian), // - Hexagonaria(Middle - Late Devonian); conodonts:12-Palmatolepis(Late Devonian) 13 - Polygnathus(Devonian), 14 - Icriodus(Devonian); lungfish:15 - Dipterus(Middle - Late Devonian); lobe-finned fish:16 - Holoptychius(Late Devonian); amphibians:17 - Ichthyostega(Late Devonian); rhinophytes:18-Rhynia(Early Devonian) 19, 20 - Sawdonia(Early Devonian)

(Fig. 52, color on). Their dominance is observed in swampy landscapes. At the beginning of the Middle Devonian, rhinophytes died out, they were replaced by great ferns, in which leaf-like forms began to form. In the middle Devonian, all the main groups of spore plants already existed. These are clubs, arthropods and ferns, and at the end of the Devonian the first representatives of gymnosperms appeared; many of the shrubs turned into trees and gave rise to the first coal seams (Svalbard, Barzas). The Late Devonian flora was called Archeopteris, after the widespread heterosporous fern. Archaeopteris(Fig. 53, color on). At the end of the Devonian, forests already existed on the planet, consisting of the plants listed above.

Conodonts have the greatest biostratigraphic importance in the Devonian. These representatives of the primitive chordates, which appeared in the middle Cambrian, already gained a dominant position in the Ordovician. In the late Devonian, the second peak of their heyday is observed. The conodonts changed so rapidly in the Devonian that they make it possible to distinguish more than 50 standard zones in the Devonian deposits with a duration of the Devonian period of about 50 million years. This is a prime example of using the remains of rapidly evolving organisms to create ultra-detailed stratigraphy. w Graptolites survive in the Devonian (one rare genus in the Lower Devonian Monograptus) and cystoids; the variety of forms of trilobites and nautiloids is sharply reduced. Widespread castle brachiopods (brachiopods) from the family Spiriferidae with the main genus Spirifer and pentamerides (genus Pentamerus), four-rayed corals, tabulates.

The cephalopods (Fig. 51) are significant in their significance: the orders of goniatites, agonyatites and climenia. They have a simple septal line with solid pointed lobes and solid rounded saddles (goniatite), or with rounded lobes and saddles (agoniatite). Clymenia is a specific group of ancient ammonoids, in which the siphon was located closer to the dorsal side, and not to the ventral side, as in most representatives of the ammonoid subclass. Clymenia were characteristic only of the Late Devonian.

For the first time in the history of the Earth, bivalves and some lower crustaceans began to play an important role, which is associated with the existence of numerous basins of abnormal salinity in the Devonian. It should be noted the abundance of the smallest crustaceans - ostracods and phyllopods.

For the stratigraphy of marine sediments, the most important are conodonts, ammonoids, brachiopods, corals, tentaculites, and ostracods. Vertebrates began to acquire ever-increasing importance. Jawless and especially fish are widespread: lungfish, armored, lobe-finned, cartilaginous (sharks, rays) (Fig. 51). In freshwater and brackish-water basins, fish, apparently, were already numerous. Since the Devonian, the first amphibians are known - stegocephals.

The development of land by plants and animals continued. Among the latter, there are scorpions and centipedes, which appeared in the Silurian, as well as wingless insects.

Crustal structures and paleogeography v

During the Devonian period, there are no significant changes in the distribution and outline of the main structural elements of the earth's crust, created by the beginning of the Devonian (platforms, geosynclinal belts and Caledonides). This is explained by the weak development of fold processes in the Devonian, which are characterized by low intensity. Only at the end of the period in some geosynclinal areas did the Breton folding phase - beginning Hertzin era of tectonogenesis. The Breton phase of folding is established in the northwest of the Mediterranean (European) geosynclinal region (Brittany Peninsula) and in the South Appalachian geosynclinal region. The Caledonian folding led to uplifts not only of the Caledonian regions, but also of many platforms. reached its maximum in the early Devonian regression, which began at the end of the Silurian. The areas of destruction and demolition were the Caledonides and extensive pro-.

platform spaces. Sedimentation on the platforms was sharply reduced, it continued only in areas bordering the Caledonides. This stage is characterized by inland water bodies with abnormal salinity. The marine regime has been preserved in geosynclines.

