“Theory requires knowledge, for
A.N. Krylov
practice, in addition, also skills "
Alexey Nikolaevich Krylov (1863 - 1945) He combined three categories of scientists. He was simultaneously an outstanding mathematician, physicist and engineer.
The scientist was born in the village of Visyaga (now the village of Krylovo in Chuvashia, Russia) in the family of an officer. His relatives are well-known Russian figures: the founder of the Russian physiological school I.M. Sechenov, academician of Slavic philology B.M. Lyapunov, the famous professor-oculist V.P. Filatov and others. Mathematics lessons were given to young Krylov by his uncle, the outstanding mathematician A. M. Lyapunov.
The main business of the whole life of Alexei Nikolaevich was shipbuilding. He created the famous theory of seaworthiness, called "Krylov's theory" . For the first time, the science of the ship found a classical solution to the problems of the ship's rolling, the vibration of ships, and their unsinkability.
Petersburg became the cradle of the future academician-shipbuilder. In 1878 he entered the St. Petersburg Naval School (now the Naval Academy named after Admiral N.G. Kuznetsov).
After a brilliant graduation from college in 1884, he was promoted to midshipman, and his name was inscribed on a marble plaque.
The first scientific work on the deviation of compasses ( the phenomenon of distortion of the readings of the magnetic needle of the compass under the influence of the iron hull of the ship) were written by him in 1884-1887. while working in the Compass Workshop of the Main Hydrographic Department. In 1886 he published a description of his first invention - designed by him dromoscope, which, unlike similar instruments for determining deviation created abroad, made it possible to more accurately navigate the ship on the high seas. Dromoscope A.N. Krylov was widely used in the Navy.
The first scientific work in the field of shipbuilding "Calculation of the turret of the battleship" Emperor Nicholas I "" Aleksey Nikolaevich wrote while working at the Franco-Russian shipyard in 1887-1888. It is here that his path as a scientist-shipbuilder begins.
After a brilliant graduation from the Naval Academy (now the Naval Academy named after Admiral N.G. Kuznetsov), in 1890 A.N. Krylov, which lasted more than half a century.
In 1892, he began to read a course of lectures on the theory of the ship, which was subsequently published under the title Notes on the Theory of the Ship. The theory of seaworthiness of a ship. "The Theory of the Ship" - the main work of Academician A.N. Krylov, who brought him world fame.
In 1896 and 1898 he speaks at meetings of shipbuilders in London on the theory of the ship's pitching in waves. For outstanding scientific work, the English Society of Shipbuilders awarded him, the first of the foreigners, the highest award - a large gold medal. The pitching theory was translated into many foreign languages and was called "Krylov's theories" .
In 1900 in St. Petersburg, with the active participation of A.N. Krylov, the Polytechnic Institute was opened, at the shipbuilding department of which the scientist lectured.
In 1900-1908. he heads the Experimental Basin of the Maritime Department, where models of future ships were tested. During these years, he becomes close to the admiral S.O. Makarov, the founder of the science of unsinkability, and together with him develops this doctrine, skillfully combining theory with practice. Alexey Nikolaevich makes special "Tables of unsinkability", which in 1905 were adopted on all ships of the Russian fleet and, somewhat later, in all foreign fleets.
Alexey Nikolaevich and Elizaveta Dmitrievna Krylovs shortly after marriage
In 1908 A.N. Krylov was appointed chief inspector of shipbuilding, and then chairman of the Marine Technical Committee. The first Russian battleships designed and built under his leadership ( "Marat", "Sevastopol", "Gangut" and others) for many years remained combat-ready and with honor passed the test of the Great Patriotic War of 1941-1945.
By submission NOT. Zhukovsky, the father of Russian aviation, in 1914 Moscow University awarded Alexei Nikolaevich an honorary degree of Doctor of Applied Mathematics, in the same year he was elected a corresponding member of the Academy of Sciences.
