Hello dear readers!
We are pleased to welcome you to educational service and we hope so that we can answer all your questions. Have you looked at our website in order to find out what is qualitative analysis and qualitative analysis? What are the similarities and differences? I'm waiting for your opinion.

At the beginning, I would like to note that the subject of psychology is very complex and for the most profound understanding of it, it is necessary, first of all, to decide what lies in the foundation.

PSYCHOLOGY is a science that studies the patterns of emergence, development, and functioning of the human psyche, as well as a group of people. After we have determined what the science of psychology studies, we can move on to consider this issue more specifically.

It is worth noting that the main concepts that we will encounter in the course of reasoning on this topic are: PSYCHOLOGY, ANALYSIS, QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, PERSONALITY. And now, after clarifying the fundamental concepts, we can proceed to a specific consideration of your question.

First, let's look at what the term "ANALYSIS" means? Analysis is a research method characterized by the selection and study of individual parts of the objects of study. After we have determined what is commonly called and considered as analysis. Let's take a closer look at your question. What is quantitative analysis? What are its main features? Quantitative Analysis is a set of procedures, methods for describing and transforming research data based on the use of a mathematical and static apparatus. It is worth noting that this analysis implies the possibility of treating the results as numbers - applying methods of certain calculations. Now let's look more specifically, what is qualitative analysis? Qualitative analysis h is a set of procedures and methods for describing research data based on theoretical conclusions and generalizations, individual experience, intuition, methods of inference. In the course of this analysis, the causes of the emergence of a particular psychological phenomenon are revealed, its essential properties are revealed, development trends are established, and the contradictions of functioning are determined.

It can be added that each of these analyzes plays a certain role in psychology and under some circumstances each has its own advantages. This concludes our lesson. I believe that you have learned what properties the imagination has in psychology. If something remains incomprehensible from this topic, you can always ask your question on our website.
We wish you good luck and success in your work!

Analytical chemistry deals with the study of experimental methods for determining the composition of substances. Determining the composition of substances includes identifying the nature of the components that make up the substance under study, and establishing the quantitative ratios of these components.

First, the qualitative composition of the object under study is established, i.e. solve the question of what it consists of, and then proceed to determine the quantitative composition, i.e. find out in what quantitative ratios the found components are in the object of study.

Qualitative Analysis substances can be carried out by chemical, physical, physico-chemical methods.

Chemical methods of analysis are based on the use of characteristic chemical reactions to determine the composition of the analyte.

Chemical analysis of a substance is carried out in two ways: "dry way" or "wet way". Dry analysis- these are chemical reactions that occur with substances during incandescence, fusion and flame coloring.

Wet analysis are chemical reactions that take place in electrolyte solutions. The analyte is pre-dissolved in water or other solvents. Depending on the mass or volume of the substance taken for analysis, macro-, semi-micro- and micro methods are distinguished from the technique used.

macromethod. For analysis, take 1-2 ml of a solution containing at least 0.1 g of the substance, and add at least 1 ml of the reagent solution. The reactions are carried out in a test tube, the precipitate is separated by filtration. The precipitate on the filter is washed from impurities.

Semi-micromethod. For analysis, 10-20 times less substance is taken (up to 0.01 g). Since this method works with small amounts of a substance, microtest tubes, watch or glass slides are used. Centrifugation is used to separate the precipitate from the solution.

Micromethod. When performing an analysis by this method, one or two drops of the solution are taken, and the dry matter is within 0.001 g. Typical reactions are carried out on a watch glass or porcelain plate.

When carrying out the analysis, the following operations are used: heating and evaporation, precipitation, centrifugation, checking the completeness of precipitation, separation of the solution (centrifuge) from the precipitate, washing and dissolution of the precipitate.

Heating solutions can be carried out directly with a gas burner flame, on an asbestos mesh or a water bath. A small amount of the solution is heated to a temperature not exceeding 100 ° C in a water bath, the water in which should boil evenly.

For concentration solutions are used in a water bath. Evaporation solution to a dry residue is carried out in porcelain cups or crucibles, heating them on an asbestos grid. If the dry residue after evaporation must be calcined to remove volatile salts, then the crucible is placed on a porcelain triangle and heated with a gas burner flame.

Precipitation. The precipitation reaction is carried out in conical flasks or cylindrical test tubes. A precipitating agent is added to the test solution with a pipette. The precipitant is taken in excess. The mixture is thoroughly mixed with a glass rod and rubbed against the inner walls of the test tube, this accelerates the process of sediment formation. Precipitation is often carried out from hot solutions.

Centrifugation. The precipitate is separated from the solution by centrifugation using a manual or electric centrifuge. A test tube with solution and sediment is placed in a sleeve. The centrifuge must be loaded evenly. With rapid rotation, the centrifugal force throws sediment particles to the bottom and compacts it, and the solution (centrifugate) becomes transparent. The rotation time is from 30 s to several minutes.

Checking the completeness of sedimentation. The tube is carefully removed from the centrifuge and 1-2 drops of the precipitant are added along the wall to the clear solution. If the solution does not become cloudy, then the precipitation is complete. If the solution becomes cloudy, then a precipitant is added to the test tube, the contents are mixed, heated and centrifuged again, then the sedimentation completeness check is repeated.

Separation of the solution (centrifugate) from the sediment. After making sure that the precipitation is complete, the solution is separated from the precipitate. The solution is separated from the precipitate with a drop pipette. The pipette is closed with the index finger and carefully removed from the test tube. If the selected solution is needed for analysis, then it is transferred to a clean test tube. For complete separation, the operation is repeated several times. During centrifugation, the precipitate may settle tightly to the bottom of the tube, then the solution is separated by decantation (carefully drained).

Sediment washing. The sediment (if it is examined) must be washed well; for this, a washing liquid is added, most often distilled water. The contents are thoroughly mixed with a glass rod and centrifuged, then the washing liquid is separated. Sometimes in work this operation is repeated 2-3 times.

Dissolution of the sediment. To dissolve the precipitate, add the solvent to the test tube, stirring with a glass rod. Often, the dissolution of the precipitate is carried out by heating in a water bath.

For determining quantitative composition substance or product are used reactions of neutralization, precipitation, oxidation - reduction, complexation. The amount of a substance can be determined by its mass or the volume of the solution spent on interaction with it, as well as by the refractive index of the solution, its electrical conductivity or color intensity, etc.

According to the amount of the substance taken for the study, analytical methods of quantitative analysis are classified as follows: macroanalysis - 1-10 g of a solid, 10-100 ml of the analyzed solution; semi-microanalysis - 0.05-0.5 solids, 1-10 ml of the analyzed solution; microanalysis - 0.001-1-10 - 4 g of solid, 0.1-1 * 10 - 4 ml of the analyzed solution. In commodity practice, gravimetric (weight) and titrimetric (volumetric) methods are often used.

Gravimetric (weight) analysis- one of the methods of quantitative analysis, which allows you to determine the composition of the analyte by measuring the mass. Mass measurement (weighing) is performed on an analytical balance with an accuracy of 0.0002 g. This method is often used in food laboratories to determine moisture content, ash content, content of individual elements or compounds. Analysis can be performed in one of the following ways.

1. The component to be determined is quantitatively (as completely as possible) isolated from the test substance and weighed. This is how the ash content of products is determined. The initial product weighed on an analytical balance is burned, the resulting ash is brought to a constant mass (calcined until the mass ceases to change) and weighed.

The ash content of the product x (%) is calculated by the formula

where B is the mass of calcined ash, g;

A - the initial sample of the product, g.

2. The analyzed component is completely removed from the sample of the initial substance and the residue is weighed. This is how the moisture content of the products is determined, while the sample of the starting material is dried in an oven to constant weight.

Product moisture x (%) is calculated by the formula

where A is the initial sample of the product, g;

B is the weight of the sample after drying, g.

Volumetric Analysis- a method of quantitative analysis, where the desired substance is determined by the volume of a reagent with a precisely known concentration, spent on the reaction with this substance.