From the middle of the Devonian, in many parts of the world, ascending movements gave way to subsidence, and a new transgression developed. The sea advanced on the platforms and penetrated the limits of the Caledonides (see Diagram IV, col. inc.).

At the end of the Late Devonian, in the Famennian, the rise of the platforms began again (the Breton phase) and, in connection with this, some regression of the sea.

; A characteristic feature of the Devonian is the formation of intermountain depressions, in which continental terrigenous, predominantly red-colored deposits and volcanic rocks with a thickness of several thousand meters accumulated. The deposits of intermountain depressions are collected in folds or lie flat. In some depressions, they are cut through by intrusions and metamorphosed to varying degrees. The appearance of depressions is associated with the emergence and activation of faults, with block movements characteristic of the Devonian. The formation of such depressions occurred during the final - orogenic- the stage of development of geosynclines.

The beginning of the Devonian period (Early Devonian epoch) is quite deserving of the name geocratic epochs in the life of the Earth, that is, epochs with a predominance of the continental regime. Since the Middle Devonian, the areas occupied by the seas have increased both on platforms and in geosynclinal areas. The land area is shrinking. At the same time there is a general alignment, gradual peneplanization continents, as well as insular land areas scattered over the area of ​​geosynclinal regions. This is evidenced by the almost ubiquitous change of terrigenous sedimentation characteristic of the Early Devonian to carbonate. Until the end of the Devonian period, the mountain relief remained most stable in the Caledonian regions, but even there, by the end of the period, it turned out to be significantly smoothed in places, as evidenced by the relative fine-grained upper layers of the "ancient red sandstone" of the British Isles, the Minusinsk depressions, etc. (Fig. 54).

The late Devonian epoch, in contrast to the early Devonian, especially its first half (the Frasnian age), was a time of widespread development of marine transgressions, a time of predominant dominance of the sea over land. Similar epochs in the life of the Earth are called thalassocratic.

Restoring the position of the climatic zones of the Devonian is difficult, since the ground vegetation is sparse. Only the characteristic features of a number of continental and lagoonal facies of the Devonian allow us to draw some paleoclimatic conclusions, which, however, are insufficient for reconstructing the general picture of climatic zonality in the Devonian period.

When considering the conditions for the formation of "ancient red sandstone", many facts point to the arid climate of the intermountain depressions in which these sediments accumulated. The middle part of the Russian Plate, apparently, was characterized by a dry and hot climate in the Devonian, as evidenced by the widespread development of lagoonal chemogenic sediments (dolomites, gypsum, etc.) here. The same precipitation outlines within Europe a zone of arid climate, stretching from the northwest to the southeast. Other evidence of the Devonian climate is the tillites of the Cape Mountains of South Africa (30 m thick), 500 km long. It is not clear whether the moraine accumulations associated with this glaciation have continental or mountain genesis. Other manifestations of glacial activity in the Devonian are unknown.

The most characteristic facies of the Devonian is the "ancient red sandstone" facies. (Old Red sandstone) widespread in all countries of the Northern Hemisphere (Fig. 54). It is assumed that this is a continental facies of sandy deserts. However, finds of organic remains in red sandstone (armored fishes, phyllopods) force us to consider this facies as mixed.

Rice. 54. Schematic map of the continent of ancient red sandstone and the zone bordering it / - the main modern outcrops of ancient red sandstone; 2 - Hercynian massifs (Marine Devonian); S-S- northern boundary of marine transgressions to the continent of ancient red sandstone; Yu Yu- the southern boundary of the distribution of layers of ancient red sandstone in the marine Devonian of Central Europe (Ginyu, 1952)

shanna lagoon-continental and lagoon-marine. In addition to the "ancient red sandstone" lagoonal facies are often represented by the facies of closed brackish water basins. They formed the oil-bearing facies of the cypridine shales and the peculiar Domanik facies of the European part of Russia.