In 1919 he was appointed head of the Naval Academy. In this post, his talent as a teacher and organizer was fully revealed. In the difficult conditions of the civil war, he is reorganizing this higher military educational institution.
In 1921-1926. A.N. Krylov works abroad. He participates in various international shipbuilding commissions, develops a project for the re-transportation of equipment for the Volkhovskaya HPP, purchases and sends instruments for the Pulkovo Observatory and the Main Chamber of Weights and Measures.
In addition, he is negotiating with the French government on the transfer of collections to A.F. Otto (Onegin) to the Pushkin House and the richest collection of manuscripts by A.S. Pushkin returns to his homeland.
From the memoirs of her daughter - Anna Alekseevna Kapitsa:
“In my childhood memories, my father is tall, broad-shouldered, with thick black hair and a bushy black beard. Creativity has always absorbed him, it was a part of his life. Alexei Nikolaevich was never idle. To take his mind off one job, he found another. But he was not an armchair scientist, he was always among people. A brilliant storyteller, very witty, he loved a funny salty anecdote and a joke. In his youth, dad played tennis, rode a bicycle and was very fond of shooting at a target.
After returning from a business trip abroad, A.N. Krylov continues teaching. As a teacher, he was characterized by the utmost clarity of presentation, the ability to focus on the main thing, originality and wit.
Lectures on the "Theory of the ship" became a model of public accessibility in the presentation of complex scientific problems.
In 1936, the fundamental work of A.N. Krylov's "Vibration of the ships", later - another fundamental work "The pitching of the ship". These works became the main textbooks for one of the most important sections of the ship theory course.
During the Great Patriotic War, A.N. Krylov, evacuated from Leningrad to Kazan, continues to work as a permanent expert of the technical meeting and a member of the commission on scientific and technical naval issues of the USSR Academy of Sciences.
Peru of the scientist owns 285 works on mathematics, mechanics, the history of science and technology, and especially a lot on the theory of the ship.
The complete collection of his works in 12 volumes was published by the Academy of Sciences of the USSR in 1951-1956. A distinctive feature of all his works was the ability to state any complex issue, the ability to bring the results of research to a level that was accessible to the understanding of engineers. Its motto was to focus creative efforts on solving problems and challenges that practice puts forward. .
A.N. Krylov invented a number of ship and artillery instruments and built the first machine in Russia for integrating differential equations.
1920s
A major contribution to the development of mathematics was his work "On some differential equations of mathematical physics that have application in technical questions". In this work, questions are investigated that relate to forced vibrations of elastic systems, and a method for improving the convergence of trigonometric series is given.
"Lectures on Approximate Calculations" A.N. Krylova - the first in the world literature course of approximate calculations.
Of great importance are the works of the scientist, which are devoted to the study of the heritage of the classics of science - I. Newton, L. Euler, K. Gauss and others. Aleksey Nikolaevich translated into Russian "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" I. Newton and wrote valuable additions to them, recreated the bright pages of the life and work of many outstanding scientists. His autobiographical book "My Memoirs" testifies to the high artistic skill of the scientist.
A.N. Krylov being an outstanding teacher. His pedagogical credo is "teach to learn" .
He believed that no educational institution could prepare a fully completed specialist. Further practice and self-education should polish qualifications and skills . The teacher, from his point of view, should develop the general culture of students, instill in them a love for work, science. A.N. Krylov brought up a bright galaxy of domestic scientists.
The academician was an outstanding mathematician, mechanic, founder of the ship theory.
He was awarded the State Prize of the USSR, awarded three orders of Lenin, he was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor.