When determining by the volumetric method, a reagent with a precisely known concentration is added in small portions (dropwise) to a known volume of a solution of the analyte until its amount is equivalent to the amount of the analyte. A reagent solution with a precisely known concentration is called a titrated, working, or standard solution.

The process of slowly adding a titrated solution to a solution of an analyte is called titration. The moment when the amount of the titrated solution is equivalent to the amount of the analyte is called the equivalence point or the theoretical end point of the titration. To determine the equivalence point, indicators are used that undergo visible changes near it, expressed in a change in the color of the solution, the appearance of turbidity or precipitation.

The most important conditions for the correct conduct of volumetric analytical determinations: 1) the ability to accurately measure the volumes of solutions; 2) availability of standard solutions with precisely known concentration; 3) the ability to accurately determine the moment of completion of the reaction (correct choice of indicator).

Depending on what reaction the definition is based on, the following types of volumetric method are distinguished:

method of neutralization

· oxidation-reduction method

the method of precipitation and complexation.

At the core neutralization method lies the reaction of interaction between H + and OH - ions. The method is used to determine acids, bases and salts (which react with acids or bases) in solution. For the determination of acids, titrated solutions of alkalis KOH or NaOH are used, for the determination of bases, solutions of acids HC1, H 2 SO 4 are used.

To determine the content, for example, of an acid in a solution, a volume of an acid solution accurately measured with a pipette in the presence of an indicator is titrated with an alkali solution of a precisely known concentration. The equivalence point is determined by the change in the color of the indicator. According to the volume of alkali used for titration, the acid content in the solution is calculated.

Method oxidation - reduction is based on the redox reactions that occur between the standard solution and the analyte. If the standard solution contains an oxidizing agent (reducing agent), then the analyte must contain a corresponding reducing agent (oxidizing agent). The redox method is subdivided, depending on the standard solution used, into permanganatometry method, iodometry method, etc.

At the heart of the method deposition are reactions accompanied by precipitation. In contrast to the gravimetric method, the sediment is not processed here, the mass of the test substance is determined by the volume of the reagent consumed in the precipitation reaction.

The analysis of empirical data is one of the most important stages of sociological research, its success is largely determined by the level of professional training of the researcher: his logical and methodological culture of thinking, knowledge of the object and subject, sociological experience. Thus, the completeness of “reading” the information contained in tables and diagrams, its logical processing and meaningful interpretation essentially depend on the depth of the sociologist’s knowledge of the object and subject with which he is dealing. His ability to analyze data objectively is also of great importance. The objectivity and professional integrity of a sociologist who carries out a qualitative analysis of information consists, in particular, in the following:

having revealed any connection or pattern, he must compare them with previously established facts, and also refer to the accompanying data that support (or refute) the interpretation scheme he has chosen;

describing the identified links and trends, it should be specified under what conditions and situations they take place;

carrying out a qualitative analysis of information, the researcher should try to formulate the social problem behind the data obtained;

in no case and under no circumstances should he "adjust" empirical data to the desired result.

Only compliance with these rules will make it possible to make a qualitative analysis of empirical information sufficiently reliable, meaningful, and accurate.

The researcher proceeds to this stage of work after mathematical processing of the empirical material and obtaining a linear distribution (usually in percent) for all variables (features). Before proceeding directly to data analysis, it is necessary to carry out a general quality control of the information received: to identify errors and omissions made during data collection, to reject any observation units that do not correspond to the sampling model, etc.

Depending on the program goals, data analysis can be more or less deep, carried out according to the “full scheme” or interrupted at a certain stage. In full, it includes three successive stages: a description of the data obtained, their explanation, and a forecast of possible changes in the fragment of social reality that was the object of the study. Each stage involves the use of a corresponding class of analysis procedures. The class of descriptive procedures includes grouping and typology. The second class is formed by logical-analytical procedures, with the help of which social relationships and deterministic dependencies are revealed. The third class of prognostic procedures is extrapolation, modeling and expertise.

Let's consider each of these methods of analysis in more detail.

I. Description Procedure. In general, the description acts as a function of scientific knowledge, which consists in a consistent, complete and logically connected fixation of the elemental composition, properties and relationships of the studied object (phenomenon, process), that is, its structure based on the empirical information received. The main objectives of a qualitative analysis according to a descriptive plan are:

ordering of the initial empirical data;

search for stable links and trends in the change of an object (phenomenon, process);

search for stable combinations of properties of the studied objects (phenomena).

The analysis of sociological information according to the descriptive plan includes several stages. On the first of them, ordering is carried out according to individual characteristics, simple distributions are studied, and possible distortions are identified. This makes it possible to give a general assessment of the sample set and private subsamples (sex and age, territorial, ethnic, professional, etc.), which is necessary to solve two problems: first, in order not to lose the idea of their “first principle”, and secondly, to understand how the features of the samples can affect the interpretation of a particular conclusion.

For example, linear distribution data on average for a sample of voters in a particular constituency indicates that the main qualities that a candidate for deputy should possess, according to respondents, are intelligence and creativity in work. Before interpreting this conclusion, the sociologist should look at the main characteristics of the sample: perhaps it is dominated by people with a high level of education or creative professions,

The next stage of descriptive analysis consists in the procedure of “compression” of empirical information: enlargement of the initial scales, identification of typical groups subject to further analysis, formation of index features, etc. This allows, on the one hand, to reduce the number of variables, and on the other hand, to generalize the material at the primary level, to make it “observable” for the researcher. This procedure is especially important in the OSI, which does not imply a subtle interpretation of unimportant particulars. For example, if in further analysis we are interested in groups of supporters and opponents of a public action, then the original 4-term scale, which was used to measure the attitude of respondents to this action (“I fully approve” – “rather approve” – “rather disapprove” - “I completely condemn”), it may be advisable to enlarge, dividing the respondents into two groups - supporters and opponents of the event. In addition, in order to enlarge the initial information, as well as to turn qualitative features into quantitative (i.e., measurable) indicators, indices are constructed at this stage of the analysis. In sociology, an index is understood as an integrated indicator of the level of development or manifestation of a trait, measured using scales. It can be expressed as:

a) weighted average of the values ​​of each of the answer options in the rank scale;

b) the value of the difference between high and low, positive and negative manifestations of a qualitative trait (contrast index), for example, as the difference between the number of groups of people who fully approve and completely condemn an ​​event.

To convert qualitative information into quantitative information, each attribute value is first assigned certain numerical values ​​(“I fully approve” - 1; “I rather approve” - 2, etc.), which act as primary indices of one or another manifestation of this attribute. Then the secondary index is constructed as a certain integral numerical value obtained as a result of mathematical operation with primary indices (calculation of arithmetic mean values ​​or difference between extreme values, etc.). The secondary index characterizes the quantitative manifestation of the trait under study as a whole: the level of support, awareness, agreement, satisfaction, reflected by several variables.

The generalization of information on more capacious structures requires an intermediate interpretation of the aggregated features, since these are new properties that need to be interpreted in a certain way, i.e. give them some meaning. In general, the initial empirical interpretation of the basic concepts is carried out at the stage of research programming. And accordingly, any new aggregate indicators obtained in the course of a qualitative analysis should be “included” in the developed interpretation scheme.

For example, if we study the causes of poor lecture attendance by students, then at the first stage of the analysis we need to turn a set of initial data on lecture attendance by students A, B, C, ... into a certain index characterizing the level of lecture attendance by this group. Then we must evaluate (interpret) it as high, medium or low, thus turning it into a social indicator of the phenomenon under study.

On the basis of the obtained social indicators, with the help of descriptive statistics procedures, a meaningful interpretation of the sociological research data is carried out in order to test descriptive hypotheses.

Descriptive analysis methods. These include, first of all, the methods of simple and cross grouping and empirical typology.

Grouping. Suppose that linear distribution data showed that the opinions of the respondents were divided about a certain political event: 60% approved it, 40% condemned it. By themselves, these figures do not say anything about the reasons for such a polarization of opinions, the trends of this process and the forecast of changes in public opinion in the future. To try to answer all these questions, the sociologist must know which socio-demographic groups represent the carriers of a particular opinion, if possible, how they reacted to similar events in the past (or elsewhere), etc.