History of platform development

• SOUTH AMERICAN PLATFORM
  (Brazilian platform) Precambrian platform, occupying the central and eastern parts of the South. America. The foundation protrudes to the surface within the Guiana and Brazilian ...
• SOUTH AMERICAN PLATFORM
  platform (geol.), an ancient platform in the central and eastern parts of the mainland of the same name. See South America, section Geological structure and useful ...
• SOUTH AMERICAN PLATFORM
  `South American`an ...
• SOUTH AMERICAN PLATFORM
  (Brazilian platform), Precambrian platform, occupying the central and eastern parts of the South. America. The foundation protrudes to the surface within the Guiana and ...
• PLATFORM in the Dictionary of thieves' jargon:
  - …
• AMERICAN
  MARKETING ASSOCIATION) AMA is the largest among foreign national marketing associations (more than 50 thousand members). Created in 1937 for ...
• AMERICAN in the Dictionary of Economic Terms:
  DEPOSITARY RECEIVE - a receipt certifying the ownership of shares of a company - a resident of a foreign state, acquired in the process of their placement in the United States; …
• PLATFORM in the Big Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  in geology - one of the main deep structures of the earth's crust, characterized by a low intensity of tectonic movements, magmatic activity and a flat relief. …
• PLATFORM in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Euphron:
  I is the name of an elevation, usually wooden, arranged for an orchestra, choir or speaker; in a figurative sense in England from the beginning of the XIX ...
• PLATFORM in the Modern Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  (French plate-forme, from plat - flat and forme - form), 1) elevated platform, platform. 2) A small railway station, half-station or ...
• PLATFORM
  [French plate-forme literally - flat form] 1) an elevated platform (for example, a platform) along the path at the railway station; 2) a small railway station, half-station; 3) ...
• PLATFORM in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  s, w. 1. Platform, platform, in particular at railway stations for boarding, loading. High p.||Wed. DEBARKADER, APRON. 2. …
• PLATFORM in the Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  , -s, f. 1. Elevation, platform for boarding passengers, loading luggage. Railway point 2. A small railway station. 3. Open railway car ...
• PLATFORM
  PLATFORM political, program of action, demands put forward by political. party, group, org-tion or otd. …
• PLATFORM in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  PLATFORM (geol.), one of Ch. deep structures of the earth's crust, characterized by a low intensity of tectonic. movements, magmatic activities and flat terrain. P. …
• PLATFORM in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  PLATFORM (French plate-forme, from plat - flat and forme - shape), elevated platform, platform. Small railway station, station or platform ...
• AMERICAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  "AMERIAN ENCYCLOPEDIA" ("American"; The Encyclopedia Americana), univers. encyclopedia in USA, 1st ed. in 16 vols., 1903-04, New York. Since 1918 it has been published ...
• AMERICAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  AMERIAN FEDERATION OF LABOR - CONGRESS OF INDUSTRIAL UNIONS (AFL - CIO), the largest prof. unification in the USA, created. in 1955 by merging ...
• AMERICAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  AMERIAN RACE (Americanoid race), is part of the great Mongoloid race. Combines, along with Mongoloid features, some Caucasoid features (lack of epicanthus, ...
• AMERICAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  AMERIAN ORTHODOX CHURCH, local autocephalous church. Beginning of A.p.c. established in Alaska in 1793 by the Synod of Rus. orthodox spiritual mission churches. …
• AMERICAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  AMERIAN WHITE BUTTERFLY, butterfly fam. bears, quarantine pest fruit. cultures in the North. America and Europe. The wings are snow-white, often with dark ...
• AMERICAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  AMERIAN ACADEMY OF CINEMATOGRAPHIC ARTS AND SCIENCES (Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, AMPAS), American Film Academy, Society. org-tion in the USA. …
• AMERICAN in the Big Russian Encyclopedic Dictionary:
  AMERIAN AID ADMINISTRATION, see "ARA" ...
• PLATFORM in the Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron:
  ? this is the name of an elevation, usually wooden, arranged for an orchestra, choir or speaker; in a figurative sense in England from the beginning of the XIX ...
• PLATFORM in the Full accentuated paradigm according to Zaliznyak:
  platfo "rma, platfo" rm, platfo "rm, platfo" rm, platfo" rm, platfo" rm, platfo" rm, platfo" rm, platfo" rm, platfo" rm, platfo" rm, platform" rm, ...
• PLATFORM in the Merry Etymological Dictionary:
  - …
• PLATFORM in the New Dictionary of Foreign Words:
  (French plate-forme lit. flat form) 1) an elevated platform along the path at the railway. stations (see also platform); 2) ...
• PLATFORM in the Dictionary of Foreign Expressions:
  [fr. plate-form letters. flat form] 1. elevated platform along the track at the railway. stations (see also platform); 2. small railway station, ...
• SOUTHERN in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language.
• PLATFORM in the dictionary of Synonyms of the Russian language:
  autoplatform, ramp, astroplatform, wagon, vibroplatform, elevation, landing stage, motoplatform, platform, slab, platform, podium, podium, sole, half-station, scaffold, program, station, flat, …
• SOUTH...
  