Literature
1. Krylov A.N. Collection of works. T. 1-12. - M.-L., 1951-1956.
2. Krylov A.N. My memories. - L., 1979.
3. Khanovich I.G. Alexey Nikolaevich Krylov. - L., 1967.
4. Yanovskaya J. Academician of ship science. - M., 1976.
5. Shmigevsky M.V. Eminent mathematics. - H., 2004.
N.V. Shmigevsky
It is rare in the history of science to find a scientist with such broad and multifaceted interests as Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov. Mathematics, mechanics, physics, shipbuilding, pedagogy, history of science and technology - this is not a complete list of areas of knowledge to which this outstanding scientist made a significant contribution.
A.N. Krylov was born on August 15, 1863 in the Simbirsk province in the family of an artillery officer, deputy marshal of the local nobility. The family was closely related to the Sechenovs, Filatovs, and Lyapunovs. The outstanding Russian mathematician A.M. Lyapunov had a noticeable influence on Krylov's passion for mathematics in childhood and early adolescence.
In 1884 A.N. Krylov graduated from the Naval Corps with the rank of midshipman with his name entered on a marble plaque. In the last years of his studies at the Marine Corps, Krylov deeply studied the theory of magnetic compasses. The outstanding Russian magnetologist I.P. de Colong, who attracted midshipman Krylov to work in the compass section of the Main Hydrographic Directorate. Here his independent scientific activity begins, in particular, the first publications in the field of compass business appear.
In 1887, Krylov entered the Franco-Russian Shipbuilding Plant, where he brilliantly solved the problem of calculating the turret for the guns of the battleship Nicholas I. This is the first work of A.N. Krylov on shipbuilding, published in No. 5 of the "Naval Collection" for 1888, served as the basis for the development of the theory of calculation of gun reinforcements, further developed by professors of the Naval Academy I.G. Bubnov and Yu.A. Shimansky.
In 1888 A.N. Krylov, after a two-year practice at the Franco-Russian Plant, enters the Naval Academy at the shipbuilding department. After graduating with honors from the Academy in 1890, A.N. Krylov is appointed as a full-time teacher at the Naval School. The Naval Academy Conference decides to put his name on a marble plaque. From the autumn of 1891, he began to teach two independent courses at the Naval Academy - descriptive geometry and ship theory. In 1896 A.N. Krylov is appointed as a full-time teacher of the Naval Academy. Over the long years of activity within the walls of the Naval Academy, he carried out a number of outstanding studies that brought him fame as the largest specialist in shipbuilding both in Russia and abroad.
At lectures on the theory of the ship, given to students of the academy in 1895, A.N. Krylov first outlined the theory of keel and heave of a ship in waves. Like all Krylov's works, the theory of pitching was created by him in connection with the need to solve a practical problem: in 1895, during the construction of the port of Libava, it was necessary to determine the minimum allowable depth of water under the keel of the ship so that during pitching the ship would not touch the bottom of the harbor. To solve this problem, the Main Hydrographic Department, on behalf of the Minister of the Sea, Admiral N.M. Chikhachev suggested to Captain Krylov
Soon the answer to this question in a more general form was ready. In November 1895, in the Russian Technical Society (RTO) in St. Petersburg, A.N. Krylov read a report on the topic "A new theory of the pitching of a ship in waves." In March 1896 A.N. Krylov delivered the same report at the English Society of Naval Engineers in London. For the first time, the science of the ship received a classical solution to the issue under study; before that, the attempts of a number of foreign scientists in this area were unsuccessful.
Returning to his homeland, A.N. Krylov continues his research and creates the "General Theory of the Rolling of a Ship in Waves". In January 1898, he made a report in St. Petersburg in the RTO, and in April of the same year he again spoke with a new generalized theory in the English Society of Naval Engineers.
For solving one of the fundamental problems of shipbuilding A.N. Krylov was awarded the gold medal of the English Society of Naval Engineers, the first time in the entire thirty-five-year history of the Society awarded to a foreigner. The theory of the ship's pitching began to be called "Krylov's theory" and under this name entered into all courses in the theory of the ship. Research by A.N. Krylov's problems of the ship's rolling in waves brought him world fame and put his name in a number of outstanding researchers in the field of dynamic problems of ship theory.