To achieve this goal, at the first stage of the analysis, a simple grouping is carried out - the selection of homogeneous groups within the surveyed population according to a significant (for the purposes of this study) feature. Such a sign can be any socio-demographic characteristic (gender, age, education, place of residence) or a judgment expressed by the respondents, or some forms of behavior, etc.

For example, when studying the problem of deviant behavior of adolescents, in the surveyed population it is logical to single out a group that has a sign of certain forms of deviations, and a group that does not have this sign (i.e., normal teenagers).

Quantitative indicators are grouped into ranked series as the attribute increases or decreases, and qualitative indicators are grouped according to the principle of constructing disordered nominal scales.

The number of members of a group is called frequency, and the ratio of the size of a given group to the total number of observations is called shares or relative frequency. The simplest analysis of groups is the calculation of frequencies by percentage.

The following analysis procedure according to the descriptive plan involves comparing the grouped data: 1) with data from other studies; 2) among themselves; 3) with any related external features.

1. Comparison with data from other studies - subject to the comparability of sociological information - is carried out in two possible forms:

a) the form of comparison of data related to the same object, but obtained in different periods of time (for example, in repeated studies). This allows you to identify the dynamics and main trends in the change of the object;

b) the form of comparison of the results of studies conducted on different objects, but within the same period of time. This allows, with certain reservations, to confirm the hypothesis about the correctness of the results obtained in a one-time study. For example, in 1994, BSU sociologists, studying the problems of religiosity in the Republic of Belarus, obtained a result according to which the proportion of believers among the population was 33% (another 8.5% answered that they were “on the way to faith”). These data were compared with the research data of Russian sociologists, according to which in 1992-1993. the proportion of believers among Russians was 40%. Such a comparison allowed us to assume that the figure obtained in the Republic of Belarus is not accidental, that it more or less adequately reflects the real state of affairs in the study area.

2. Comparison as a ratio between the elements of the number series makes it possible to fairly reliably interpret the results of groupings in the event that the modal (largest) value is clearly distinguished in the number series. Comparison of elements among themselves then consists in their ranking (for example, according to the degree of satisfaction of students with the organization of the educational process).

3. Comparison of data with related external features is carried out in cases where the distribution of the numerical values ​​of the series makes it difficult to correlate them with each other. For example, in order to assess the priority interests of TV viewers, we need to compare the share of those who watched information and political programs on certain days with the shares of those who watched feature films, sports programs, etc. on those days.

Thus, a comparative analysis of the data obtained by the simple grouping method allows us to draw conclusions about the state and nature of changes in the phenomenon under study, but does not give an idea of ​​the stable relationships between its individual characteristics and, accordingly, about the causes of the changes.

The task of finding stable relationships and interdependencies, process trends are solved by the method cross grouping - classification of facts, previously ordered according to two criteria. Cross grouping is carried out in the form of tables, which indicate which features are matched, and the total number of objects included in the grouping.

Table 5.9

Attitude towards religious faith depending on age (%)

This table illustrates the use of cross grouping to find a trend, process dynamics. The data presented in it testify that the number of believers increases monotonously with the age of the respondents. On the contrary, the proportion of people with an indefinite, wavering consciousness decreases with age: the older a person is, the more definite his position in relation to faith becomes. Obviously, this can also explain the fact that the number of non-believers also increases in the group of people over 60 years old, i.e. this group has the largest number of both believers and non-believers, and the smallest number of waverers.

When reading a table built on the basis of cross grouping, it is important to know what is taken as 100%: data by row or by column? As V.A. Yadov, “it depends on two circumstances: on the nature of the sample and on the logic of the analysis.... If the sample is representative and reflects the proportions of the studied groups of the general population, then it is possible to analyze the data in two ways: according to the logic “from cause to effect” and “from effect to the reasons."

Consider the following example. Suppose that 1000 teenagers were interviewed, 200 of them found some form of social deviations (deviations), and 800 did not. Hypothesis: one of the factors influencing the growth of deviant behavior is the absence of one of the parents in the family.

Let's assume that the respondents, depending on the type of family (complete - incomplete), were distributed as follows:

Table 5.10

Initial cross-grouping of data: family type and social behavior type (N=1000 people)

Let's analyze according to the logic “from cause to effect”. We suggested that one of the reasons for the occurrence of deviations in adolescents may be incomplete family composition. With this approach, data per line is taken as 100%, that is, we compare the share of “deviants” living in complete families with the share of “deviants” living in single-parent families (see Table 5.11).

Table 2a

Influence of family type on the social behavior of adolescents (in %)

Conclusion: adolescents from incomplete families are more likely to have deviations in social behavior.

Now we will analyze according to the logic “from the effect to the causes”. Here, the column data is taken as 100%, i.e. we compare within the group of adolescents with deviant behavior: the number of those living in intact families with the number of those living in single-parent families (see Table 5.12).

Table 5.12

The share of adolescents with different types of social behavior in complete and single-parent families (in %)

Conclusion: three-quarters of the surveyed teenagers with deviant behavior live in incomplete families. In this case, both retrospective and design analyzes confirmed the initial hypothesis about the influence of family type on the type of social behavior of adolescents.

If the sample is not representative, then the percentage should be carried out for each subsample separately. Typically, such subsamples are formed according to characteristics that are possible causes of the phenomenon under study: gender and age, social status, etc. Here, the discrepancy between the proportions of subsamples and the distribution of the population will not distort the conclusion (the logic of Table 5.11).

However, in real practice, a sociologist, as a rule, is faced with the need to identify and take into account the mutual determinations of not one, but several factors at once that affect the phenomenon under study. This procedure is carried out as follows.

Let us assume that the purpose of the study is to find factors that influence the low academic performance of students in any academic discipline. Hypotheses are put forward that the main reasons for the low academic performance of students can be: lack of interest in the content of the course; poor relationship with the teacher; low preparation of students, which does not allow them to master the educational material.

It is possible that the analysis will reveal the presence of a stable relationship between the level of academic performance and the level of interest in the course content. It is possible that the found connection is only an appearance, i.e. it has the character of concomitant or subsequent, but not causal dependence. In this case, both signs either change, obeying some third factor, or the lack of interest among students is a function that mediates, for example, their low preparedness and, as a result, poor academic performance. In this case, a relationship analysis is performed, which turns the two-dimensional distribution table into a three-dimensional one. Let's take an example. The results of the study on satisfaction with living conditions showed that there is a relationship between this variable and the gender of the respondents: men are generally more satisfied with their living conditions than women. However, it is too early to draw a final conclusion. It is known that among women there are more elderly and lonely people (both due to the greater natural life expectancy, and lower, in comparison with men, mortality as a result of accidents, wars, etc.). In our society, this category of people is economically poorly protected and their living conditions are often worse than those of other social groups. Therefore, it is possible that the two-dimensional grouping data is explained by the higher proportion of older people among women. We construct a three-dimensional matrix in which, in addition to the independent variable (sex) and the dependent variable (satisfaction with living conditions), we introduce a control factor (age).

Table 5.13

Degree of satisfaction with living conditions

by sex and age (in %)

The data presented in the table indicate that our preliminary conclusion is valid only for older age groups: from 45 to 59 years old and especially over 60 years old. At a younger age, there are no significant differences in the level of satisfaction with living conditions depending on the gender of the respondents.

Empirical typology. This is the most powerful method of analysis according to a descriptive plan, which allows a) to form typological groups according to several simultaneously specified criteria; b) find stable combinations of the properties of social objects (phenomena) that are considered in a multidimensional social space.