• PLATFORM in the New explanatory and derivational dictionary of the Russian language Efremova:
  1. g. 1) a) A flat, elevated platform that serves to accommodate smth. b) A platform for medical, decimal, etc. scales, on which ...
• PLATFORM in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Lopatin:
  platform, ...
• PLATFORM in the Complete Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  platform, ...
• PLATFORM in the Spelling Dictionary:
  platform, ...
• PLATFORM in the Dictionary of the Russian Language Ozhegov:
  political program of the party, public grouping Lib Theoretical platform elevation, platform for boarding passengers, loading luggage Railway platform thickened ...
• PLATFORM in the Dahl Dictionary:
  female , French scaffold, flooring, floor, current, palm, to install something, for example. guns; platform in front of…
• PLATFORM in the Modern Explanatory Dictionary, TSB:
  (French plate-forme, from plat - flat and forme - form), 1) elevated platform, platform. 2) A small railway station, half-station or ...
• SOUTHERN
  (no punch.). The first part of compound words in the meaning. southern, for example. South Caucasian...
• PLATFORM in the Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language Ushakov:
  platforms, w. (French plate-forme, lit. flat shape). 1. A flat, elevated platform from some kind of solid material. || Such a platform along the railway …
• SOUTH...
  The initial part of compound words, introducing the meaning of the words: southern (South African, south polar and ...
• PLATFORM in the Explanatory Dictionary of Efremova:
  platform 1. g. 1) a) A flat, elevated platform that serves to accommodate smth. b) A platform for medical, decimal, etc. weights, on ...
• SOUTH...
  The initial part of compound words, introducing the meaning of the word: southern (South African, south polar and ...
• PLATFORM in the New Dictionary of the Russian Language Efremova:
  
• SOUTH...
  The initial part of compound words, introducing the meaning of the words: southern (South African "an, south polar" ardent, etc.) ...
• PLATFORM in the Big Modern Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language:
  I 1. A flat, elevated platform that serves to accommodate something. ott. Playground medical, decimal, etc. scales on which is placed ...
• SOUTH SAKHALIN DIOCESE
  Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". South Sakhalin and Kuril diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church. Address: Russia, 693020, Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk, st. …
• ROCOR EASTERN AMERICAN DIOCESE in the Orthodox Encyclopedia Tree:
  Open Orthodox Encyclopedia "TREE". Attention, this article is not finished yet and contains only part of the necessary information. Eastern American and New York Diocese ...
• RUSSIA, DIV. SOUTH GREAT RUSSIAN ADVERTISEMENT in the Brief Biographical Encyclopedia:
  The Rzhno-Great Russian dialect embraces the modern provinces of Ryazan, Tambov, Tula, Orel, Kaluga, some parts of Smolensk, Kursk and Chernigov; in addition, South Great Russian dialects, ...
• SOUTH AFRICA in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  Republic, South Africa (Republick van Suid-Afrika, Republic of South Africa). I. General Information South Africa is a state in the extreme south of Africa. It borders…
• SIBERIAN PLATFORM in the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, TSB:
  platform, one of the large ancient (pre-Riphean) platforms, located in the middle part of North Asia. The western border of the platform coincides with the valley ...