In January 1900 A.N. Krylov was appointed head of the experimental shipbuilding basin of the maritime department with the retention of his post at the academy. Under his leadership, the Experimental Basin turned into the first Russian research center for shipbuilding and armaments.
While working in the Experimental basin, A.N. Krylov together with Admiral S.O. Makarov - the founder of the doctrine of the unsinkability of ships - launched a series of extensive studies in the field of ensuring the survivability of ships. In 1903, he submitted to the Marine Technical Committee the unsinkability tables drawn up for the battleship Petropavlovsk. For the first time in the history of the fleet, questions of survivability and combat readiness of ships were put on a solid mathematical basis. The correctness of the provisions of the Krylov-Makarov theory of unsinkability was confirmed by the experience of the Tsushima battle in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904, after which they received general recognition and practical application in shipbuilding. In the English navy, such tables for ships were introduced only 25 years after they were developed by A.N. Krylov.
Alexey Nikolaevich Krylov was not only an outstanding scientist, but also a major organizer of the leading areas of Russian technology and industry. In 1907, he was appointed chief inspector of shipbuilding, and in 1908, with the rank of major general, he was the acting chairman of the Naval Technical Committee of the Naval Ministry.
Having become the head of the Marine Technical Committee, A.N. Krylov is doing a great job of building the Russian fleet. Taking an active part in the creation of new battleships, which surpassed foreign ones in their combat power, A.N. Krylov laid the foundations for modern ship design techniques. Under his leadership, the original "Russian framing system" was created, providing the necessary strength of the ships with the least possible weight. The struggle for the survivability of ships - for the preservation of their combat qualities in conditions of severe damage - was for the first time put on a rational basis. The problems that occupied the shipbuilders of that time - the fight against the vibration of the hull and mechanisms, the stabilization of combat posts, the reduction of the harmful effects of ship rolling on the wave, and many others - received their complete solution.
Modern building mechanics of a ship, i.e. the science of ship strength owes much of its development to Alexei Nikolaevich, who not only enriched it with such capital works as “On the Calculation of Beams Lying on an Elastic Foundation” and “Ship Vibration”, but can rightfully be considered its founder, along with I.G. Bubnov, with whom he worked closely in the initial period of the creation of this science.
Being engaged in the application of mathematics to the solution of practical problems, A.N. Krylov developed the means of mathematical analysis to such an extent that many of his scientific works on shipbuilding are a valuable contribution to the field of applied mathematics, making it possible to consider him not only a shipbuilding scientist, but also an outstanding mathematician.
Krylov, a naval engineer and naval engineer by training, was an outstanding scientist not only in the field of shipbuilding and mathematics, but also in such sciences as artillery, astronomy, compass science, etc.
Scientific work of A.N. Krylov received universal recognition in Russian public circles. In 1914, Alexei Nikolaevich was elected a corresponding member, and two years later, a full member of the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Krylov was appointed director of the Main Physical Observatory.
A.N. Krylov took an active part in the work of scientific and technical societies:
- 1886 - member of the expert commission of the Third Electrotechnical Exhibition, organized by the RTO;
- 1890 - 1893 - full member of the RTO in three departments: naval, electrical and aeronautical;
- 1893 - Member of the St. Petersburg Mathematical Society;
- 1896 - Member of the English Society of Naval Engineers;
- 1902 Member of the Society of Marine Engineers;
- 1910 - honorary member of the Society of Marine Engineers;
- 1914 - President of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society and Chairman of its Physics Department;
- 1915 - honorary member of the Union of Marine Engineers since its inception;
- 1924 - full member of the English Royal Astronomical Society;
- 1932 - honorary member and chairman of the All-Union Scientific Engineering and Technical Society of Shipbuilding (NITOSS) since its inception;
- 1942 Honorary Member of the English Society of Naval Engineers
After the revolution, A.N. Krylov participated in the transformation of the Naval Academy. In 1919, by order of the Revolutionary Military Council of the Baltic Fleet, Alexei Nikolayevich was appointed head of the Naval Academy. During the one and a half year period of A.N. Krylov in this position, under his direct supervision, new curricula and programs were developed in all subjects of the technical faculties of the academy.