The first procedure is carried out at the stage of research programming, its purpose is to identify homogeneous groups that have the most stable qualitative characteristics to be studied. The fact is that the ordinary consciousness of a mass person is characterized by mobility, eclecticism, internal inconsistency. His opinions and assessments are often formed not on the basis of some set of stable beliefs and values, but under the influence of external factors, momentary events. For example, the attitude towards a political figure may be determined by how well or unsuccessfully he spoke on television the day before. In addition, respondents' answers may be determined not so much by their personal position as by social fashion, normative ideas of a particular social group, etc. (for example, religion became the object of this kind of fashion in the early 1990s, in connection with which a significant increase in the number of believers, or rather people who call themselves believers, was observed in the post-Soviet space). In operational sociological research, due to their target specifics, it is very important to obtain accurate information about the number of certain groups that hold certain views and their behavioral attitudes. In this case, to filter out random, insincere or impulsive choices, groups are formed on the basis of respondents' answers not to one, but to a block of logically related questions. For example, in electoral studies, as D.G. Rotman, such a block includes the following variables:

b) a measure of political patency (the opportunity to be elected);

c) faith in the prospects of a politician (party);

d) an assessment of the specific actions of this leader at the moment.

Further, on the basis of the answers received, groups of “tough supporters” are formed (this includes respondents who gave the most positive assessments to this leader according to all criteria in all questions), “tough opponents” (respondents who in all cases refused to trust this person and rated him activity is negative). The rest are included in the group of "fluctuating" .

In the same way, to assess the level of religiosity of the population, it is not enough to fix, through self-identification, the number of people who believe in God, since faith can be purely external, declarative, etc. character. In order to reliably determine the proportion of genuine believers, it is necessary to introduce into the number of group-forming criteria such signs as belonging to a certain confession and stable cult behavior. And if today about half of the population of the Republic of Belarus consider themselves believers, then in a combination of three signs, their share is reduced to 7-8%.

The second procedure of empirical typology is to search for stable combinations of the properties of the phenomena under study.

Any fragment of social reality as an object of research interest has at the same time a huge number of interconnected and interdependent properties. Moreover, this relationship is often repeatedly mediated: for example, the correlation between two features can be caused by some third feature that has remained outside the sociologist's field of vision.

cluster analysis– method of multidimensional classification of objects, i.e. a method that allows classification according to many criteria at once. It is very important that it works with both quantitative and qualitative features, which is especially important when analyzing mixed data that includes both quantitative and qualitative information.

Cluster analysis allows you to divide the data set into homogeneous groups in such a way that the differences between objects of the same group are much smaller than between objects of different groups. The criterion of difference (similarity) for quantitative features is most often distance measures in Euclidean space, for qualitative ones - measures of connection or similarity (chi-square, Yule coefficient, and others).

Factor analysis- a method of statistical analysis of a large number of features, allowing to identify their structural relationships. The main problem solved by means of factor analysis is to find methods for the transition from a certain number of relatively easily measured features of the phenomenon under study to a certain number of latent (outwardly unobservable) factors behind them, the existence of which can only be assumed. This method makes it possible to reveal the structure of any complex social phenomenon (process), as well as to determine the factors that determine it. The names that are given to the selected factors are, as a rule, conditional and are selected by association with those features that are most strongly associated with this factor, i.e. have the highest factor loading. The factor load is understood as the significance of one or another attribute in the distinguished group of variables. Thus, factor analysis allows us to weigh the significance of each of the elements of the phenomenon (process) under study in the overall structure of this latter.

The procedure of empirical typology allows you to go directly to the analysis of stable (i.e., significant for the purposes of the study) relationships and involves the implementation of a meaningful interpretation of the collected data.

Interpretation- this is a set of values, meanings that are attached by the researcher to the received empirical information or social indicators. In the general case, these data are interpreted by means of images of consciousness, which must be adequate to comprehended social reality. Meanwhile, the relationship between real objects and their image is always approximate, incomplete. And in this sense, any interpretation, in order to be relatively correct, must be inextricably linked with the specific content of the sphere of social life to which it belongs, which is why it is always situational and unique. “No matter how complete and specific the information received,” writes G.S. Batygin - it is always placed in a certain "coordinate system" and acts as a fragment of a larger picture, the content of which is the sociologist's scientific and life experience.

Of course, the basis for interpreting and explaining the data should be laid down in the research program at the stage of empirical operationalization and interpretation of the basic concepts. Their totality forms a certain interpretive scheme, which acts as a specific semantic matrix that gives the researcher a certain “perspective” on the problem. The construction of such schemes is a non-formalized operation, which implies a high level of theoretical, methodological and analytical culture of the sociologist.

Then, on the basis of the developed interpretation scheme, the initial hypotheses are tested, and, if necessary, their addition and refinement.

However, there are often significant difficulties in interpreting survey data for several reasons. Let's name some of them.

1. As a rule, people's stereotypical ideas about something are studied in the OSI. At the programming stage, these representations are subjected to logical-verbal processing and transformation, and in the everyday behavior of people, the functioning of stereotypes is usually carried out at an unconscious level. As a result, by asking the respondent one question or another and offering a set of ready-made answers, we thus, as it were, “program” his consciousness, because it is quite likely that, participating in the survey, he is thinking about this problem for the first time in his life. In this case, the answers may be random, self-contradictory, or presented in terms imposed on him in the questionnaire.

2. Each person, being a unique individuality, at the same time acts as a bearer of a certain social group consciousness, i.e. shares the norms, values, opinions of those social groups to which it belongs. As a result, sociologists quite often encounter the phenomenon of “split” consciousness: the same respondent can express negative assessments and at the same time have positive attitudes towards any value, existing, as it were, in two “reference systems” - normative-group and individual- pragmatic.

The fact that these two levels of consciousness do not always agree with each other, V.A. Yadov connects with differences in the content and structure of individual and group interests. The former act as a prerequisite for “behavioral programs”, while the latter serve as the basis for “normative prescriptions”, which often do not agree with the former.

The tools for collecting and analyzing data used in the practice of sociological research are based on the tradition of “rigorous” testing of hypotheses that has developed in natural science. This tradition suggests that hypotheses must be unambiguous and based on the law of the excluded middle. All material that does not meet these requirements is often taken as information "noise" and excluded from the analysis. However, it should be remembered that in sociology the technology of “strict” testing of hypotheses is not always justified; it can impose on the researcher simplified and, as a result, erroneous schemes of interpretation, where all situational deviations from a certain normative model are considered as erroneous or accidental.

In this sense, rigorous methods of testing hypotheses cannot give an idea of ​​the deep social context of the studied relationships; they act only as source material for further interpretation and explanation. As G.S. Batygin, “the actual sociological interpretation lies “beyond” empirical data and is determined by the specifics of the phenomenon or process being studied. It includes the idea of ​​a specific situation in which the act of measurement is “inscribed” (observation, questioning, experiment). In this case, the latter becomes one of the elements of the life situation, i.e. object of study".

Thus, along with direct formalized verification of hypotheses, the sociological interpretation scheme also includes some non-formalized ideas, knowledge, intuition of the researcher, which form that specific social context that allows one to choose from many possible “readings” of empirical data one that is most adequate to reality.

II . Explanation Procedure. If information is analyzed within the framework of an explanatory type of research, then we do not have the right to limit ourselves to descriptive procedures, we need to deepen the interpretation and proceed to explain the facts by identifying possible influences on aggregated properties, identified social types, etc.

Under explanation the function of scientific knowledge is understood, carried out either by comprehending the law to which the object under study is subject, or by establishing those connections and relationships that constitute its essential features. In essence, explanation in science is the act of including empirical knowledge about the object (process, phenomenon) to be explained in a broader context of theoretical knowledge.

Depending on the type of connection between the object and the factors, conditions, etc. that determine it, there are several basic forms of scientific explanation.

Causal, when:

a) one object (phenomenon, process) is explained by establishing a regular connection with other objects that precede it in time;

b) the current state of the object is explained by its past states.

genetic when the object being explained is included in the chain of cause-and-effect relationships, within which it, being a consequence of one phenomenon, itself becomes the cause of another. Moving along this chain to the initial state of the object, we can reconstruct its genesis as a whole, which allows us to give the most reliable forecast of its changes in the future.