This is the westernmost platform of the Gondwanan group in the modern structural plan of the Earth. Its foundation is formed not only by Early Precambrian, but also by Late Precambrian folded metamorphosed and granitized formations. They come to the surface in the Guiana and Central Brazilian (Guapor) shields and in the Atlantic granulite-gneiss belt (Fig. 6-2). Initially, before the formation of the superimposed Amazon Basin in the Early Paleozoic, the Early Precambrian formations of the Guiana and Central Brazilian shields formed a single Amazonian craton.
The actual platform (orthoplatform) sedimentary cover begins here with Ordovician deposits and fills three large depressions - syneclises, separating the basement ledges listed above: Amazonian, Paranaiba (Marañon) and Parana. Between the latter two there is also the San Fraisiscu Basin, the completion of which includes the Upper Proterozoic and Cretaceous sheath formations. The cover is also widely developed in the western band of pericratonic subsidence, which separates the main body of the platform from the Andean belt. And, finally, a narrow strip of perioceanic rift basins stretches along the Atlantic coast, continuing on the shelf and continental slope. This band contains exclusively Upper Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits. platform foundation
The Archean complex includes rocks of the Middle and Upper Archean; only gneisses with an age of about 3.4 billion years in the south of the Sao Francisco eocraton can belong to the lower one (Fig. 6-3).
Middle Archean age - more than 3.2 billion years, has the Imataka complex in the extreme north of the Guiana Shield, on the right bank of the river. Orinoco. The complex mainly consists of a variety of paragneisses with thick members of ferruginous quartzites, the subject of intensive mining. It also hosts granitoid intrusions and migmatites, is complexly deformed and metamorphosed into amphibolite or granulite facies. In addition to the Archean, Early Proterozoic granitoids were intruded into the Imataka complex, and isotope dating indicates the manifestation of later, up to 1.11 billion years ago, tectonothermal impacts.
The Imataka block is separated by a fault from the main part of the Guiana Shield, which is composed mainly of the Early Proterozoic. Among the latter, however, there are poorly contoured and poorly dated large and smaller Late Archean cores. One