In 1921, Krylov was sent by the Academy of Sciences to Western European countries as part of a commission whose goal was to resume scientific relations with foreign scientists and scientific institutions, to purchase books and the latest optical and physical instruments. This trip resulted in a long, until 1927, his service abroad, at first associated with the performance of various tasks of Soviet trade missions in Berlin, London and Paris, then as head of the Naval Department of the Russian Railway Mission in Berlin, later as a member board of the Russian-Norwegian Shipping Society and supervising the construction of ships ordered in different European countries.
Upon his return from abroad in 1927, Alexei Nikolaevich resumed lecturing at the Naval Academy and returned to the head of the Physics and Mathematics Institute of the Academy of Sciences. Along with this, he took the closest part in resolving complex technical issues that arose in various areas of military and civil shipbuilding. This activity of A.N. Krylov was combined with a great scientific work. For the fundamental works "Fundamentals of the theory of compass deviation", "On the theory of the Anschütz gyrocompass" and "Perturbations of the compass readings resulting from the rolling of the ship in waves" A.N. Krylov was awarded in 1941 the State Prize of the first degree. During the last years of A.N. Krylov was the permanent chairman of the board of the Scientific Engineering and Technical Society of Shipbuilders (VNITOSS), whose activities he actively supervised.
Activities of A.N. Krylova was highly appreciated during his lifetime: he was awarded two Orders of Lenin and awarded the title of Honored Worker of Science and Technology of the RSFSR. For outstanding achievements in the field of mathematical sciences, theory and practice of domestic shipbuilding, many years of fruitful work in the design and construction of modern naval ships, as well as major achievements in the training of highly qualified specialists for naval affairs, he was awarded the title in 1943 Hero of Socialist Labor. The Central Research Institute No. 45 of the People's Commissariat of the Shipbuilding Industry of the USSR, created according to his plan and with his participation, since 1944 began to bear the name of A.N. Krylov.
On October 26, 1945, at the age of 83, Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov died. He was buried in the Literary Mostki necropolis at the Volkovskoye cemetery in St. Petersburg, not far from the graves of D.A. Mendeleev and I.P. Pavlova.
By a decree of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR, published in newspapers on October 27, 1945, the name of the scientist was given to the Naval Academy of Shipbuilding and Armament, established on August 27, 1945. .E. Dzerzhinsky, for doctoral students and graduate students of the Institute of Mathematics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, the Institute of Mechanics of the USSR Academy of Sciences, for graduate students of Leningrad State University, Leningrad and Nikolaev shipbuilding institutes. The name of the scientist-shipbuilder was given to the All-Union Scientific and Technical Society of Shipbuilding (now NTO named after A.N. Krylov).
Later, a memorial plaque was erected on house No. 5 on Universitetskaya embankment, where the academician lived and worked in recent years.
Engineering and inventive activity of A.N. Krylova
A.N. Krylov showed himself as a talented inventor already in his early youth.
In 1886, midshipman Krylov, working under the guidance of Professor I.P. de Colonga, one of the creators of the theory of compass deviation, develops a device for determining the forces acting on the magnetic needle of a compass, the dromoscope. This device served to correct the compass and magnetic courses of the ship, as well as to find the azimuth of the stars. Creatively transferring to the field of technical calculations those rational methods and methods of approximate calculations that were developed by astronomers and geodesists and remained alien to technology, A.N. Krylov created a perfect device, which was widely used in the fleet, in the expeditions of the Hydrographic Department. The first printed works of A.N. Krylov.