Structural-functional, when a social object is considered as a structurally dissected integrity, each element of which performs a certain role in the system, i.e. has its own functional purpose, which means that it behaves in a natural way in accordance with its place in the structure of the object.

According to the criterion of reliability, one can distinguish confident and alleged explanation.

A confident explanation is carried out in the case when the empirical information necessary to establish a causal relationship between the object and the factors affecting it is fully contained in the source materials of the study. However, this kind of explanation is possible only in relation to some particular tendencies, limited in their spatio-temporal parameters. In the OSI, in addition, a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for a confident explanation is the presence of the results of a series of repeated measurements of the monitoring type, which would demonstrate an obvious trend in the change in the state of the social object.

But, as a rule, when studying a social phenomenon, its explanation requires going beyond the boundaries of available empirical information: secondary data analysis, appeal to the specific social context of the phenomenon under study, cultural and historical comparisons, etc. In this case, we can only talk about an explanation of a hypothetical nature, when all of the above procedures confirm the conclusions made, however, the information that they (procedures) allow to obtain is not contained directly in the source materials of this study.

Let us give an example of this kind of qualitative analysis carried out by Belarusian State University sociologists in 1994 when studying the influence of the Chernobyl factor on the growth of religiosity of the population living in the zone of radioactive contamination. The initial hypothesis here was that any cataclysms of a catastrophic nature that cause sharp and long-term negative changes in the lives of large masses of people (wars, revolutions, economic crises) in one way or another contribute to the strengthening of religiosity in any society. This is evidenced by the data of world and national history. To test the hypothesis during the survey, two sub-samples were formed: the first consisted of people living in the Chernobyl zone, whose health (and sometimes life) is under constant threat; the second was made up of people living in “clean” places. Given the equality of their basic socio-demographic characteristics, the differences in the level of religiosity could be attributed to the disturbing impact of the Chernobyl factor. However, the results of the survey did not reveal the expected differences: the number of believers in both sub-samples turned out to be approximately the same. As hypotheses explaining this fact, the following assumptions were put forward:

1. It is possible that the impact of the Chernobyl disaster on the state of mass consciousness is of an indirect, complex nature: if in the first years of perestroika it (the catastrophe) was a unique event against the backdrop of relative political and economic stability, then after 1991 this stability was drastically lost. Negative factors of economic and political life came to the fore (the collapse of the USSR, economic collapse, etc.), which, in terms of their significance for the personal destinies of people, turned out to be comparable to Chernobyl, and in some ways “blocked” it. To prove this assumption, a comparative analysis of two studies conducted by different research groups of BSU in 1990 and 1994 was carried out. Both surveys were conducted in both “clean” and contaminated areas of the Republic of Belarus (see Table 5.14).

Table 5.14

Significance of Chernobyl problems for the population of the Republic of Belarus (in %)

The data given in the table testify to the following. The number of those who assess the Chernobyl problems as the most important for themselves is approximately the same, although it would be more logical to expect the significance of the event to fade with time. This, however, did not happen; on the contrary, the proportion of people for whom the Chernobyl problems have faded into the background has halved (from 29.7% to 13.7%). At the same time, the number of those for whom these problems are quite acute, but along with other equally important problems, has grown significantly (from 30.9% to 47.5%).

Thus, a descriptive analysis of the comparative data presented in Table 5.14 leads to the following explanation:

The significance of the Chernobyl factor in the mass consciousness does not decrease over time, but in the context of a general systemic crisis, the role of economic and political factors increases, they seem to “catch up” in importance with the Chernobyl problems and form a single crisis syndrome in subjective perception that negatively affects the psycho-emotional state of people.

In other words, the Chernobyl factor ceases to influence the consciousness of the affected population in its “pure” form on its own and begins to influence indirectly, through a combination of socio-economic factors (material difficulties, the inability to purchase environmentally friendly products, poor health, etc.). And this factor of living conditions is common to the entire population of the Republic of Belarus, regardless of place of residence.

2. The second hypothesis, designed to explain the absence of a visible influence of the Chernobyl factor on the religiosity of the population, is related to the specifics of the vision of the causes of the accident by believers of different confessional trends.

In both sub-samples, two-thirds of believers are Orthodox, about 17% are Catholics. The share of representatives of other confessions turned out to be statistically unreliable, therefore, in order to control the data, in addition to the population living in the “dirty” and “clean” zones, a survey was conducted among the parishioners of the three main Christian denominations in Minsk: Orthodox, Catholics and Protestants. An analysis of the comparative results showed that they assess the causes of the Chernobyl disaster in a very different way (see Table 5.15). The main polar dichotomy of judgments appeared as such reasons in the survey, one of which was rational-secular in nature (“this is the result of human irresponsibility, God has nothing to do with it”), and the second was reduced to a religious-sacred interpretation (“this is the result of divine providence, punishment for the sins of the people).

In order to determine the level of school motivation of primary school students, the method of N.G. Luskanova was applied. The primary results of the diagnosis of school motivation of primary school students are presented in Appendix A. The generalized results of the diagnosis are presented in Figure 2.2.1.

Figure 2.2.1. Levels of school motivation of younger students

As a result of the study, it was revealed that 60% of junior schoolchildren (23 people) have a high level of school motivation, that is, the predominance of types of answers that characterize learning motivation, actually learning and cognitive, based on the desire to know, learn, that is, on the cognitive need. A high level of learning motivation indicates that the child is aware of the importance of learning, learning goals are attractive to him, he shows high cognitive activity, interest in all subjects is approximately equal to independent work, and occupies a favorable status position in the class. A high level also indicates the social maturation of students. High motivation means a generally positive attitude towards the learning process. A positive attitude is characterized by cognitive activity, interest in learning, the quality of homework, attending additional classes.

High level - cognitive motives, interest in ways of obtaining knowledge, motives for self-education, their independence, awareness of the relationship between their motives and goals. Also characteristic are the motives for improving the ways of cooperation in educational and cognitive activities, an active attitude to learning, motives for responsibility for the results of joint activities.

48% of junior schoolchildren (11 people) have an average level of school motivation. The average level indicates that the child has a positive attitude towards school, but learning goals are not realized, cognitive activity is average, focused on interest, independently performs only typical tasks, requires adult control, and is friends with many children in the class. The first grader has a positive attitude towards the school, her attendance does not cause negative feelings; understands the educational material if the teacher presents it in detail and clearly; assimilates the main content of training programs, independently solves typical tasks; focused and attentive when performing tasks, instructions, instructions from an adult, but under his control; is concentrated only when he is busy with something interesting for him; prepares for lessons and does homework almost always; performs public tasks conscientiously. Sometimes the motives of learning, which lie outside the educational activity itself, are of dominant importance in this group of children. Most children are attracted by the opportunity to fulfill their needs for recognition, communication, and self-affirmation as a schoolchild. The middle level is a wide cognitive motive in the form of interest in the result of the teaching and the teacher's assessment, instability of motives is characteristic.

As can be seen from the graph, 29% have a low level of school motivation (14 people). Low level - the lack of formation of educational motivation, perhaps the predominance of preschool game motivation (the child's orientation to preschool activities). A low level of motivation indicates that the child has a negative or indifferent attitude towards school, requires control and assistance, does not show interest in independent tasks, violates discipline, does not have close friends in the class, but can communicate with many. The first grader has a negative or indifferent attitude towards the school. The negative attitude of schoolchildren to learning is characterized by poverty and narrowness of motives, weak interest in success, focus on evaluation, inability to set goals, overcome difficulties, unwillingness to learn, negative attitude towards school and teachers. An indifferent attitude has the same distinguishing characteristics, but implies the ability and ability to achieve positive results with a change in orientation. Able, but lazy - in general, the correct characteristic of trainees belonging to this type. This group of children is characterized and frequent complaints of ill health; depressed mood dominates; violations of discipline are observed; the material explained by the teacher assimilates fragmentarily; shows no interest; prepares for lessons irregularly, he needs constant monitoring, systematic reminders and incentives from the teacher and parents; maintains efficiency and attention with extended pauses for rest; to understand the new and solve problems according to the model, it requires significant educational assistance from the teacher and parents; performs public assignments under control, without much desire, passive; a learning goal that is not related to motives that are relevant to the child, that has not touched his soul, is not kept in his mind, is easily replaced by other goals that are more consonant with the child’s habitual motives.