of them - Xingu, finds its continuation to the south, already within the Central Brazilian Shield. Along with orthogneisses, migmatites and granites, relics of greenstone belts are found in it. More specifically, such belts are expressed in the Carajas region in the northeast of this shield, where, like the Imataka complex, they contain large deposits of ferruginous quartzites of industrial importance and, as usual, are surrounded by fields of granite-gneiss and migmatites. Ages of 2.76 Ga were obtained from volcanics, while granites gave Early Proterozoic dates of 1.85 Ga, indicating subsequent reworking. Folding is complex, metamorphism is amphibolite, sometimes granulite facies. Late Archean greenstone belts are also known in the southern part of the Central Brazilian Shield.
To the east, a fragment of a granite-greenstone area is found in the Goias median massif, which separates two parallel submeridional Late Proterozoic “brasilide” systems (see below). The greenstone belts here have a Middle Archean age, since the granite-gneisses of the base gave an age of 3.2 billion years, and outburst granitoids - billion years. The belts generally have the usual three-member structure, but some specificity is the predominant development of ultramafic rocks in the form of lavas and sills with interlayers of cherts and graphitic phyllites in the lower part of the section; the middle part is composed of basaltic lavas with interlayers of cherts, ferruginous quartzites, and also graphitic phyllites, while the upper part is metasedimentary, with the participation of felsic volcanics, ferruginous quartzites, and marbles. From the east, the granite-greenstone area is bordered by a discontinuous granulite-gneiss belt, and between them there is a mafic-ultramafic plutonic complex with copper-nickel mineralization. Granulite metamorphism is late Archean - 2.7 billion years - age.
Another granite-greenstone area corresponds to the San Francisco Eocraton, sandwiched between the brasilide belts. Since the Late Proterozoic syneclise of the same name is superimposed on the central part of this eocraton, Archean formations protrude only on the periphery of this syneclise, in the northeast in the state of Bahia and in the south in the state of Minas Gerais. Greenstone belts are known in both areas. Their probable basement is granite-gneisses with an age of up to 3.1-3.4 Ga, metamorphosed in amphibolite or granulite facies. The belts themselves are composed of ultrabasic to felsic volcanics and sedimentary formations that have undergone low-stage metamorphism of amphibolite or greenschist facies. Younger plutons of granitoids are dated at 2.7 Ga, and metavolcanites at 2.78 Ga, which indicates the late Archean age of the ZKP. Their section in pieces. Minas Gerais is quite typical: the bottoms are ultramafic, including komatiites, the middle part is basic and middle metavolcanics, ferruginous quartzites, graywackes, Mn-carbonates and silicates (rich manganese ores), the tops are phyllites, quartzites, subgraywackes. The total thickness is about 7 km.
The main distribution area of ​​the Early Proterozoic folded complex in South America is the central-eastern part of the Guiana Shield, where it composes the Maroni-Itacayunas belt, which continues along the southern side of the Amazon Basin in the northeastern part of the Central Brazilian Shield. In its general structure, this belt is very reminiscent of the granite-greenstone regions of the Archean. Separate protrusions of the latter are found among the formations of the belt (they were noted above), but the bulk of the rocks still belong to the Lower Proterozoic. Against the background of the predominant development of granite-gneisses and migmatites, numerous and very extended greenstone belts of synclinor structure are distinguished here with a predominance of mafic and ultramafic rocks in the lower part, medium and acid metavolcanics in the middle part, and metasedimentary rocks in the upper part. Metamorphism decreases from amphibolite along the periphery to the lowest grade of greenschist in the central part of the ZKP. Radiometric dating shows that the belt under consideration developed in the interval of 2.2-1.8 billion years ago. The belt as a whole is thrust northward over the Archean Imataka block, and its probable continuation on the other side of the Atlantic forms the Birrim belt of West Africa. As will be discussed in the next chapter, an ensimatic origin is proved for the last belt, while numerous outcrops of the Archean basement in the Maroni-Itacaiunas belt testify to its ensimatic nature. However, an increase in the concentration of the GSL in the northeast direction allowed A. Goodwin to conclude that this belt is becoming ensimatic here. Therefore, it can be assumed that the Early Proterozoic mobile belt is degenerating in the southwestern direction, associated with a decrease in the degree of destruction of the Archean continental crust.
Lower Proterozoic intensely folded, metamorphosed, and granitized formations, including those of the ZKP type, also protrude in small areas of the northeastern framing of the San Francisco Eocraton. And in its extreme southern part, the Lower Proterozoic Minae supergroup, unconformably overlying the Archean greenstone belt, already has the character of a platform cover, although it has undergone rather intense deformations, and therefore will be described below.

By the beginning of the Middle Proterozoic, a significant part of the basement of the future platform had already experienced cratonization, and the Middle Proterozoic developed on it in places in the form of a platform cover. The exceptions are the western and southwestern periphery of the Guiana and Central Brazilian shields and the zone between the Goias and San Francisco eocratons, more precisely, in the eastern frame of the "middle massif" of the Goias Uruazu system.
The Uruasu system is clearly ensialic in nature and is analogous to the African Cybarids and Urumids (see next chapter). It is composed of metamorphosed in the greenschist facies and collected in
folds of northeastern vergence directed towards the San Francisco Eocraton sandy-argillaceous sediments of shallow-water marine origin with a small contribution of volcanics and carbonates, about 4 km thick.
The same category of ensial mobile systems of rift origin includes the Espinyasu fold system in the southeastern frame of the San Francisco eocraton and the syneclise of the same name. It is composed of a thick (6-8 km) cyclically built stratum of basal and intraformational conglomerates (diamond-bearing), quartzites and phyllites with subordinate, mainly basic volcanoes.

threads. The sequence participates in fold-thrust, scaly dislocations of the western, i.e. in the direction of eocraton, vergence; granite intrusions occur.
The peripheral movable belts of the platform have a completely different nature. One of the longest is the Rio Negro-Juruena belt, stretching for 2.5 thousand km from Brazil's border with Paraguay and Bolivia in the south to Venezuela in the north. This belt, which combines features of the granulite-gneiss and marginal volcano-plutonic belts, was formed mainly at the beginning of the Early Riphean, since its formations are unconformably overlain by non-deformable
acidic lavas with an age of 1.65-1.6 Ga and sediments with an age of 1.6-1.4 Ga. The belt itself is composed mainly of reworked Early Precambrian intrusive and supracrustal formations, including relics of the ZKP. It is widely intruded by alkaline syenites with an age of 1.45 Ga.
In the west and southwest, the belt just described is adjoined by another, already Middle Riphean Rondonia belt, stretching from Uruguay to Venezuela at a distance of more than 4000 km. It consists of two zones - internal and external, which also differ in the time of completion of their formation, which is

respectively 1.35-1.3 and 1.0-0.95 billion years. The inner belt of San Ignacio is composed of granulites, gneisses and shales of primary sedimentary, terrigenous origin, intruded syn- and post-tectonic granites, calc-alkaline, but with a high potassic content. In the cores of antiforms, Early Precambrian formations, metamorphosed in granulite facies, protrude in places. The orogeny of San Ignacio gave way to the accumulation of shallow-marine clastic sediments and basalt outpourings. At the end of the Middle Riphean, they experienced amphibolite facies metamorphism, folding, and were intruded by granites and pegmatites; the latter carry with them tin and tantalum mineralization. Many granitic plutons are ring-shaped, along with stocks and batholiths, including granites of the rapakivi type, with an age of 1270-1180 Ma. The origin of granites due to the anatexis of more ancient crust is allowed. The final orogeny of the Rondonia belt, locally called Sunsas, quite obviously corresponds to the planetary Grenville.
All these events were followed by a new restoration of platform stability, but soon destruction began again. It led to the formation of two parallel fold systems of submeridional strike - Paraguay-Araguaia and Brasilia, which separated the Amazonian and San Francisco cratons and, in turn, were separated by the Goias median massif, as well as to the formation of the granulite-gneiss Atlantic belt. The first two systems are often combined under the name brasilides, because their final deformations belong to the orogeny, called in South America Brazilian (equal to Baikal).
The Paraguay-Araguaia fold system borders the Amazonian craton from the east and southeast, on
in the north, along the boundary tectonic suture, there is a chain of bodies of serpentinized mafic-ultramafic rocks, and in the south, where the front of the system turns to the southwest, there is a molasse foredeep in front of it; the molasse is of Vendian age, and its folding is Pre-Cambrian. The Late Proterozoic complex is composed of quartzites, various shales of amphibolite (bottom) and greenschist (top) facies, basic and ultrabasic metavolcanics. There are members of conglomerates, cherts, jaspilites, and in the south the section is completed by stromatolite carbonates; tillites are also known there. All these deposits were subjected to intense fold-thrust deformations with vergence towards the Central Brazilian (Amazonian) protoplatform, on the edge of which the age analogs of the folded complex overlie an already undeformed mantle. The probable southwestern continuation of this fold system is the Sierra Pampa massif in Argentina, which already almost directly adjoins the Andes, and the intermediate link between them is hidden under the Phanerozoic cover of the zone of pericratonic subsidence.