A low level of motivation is characterized by the avoidance of failures, if a neutral attitude is characteristic, then an unstable interest is manifested, the experience of boredom and motivate the external results of the study - marks.

Thus, according to the results of studying the motivation for learning, the indicators for girls are better than for boys.

In order to identify adaptation to school and the formation of the student's position, a study was conducted using the "School of Animals" methodology, a summary table of the results of which is presented in Appendix A. The generalized results of the methodology are presented in Figure 2.2.2.

An analysis of the generalized data allows us to conclude that 66% of junior schoolchildren (32 people) have formed the position of a schoolchild. The drawings of such children depict educational activities, a large number of animals entering into various relationships with each other (playing, depicted in educational activities, etc.) and the absence of dividing lines between them, which indicates favorable relationships with classmates.

Productive learning activity implies an adequate attitude of the child to his abilities, work results, behavior, i.e. a certain level of development of self-consciousness.

for 20 junior schoolchildren (10 people), the school attracts with extracurricular activities (the drawings of such children show mainly a game, or interaction between students,

in 12% (6 people) of junior schoolchildren, the position of a schoolboy has not been formed. In the drawings of such children there are no students, teachers, educational or play activities, the drawing does not depict a school of animals or people, then we can conclude that the child is not aware of his tasks as a schoolchild.

Figure 2.2.2 Formation of the student's position

Thus, based on the results of diagnostics using the “School of Animals” method, we can conclude that the position of a schoolchild has been formed in most of the younger students. The number of girls exceeds the number of boys in terms of "the position of the student is formed."

In order to identify the features of intra-family relations, a study was conducted using the “Kinetic family pattern” test, the results of which are presented in Appendix A. The generalized results of the method are presented in Figure 2.2.3.

An analysis of the generalized data allows us to conclude that 23% of junior schoolchildren (34 people) expressed a positive attitude towards their parents, 20% of junior schoolchildren (30 people) showed emotional comfort, i. feeling part of the family, 10% of junior schoolchildren (14 people) revealed close, friendly relationships between brothers and sisters. These characteristics are expressed in the figure: all family members (no omissions of any of the family members) are depicted together, standing close or engaged in some common task, family members are depicted holding hands.

10% of junior schoolchildren (15 people) expressed anxiety towards their parents, 13% of junior schoolchildren (19 people) expressed a feeling of loneliness, anxiety, lack of a sense of community with the family, 24% of junior schoolchildren (35 people) revealed rivalry with brothers and sisters. These characteristics are expressed in the figure: the image of the family as several isolated figures that do not contact each other in any way, omissions of any of the family members are possible; some character is distant from other figures, this may indicate the "distance" that the child notices in life and highlights it, perhaps placing one of the family members above or below the rest, increasing or decreasing its size; absence of yourself in the picture.

Figure 2.2.3 Percentage of students' orientations in family relationships

Thus, according to the results of diagnosing intra-family relations using the “Kinetic Family Pattern” method, most of the younger schoolchildren have a positive attitude towards their parents and emotional comfort. Girls have significantly better relationships with their parents and brothers than boys.

In order to identify the diagnosis of interpersonal and intergroup relations, a study was conducted using the "Sociometry" method by J. Moreno. Primary data on the results of diagnostics using the “Sociometry” method by J. Moreno are presented in Appendix A. Generalized results reflecting the business (production) choice of a partner in a production situation related to any production activity (“With whom would you prefer to perform control work together ?”) are presented in Table 2.1. and 2.2.

Table 2.1.

The quantitative ratio of the role distribution in the group when choosing a job-oriented (grade 1-A)

An analysis of the generalized data allows us to conclude that there are two leaders (Victoria K. and Artem Ch.) who do not contact each other, which can cause various conflicts in the group and provoke a struggle for leadership, both leaders are focused on status values.

Status values ​​indicate the orientation of the subject to such values ​​in the system of interpersonal relations that would determine his rights, duties and privileges, the degree of authority in the eyes of other members of the group, includes the desire for leadership, relations of dominance and subordination. In addition, leaders are chosen by different members of the groups, which may be a reason to assume that the class is divided into clearly defined two camps that communicate little with each other.

In general, the group is characterized by the following types of relationships:

1. X chooses V, and V chooses X - complete mutual sympathy, mutual choice

2. X chooses V and V omits X - "one-sided love"

3. X chooses V, and V rejects X - connection is rare, prone to confrontation, unstable

4. X omits V and V omits X - children are in the same group and not related to each other - complete indifference

5. X omits V, and V rejects X - one is indifferent to the other, and the other hates him - "dormant conflict"

6. X rejects V and V rejects X - overdue conflict

Table 2.2.

In the structure of the group, only dyads predominate (bilateral mutual elections, denotes the desire of the respondent to cooperate with others, denotes the most valuable connection).

The reference nucleus interacts little with the leaders of the group, which may indicate that it is diffuse, i.e. is not a referential core, the members of the referential circle in this case are simply secondary leaders.

Generalized results reflecting the informal (non-productive or emotional) choice of a partner for joint activities in the field of leisure, recreation, spending free time (“Which member of the group would you invite to your birthday party?)” are presented in Table 2.3. and 2.4.

Table 2.3.

The quantitative ratio of the role distribution in the group in the field of leisure, recreation, spending free time (Grade 1-A)

An analysis of the generalized data allows us to conclude that there are two leaders (Victoria K. and Artem Ch.) who do not contact each other, which can cause various conflicts in the group and provoke a struggle for leadership, both leaders are focused on status values. Status values ​​indicate the orientation of the subject to such values ​​in the system of interpersonal relations that would determine his rights, duties and privileges, the degree of authority in the eyes of other members of the group, includes the desire for leadership, relations of dominance and subordination. In addition, leaders are chosen by different members of the groups, which may be a reason to assume that the class is divided into clearly defined two camps that communicate little with each other.

In the structure of the group, only dyads predominate (bilateral mutual elections, denotes the desire of the respondent to cooperate with others, denotes the most valuable connection).

The reference nucleus interacts little with the leaders of the group, which may indicate that it is diffuse, i.e. is not a referential core, the members of the referential circle in this case are simply secondary leaders.

The bulk of the group - 50% - are among the neglected.

The 4th type of relationships based on mutual lowering prevails (“lowering” is the absence of both choice and deviation, that is, leaving one individual without attention to another.), that is, indifference to each other. Also, 8 mutual deviations were revealed, which may indicate pronounced conflicts in the group, unwillingness to cooperate and a negative choice.

The generalized results reflecting the informal (non-productive or emotional) choice of a partner for joint activities in the field of leisure, recreation, spending free time (“Which member of the group would you invite to your birthday party?)” are presented in Table 2.4.

The quantitative ratio of the role distribution in the group in the field of leisure, recreation, spending free time (grades 1-B)

Table 2.4.

The quantitative ratio of the role distribution in the group when choosing a job-oriented (grade 1-B)

An analysis of the generalized data allows us to conclude that there are two leaders (Vladimir K. and Ekaterina Kh.) who do not contact each other, which can cause various conflicts in the group and provoke a struggle for leadership, both leaders are oriented towards status values. Status values ​​indicate the orientation of the subject to such values ​​in the system of interpersonal relations that would determine his rights, duties and privileges, the degree of authority in the eyes of other members of the group, includes the desire for leadership, relations of dominance and subordination. In addition, leaders are chosen by different members of the groups, which may be a reason to assume that the class is divided into clearly defined two camps that communicate little with each other.

In the structure of the group, only dyads predominate (bilateral mutual elections, denotes the desire of the respondent to cooperate with others, denotes the most valuable connection).

The reference nucleus interacts little with the leaders of the group, which may indicate that it is diffuse, i.e. is not a referential core, the members of the referential circle in this case are simply secondary leaders.