The second branch of the brasilides, the Brasilia system, is thrust in the east over the San Francisco eocraton, and in the west it is separated from the Paraguay-Araguaia system by the Goias median massif with an Archean basement and a Middle Proterozoic cover, folded into folds, forming the Uruazu system. In the north, the Brasilia system subsides under the Phanerosa of the Parnaiba syneclise, merging here, probably with the Araguaia-Paraguay system. Therefore, they are often combined under the name of the province of Tocantins (Fig. 6-4), after the name of another tributary of the Amazon. The Brasilia system is composed of alternating psammites and pelites, metamorphosed

in the greenschist facies, with the participation of carbonates and, in the upper part, tillites. The layers are moderately deformed, vergence is directed to the east, towards the San Francisco Craton.
The structure of a folded area of ​​the same age, located within the northeastern bulge of Brazil, between the São Francisco craton and the band of the Atlantic perioceanic basins, the province of Borborema, is very peculiar. This structure is characterized by an alternation of horst uplifts composed of Early Precambrian rocks reworked by Brazilian thermotectogenesis and troughs filled with Upper Proterozoic deposits. The composition of these deposits, the degree of their metamorphism, and the intensity of deformations are somewhat different in the outer and inner troughs. In the latter, the composition of the deposits is psammite-pelitic, metamorphism reaches the amphibolite facies, migmatization is common, and isoclinal folding with vergence towards block boundaries. In the former, carbonate-terrigenous deposits are developed, the metamorphism is greenschist, but the folding is also isoclinal; The sections of both those and other deflections end in molasses. The general strike of the structural elements of the province of Borborema is northeast, with some divergence of axes (virgation) from northnortheast to eastnortheast in the same direction. Plutons of granitoids, mainly of “Brazilian” age, are widespread. Be, Ta, and Li deposits are associated with pegmatites accompanying them, and W, Mo, Fe, and some others are associated with skarns.
The southern continuation of the province of Borborema is the province of Mantiqueira, coinciding with the mountain range of the same name, stretching along the Atlantic coast to the Brazilian-Uruguayan border. The northern segment of the province is also known as the Ribeira belt, and the southern one is Don Feliciano. The first adjoins the San Francisco craton from the east, the second borders on the superimposed Phanerozoic Paraná syneclise. In its general features, the structure of the Mantiqueira province is close to the structure of the Borborema province of the same Atlantic gneiss-granulite belt. It also distinguishes ancient massifs composed of Early Precambrian, up to Archean formations, metamorphosed in amphibolite or granulite facies, hosting plutons of granitoids, migmatized and undergoing “Brazilian” processing, and between these massifs stretch zones of development of intensely deformed (isoclinal folds, overthrusts) Upper Proterozoic deposits , metamorphosed in greenschist or amphibolite facies. These deposits are mainly of psammite-pelitic composition with subordinate carbonates, ferruginous quartzites, tillites, and mafic volcanic rocks. Numerous granitoid intrusions are embedded in them - syntectonic with an age of 650 Ma (Pre-Vendian) and posttectonic - 540 Ma (Pre-Cambrian). In the extreme south, the Atlantic belt borders on the Rio de La Plata craton, which is exposed in its small part from under the Phanerozoic cover.

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• - the common name of L. g., endemic to some countries of South America: Argentinean and Bolivian L. ....

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• - or Republica Oriental del Uruguay, Banda Oriental - one of the republics of South America, got its name from r. U., east. the coast of which it stretches to the Atlantic Ocean...

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  Great Soviet Encyclopedia

• - NORTH AMERICAN platform - Precambrian platform, covering most of the North. America and about. Greenland...
• - SOUTH CHINA platform - Precambrian platform occupying the basin of the lower reaches of the river. Yangtze. The cover of Paleozoic deposits has been preserved in the anteclises. In the Mesozoic, it experienced strong tectonic-magmatic activation ...

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• - an urban-type settlement in the Russian Federation, Sakhalin Region, on about. Kunashir, on the shore of the South Kuril Strait. 6.2 thousand inhabitants. Fish industry...

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• - a city in the Russian Federation, the center of the Sakhalin region, in the southern part of about. Sakhalin. Railway junction. 164.5 thousand inhabitants. Production association "Metallist"...

  Big encyclopedic dictionary

• - "South American" anskaya platf "...

  Russian spelling dictionary

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