The bulk of the group - 78.3% - are among the outcasts.

The 4th type of relationships based on mutual lowering prevails (“lowering” is the absence of both choice and deviation, that is, leaving one individual without attention to another.), that is, indifference to each other. Also, 5 mutual deviations were revealed, which may indicate pronounced conflicts in the group, unwillingness to cooperate and a negative choice.

Thus, according to the results of diagnostics using sociometry, an unfavorable psychological climate in the classroom was revealed, which indicates an unsatisfactory psychological atmosphere characterized by high conflict, rivalry, the presence of aggressive tendencies, suppression by the referent core of the group of students of other members of the group, their desire to impose their own rules. The group also has the following characteristics: low cohesion, goodwill in the group depends on external circumstances, the presence of disparate groups, instability, weak intragroup discipline, dependence on the opinion of the group's referent core.

In general, according to the results of the study of the psychological characteristics of the socialization of younger schoolchildren, it can be concluded that there are children in the experimental group who have unfavorable factors that affect social adaptation and socialization: functional unpreparedness for schooling, dissatisfaction in communicating with adults, inadequate awareness of their position in a peer group; low status before entering the first grade and during the period of study, a conflict situation in the family, a negative style of attitude towards the teacher, the factor of upbringing in an incomplete family.

In order to identify the development of will at primary school age using the observation method, the results of which are presented in Appendix G. The generalized results of the method are presented in Table 2.5

Table 2.5

The quantitative ratio of signs of will

An analysis of the generalized data allows us to conclude that for girls (25 people) on the basis of "purposefulness" the results are more pronounced than for boys, for girls the percentage is 89.3%, and for boys 63.1%, for the attribute " perseverance" the results are more pronounced in girls 75.5%, and in boys 44.2%, on the basis of "restraint" the results are also more pronounced in girls, the percentage is 93%, and in boys 70.5%, on the basis of " determination” the results are more pronounced in girls, the percentage is 73.9%, and in boys 50.3%, on the basis of “independence” the results are more pronounced in girls, the percentage is 86.9%, and in boys 53.1% , on the basis of "initiativity" the results are more pronounced in girls, the percentage is 66.6%, and in boys 45.3%.

Thus, according to the results of revealing the will with the help of observation, it was revealed that, according to 6 characteristics, the indicators of girls are higher than those of boys.

An appropriate questionnaire was used to determine the level of socialization and social adaptation of children of primary school age. Primary results are presented in Appendix A. Summarized diagnostic results are presented in Figure 2.2.5.

An analysis of the generalized data allows us to conclude that 31% of junior schoolchildren (15 people) have a high level of socialization. A high level of socialization is characterized by the fact that the main type of the adaptation process is active, that is, it is characterized by the predominance of an active impact on the social environment. Social adaptation is considered as the readiness of the individual to perform various social roles, as the stability of social ties. A high level of adaptation characterizes the ability to change one's behavior depending on the requirements of society (compensatory functions in the process of socialization, i.e. without prejudice to one's own goals) and the optimal relationship between the needs of the individual and society: a balanced relationship between the egocentric needs of a person and the requirements of the environment. An absolutely balanced harmonious personality is characterized by a complete balance of moderately pronounced tendencies towards self-realization with good self-control, ensuring full compliance with the generally accepted normative requirements of the environment. A high level of socialization presupposes not only the conscious assimilation of ready-made forms and methods of social life, but also their analysis and development of one's own style of life and behavior, as well as the acquisition of social ties.

According to the results of diagnostics, 45% of younger schoolchildren (22 people) have an average level of socialization, and, accordingly, the main type of adaptation process is active-adaptive. Average values ​​indicate the belief that the ability to control the events of one's own life is not always subject to the forces of a person, a person's life is equally influenced by both his own abilities and efforts in adapting to circumstances, and external circumstances, sometimes forcing him to adapt excessively (to the detriment of himself and their needs) and behave like a passive observer.

24% of the subjects are characterized by a low level of socialization (11 people). A low level implies a passive type of adaptation process, that is, it is determined by a passive, conformal acceptance of the goals, objectives and value orientations of the group. Manifested in the adoption of attitudes and stereotypes of behavior without internal resistance and sufficient reflection, the desire to comply with the opinion of the majority. The predominance of an excessive desire for collectivism, which leads to social maladaptation. A low level is also characteristic of children who unnecessarily strive for individualism, that is, to be different from everyone, which in turn causes negative assessments of others and the desire of people to avoid communication and interaction with such a "black sheep". Individualism is also a passive strategy, since a person does not seek to change the situation, but, on the contrary, protests (a defense mechanism) against changing it.

Figure 2.2. 5 Levels of socialization and social adaptation of younger students

Thus, according to the results of the survey, the average level of socialization and social adaptation for most of the younger schoolchildren, namely, girls have a better level of socialization than boys.

To identify gender differences among younger students in the formation of a student's position, we use Fisher's multifunctional criterion. The criterion value is calculated by the formula:

where and - values, percentages in the experimental and control groups.

and are sample sizes.

Among girls, the formed position of a schoolboy was revealed in 24 out of 24 girls.

Hence,

Among the boys, the formed position of a schoolboy was revealed in 8 out of 24 boys.

Hence,

In order to calculate the value, the obtained values ​​\u200b\u200band translate into radians using special statistical tables:,.

Since it is greater than the value, gender differences in the levels of formation of the student's position can be considered statistically significant.

With the help of Fisher's monofunctional criterion, we will check the reliability of gender differences in the formation of educational motivation among younger students. The criterion value is calculated by the formula:

Among girls, a high level of learning motivation was found in 21 out of 24 girls.

Hence,

Among boys, a high level of learning motivation was found in 2 out of 24 boys.

Hence,

In order to calculate the value, the obtained values ​​\u200b\u200band translate into radians using special statistical tables:,

We substitute the results obtained into the formula:

With the help of specially statistical tables, we find the critical values ​​and: , a.

Since it is greater than the value, gender differences in the levels of formation of learning motivation can be considered statistically significant.

Thus, significant gender differences were revealed in the levels of formation of the student's position and learning motivation.

Therefore, the hypothesis of this thesis is confirmed, the goals are achieved.

Quantitative analysis is expressed by a sequence of experimental methods that determine the content (concentrations) of individual components and impurities in a sample of the material under study. Its task is to determine the quantitative ratio of chemical compounds, ions, elements that make up samples of the substances under study.

Tasks

Qualitative and quantitative analysis are branches of analytical chemistry. In particular, the latter solves various issues of modern science and production. This technique determines the optimal conditions for conducting chemical-technological processes, controls the quality of raw materials, the degree of purity of finished products, including drugs, establishes the content of components in mixtures, the relationship between the properties of substances.

Classification

Methods of quantitative analysis are divided into:

• physical;
• chemical (classic);
• physical and chemical.

chemical method

It is based on the use of various types of reactions that quantitatively occur in solutions, gases, bodies, etc. Quantitative chemical analysis is divided into:

• Gravimetric (weight). It consists in the exact (strict) determination of the mass of the analyzed component in the test substance.
• Titrimetric (volumetric). The quantitative composition of the test sample is determined by strict measurements of the volume of a reagent of known concentration (titrant), which interacts in equivalent quantities with the analyte.
• Gas analysis. It is based on the measurement of the volume of gas that is formed or absorbed as a result of a chemical reaction.

Chemical quantitative analysis of substances is considered classical. It is the most developed method of analysis and continues to evolve. It is accurate, easy to perform, does not require special equipment. But its use is sometimes associated with some difficulties in the study of complex mixtures and a relatively small feature of sensitivity.

physical method

This is a quantitative analysis based on the measurement of the values ​​of the physical parameters of the investigated substances or solutions, which are a function of their quantitative composition. Subdivided into:

• Refractometry (measurement of refractive index values).
• Polarimetry (measurement of optical rotation values).
• Fluorimetry (determination of fluorescence intensity) and others

Physical methods are characterized by rapidity, low limit of determination, objectivity of results, and the possibility of automating the process. But they are not always specific, since the physical quantity is affected not only by the concentration of the test substance, but also by the presence of other substances and impurities. Their application often requires the use of sophisticated equipment.

Physical and chemical methods

The tasks of quantitative analysis are the measurement of the values ​​of the physical parameters of the system under study, which appear or change as a result of chemical reactions. These methods are characterized by a low detection limit and speed of execution, require the use of certain instruments.

gravimetric method

It is the oldest and most developed quantitative analysis technology. In fact, analytical chemistry began with gravimetry. A set of actions allows you to accurately measure the mass of the determined component, separated from other components of the system under test in a constant form of a chemical element.

Gravimetry is a pharmacopoeial method, which is characterized by high accuracy and reproducibility of results, ease of execution, but laborious. Includes tricks:

• deposition;
• distillation;
• discharge;
• electrogravimetry;
• thermogravimetric methods.

Deposition method

Quantitative precipitation analysis is based on the chemical reaction of the analyte with a precipitant to form a poorly soluble compound, which is separated, then washed and calcined (dried). At the finish, the selected component is weighed.

For example, in the gravimetric determination of Ba 2+ ions in salt solutions, sulfuric acid is used as a precipitant. The reaction produces a white crystalline precipitate of BaSO 4 (precipitated form). After roasting this sediment, the so-called gravimetric form is formed, which completely coincides with the precipitated form.

When determining Ca 2+ ions, oxalic acid can be used as a precipitant. After analytical treatment of the precipitate, the precipitated form (CaC 2 O 4) is converted into the gravimetric form (CaO). Thus, the precipitated form can either coincide with or differ from the gravimetric form in terms of the chemical formula.

Scales

Analytical chemistry requires highly accurate measurements. In the gravimetric method of analysis, very accurate scales are used as the main instrument.

• Weighing at the required accuracy of ± 0.01 g is carried out on a pharmacy (manual) or technochemical scales.
• Weighing at the required accuracy of ±0.0001 g is carried out on an analytical balance.
• With an accuracy of ± 0.00001 g - on microteres.

Weighing technique

Carrying out a quantitative analysis, the determination of the mass of a substance on technochemical or technical scales is carried out as follows: the object under study is placed on the left pan of the balance, and the balancing weights on the right. The weighing process is completed when the balance pointer is in the middle position.

In the process of weighing on a pharmacy scale, the central ring is held with the left hand, with the elbow resting on the laboratory table. The damping of the arm during weighing can be accelerated by lightly touching the bottom of the weighing pan to the surface of the table.

Analytical balances are mounted in separate allotted laboratory rooms (weight rooms) on special monolithic shelves-stands. To prevent the influence of air fluctuations, dust and moisture, the scales are protected by special glass cases. When working with an analytical balance, the following requirements and rules should be observed:

• before each weighing, check the condition of the balance and set the zero point;
• weighed substances are placed in a container (bottle, watch glass, crucible, test tube);
• the temperature of the substances to be weighed is brought to the temperature of the balance in the weighing room for 20 minutes;
• The balance must not be loaded beyond the specified limit loads.

Stages of gravimetry according to the precipitation method

Gravimetric qualitative and quantitative analysis includes the following steps:

• calculation of weighed masses of the analyzed sample and the volume of the precipitant;
• weighing and dissolving the sample;
• deposition (obtaining a precipitated form of the component to be determined);
• removing precipitation from the mother liquor;
• sediment washing;
• drying or calcining the precipitate to constant weight;
• weighing gravimetric form;
• calculation of analysis results.

The choice of precipitator

When choosing a precipitant - the basis of quantitative analysis - take into account the possible content of the analyzed component in the sample. To increase the completeness of sediment removal, a moderate excess of the precipitant is used. The precipitant used must have:

• specificity, selectivity relative to the ion being determined;
• volatility, easily removed by drying or calcining the gravimetric form.

Among the inorganic precipitants, the most common solutions are: HCL; H 2 SO 4 ; H3PO4; NaOH; AgNO 3 ; BaCL 2 and others. Among organic precipitants, preference is given to solutions of diacetyldioxime, 8-hydroxyquinoline, oxalic acid, and others that form intracomplex stable compounds with metal ions, which have the following advantages:

• Complex compounds with metals, as a rule, have a slight solubility in water, ensuring complete precipitation of metal ions.
• The adsorption capacity of intra-complex precipitates (molecular crystal lattice) is lower than the adsorption capacity of inorganic precipitates with an ionic structure, which makes it possible to obtain a pure precipitate.
• Possibility of selective or specific precipitation of metal ions in the presence of other cations.
• Due to the relatively large molecular weight of gravimetric forms, the relative error of determination is reduced (as opposed to the use of inorganic precipitants with a small molar mass).

Deposition process

This is the most important step in the characterization of quantitative analysis. When obtaining a precipitated form, it is necessary to minimize costs due to the solubility of the precipitate in the mother liquor, to reduce the processes of adsorption, occlusion, co-precipitation. It is required to obtain sufficiently large sediment particles that do not pass through the filtration pores.

Requirements for the precipitated form:

• The component that is determined must quantitatively precipitate and correspond to the value of Ks≥10 -8 .
• The sediment should not contain foreign impurities and be stable relative to the external environment.
• The precipitated form should be converted as completely as possible to the gravimetric form upon drying or calcination of the test substance.
• The aggregate state of the precipitate must correspond to the conditions of its filtration and washing.
• Preference is given to a crystalline precipitate containing large particles, having a lower absorption capacity. They are easier to filter without clogging the filter pores.

Obtaining a crystalline precipitate

Conditions for obtaining an optimal crystalline precipitate:

• Precipitation is carried out in a dilute solution of the test substance with a diluted solution of the precipitant.
• Add the precipitant solution slowly, drop by drop, with gentle stirring.
• Precipitation is carried out in a hot solution of the test substance with a hot solvent.
• Sometimes precipitation is carried out in the presence of compounds (for example, a small amount of acid), which slightly increase the solubility of the precipitate, but do not form soluble complex compounds with it.
• The precipitate is left in the initial solution for some time, during which the “precipitation of the precipitate” occurs.
• In cases where the precipitated form is formed as an amorphous precipitate, attempts are made to make it thicker to facilitate filtration.

Obtaining an amorphous precipitate

Conditions for obtaining an optimal amorphous precipitate:

• A hot concentrated solution of the precipitant is added to a hot concentrated solution of the test substance, which promotes coagulation of the particles. The sediment gets thicker.
• Add precipitant quickly.
• If necessary, a coagulant - electrolyte is introduced into the test solution.

Filtration

Quantitative analysis methods include such an important step as filtration. Filtration and washing of precipitates is carried out using either glass filters or paper filters that do not contain ash. Paper filters vary in density and pore size. Dense filters are marked with blue tape, less dense - with black and red. The diameter of ash-free paper filters is 6-11 cm. Before filtration, the clear solution above the precipitate is drained.

Electrogravimetry

Quantitative analysis can be carried out by electrogravimetry. The test drug is removed (most often from solutions) during electrolysis on one of the electrodes. After the reaction is complete, the electrode is washed, dried and weighed. By increasing the mass of the electrode, the mass of the substance formed on the electrode is determined. This is how an alloy of gold and copper is analyzed. After separating gold in solution, copper ions accumulated on the electrode are determined.

Thermogravimetric method

It is carried out by measuring the mass of a substance during its continuous heating in a certain temperature range. Changes are recorded by a special device - a derivatograph. It is equipped with continuous weighing thermometers, an electric furnace for heating the test sample, a thermocouple for measuring temperatures, a standard and a continuous recorder. The change in the mass of the sample is automatically recorded in the form of a thermogravigram (derivatogram) - a curve of mass change built in the coordinates:

• time (or temperature);
• mass loss.

Conclusion

Quantitative results must be accurate, correct and reproducible. For this purpose, appropriate analytical reactions or physical properties of the substance are used, all analytical operations are correctly performed and reliable methods of measuring the results of the analysis are used. During the performance of any quantitative determination, an assessment of the reliability of the results must be carried out.