The dromoscope was exhibited in the Russian pavilion of the International Columbian Exhibition in Chicago in 1893. At the All-Russian Exhibition in 1896 in Nizhny Novgorod, the device was awarded a diploma of the II category, and at the World Exhibition of 1900 in Paris - a gold medal.
To the study of compasses A.N. Krylov returned repeatedly and subsequently. In 1938, in his work “Disturbances of the compass readings resulting from the rolling of a ship in waves”, he studied the dynamics of the compass with exhaustive completeness and proposed an original design of a spherical card with calming tanks and a temperature compensator.
From the beginning of the XX century. the navy began to be equipped with a new device for determining the course - a gyroscopic compass, based on a completely different physical principle than a magnetic compass. In the 1930s during the development and development of new gyroscopic instruments at the plant "Elektropribor" (Leningrad) A.N. Krylov was the chief consultant of the plant and contributed to the creation in the shortest possible time of gyrocompasses of the Kurs, Girya and Polus types.
Development of a technique for high-speed testing of ships
A.N. Krylov formulated the requirements that should be imposed on measuring lines, gave comprehensive instructions on the organization of ship runs on high-speed progressive tests, on the order of observation records, etc. These requirements formed the basis of the all-Union standard for high-speed progressive testing of ships, published in 1935 and reprinted several times.
Paying attention to the fact that the main device of the pool - a towing dynamometer, ordered in England, does not provide the necessary accuracy of the resistance of the models, A.N. Krylov proposed a new type of dynamometer - a simple original design made of aluminum - a material that was just beginning its victorious path in technology. The main part of this dynamometer - a triangular equal-arm lever has been successfully operated in the pool for many years.
Accepted by A.N. Krylov, the methodology for towing tests of models and the basis for recalculating the results of testing models for nature existed without change until 1933.
In connection with the beginning of the design, Prof. I.G. Bubnov of the first Russian submarines in the basin under the leadership of A.N. Krylov in 1903, an original installation was designed and put on a towing cart, which made it possible to carry out towing tests of submarine models in full immersion.
During these years, models of all ships built at that time at domestic shipyards and abroad according to Russian orders were tested. In addition, numerous models were towed according to the projects of various inventors, including models of "water-armored" destroyers - Dzhevetsky's semi-submarines and Gulyaev's "water-armored" ships - the prototype of ships with anti-mine boolean protection that appeared during the First World War.
Activities in the field of structural mechanics and ship hull vibration
In the 1900s when testing the cruisers "Gromoboy" and "Bayan", very strong vibrations of these ships were found. At that time, the issue of ship vibration was not studied theoretically and presented great difficulties for ship engineers. A.N. Krylov developed a device - a vibrograph that records the vibrations of various parts of the ship's hull. For the first time in the history of the Russian fleet, cases of vibration occurrence on ships were studied and methods of dealing with it were recommended. Starting in 1901 to read a course on the vibration of ships, A.N. Krylov came to the need to inform his listeners of some general questions of mathematical physics, so that they could consciously perceive the applied problems of the vibration of ships. As a result, in 1908 a textbook was published - a course of lectures on the vibration of ships, which was three decades ahead of its time, and in 1913 - a book "On some differential equations of mathematical physics that have applications in technical issues."
In 1902 A.N. Krylov creates a strain gauge - a lever device for determining the elongation of a section of any ship connection. Instrument testing and elongation measurements A.N. Krylov spent in Toulon on the cruiser "Askold", and then in 1903 on the training ship "Ocean" during the transition from Libava to Port Arthur.
The strain gauge has found wide application in the study of stresses in ship structures and, apparently, is still the most advanced of all devices that work with a rod and a measuring box. The inventor managed to achieve high accuracy of the transmission mechanism, since the effect of backlash in it is almost eliminated.
The works of A.N. Krylova: “On the stresses caused in an elastic system by a dynamic load”, “On the calculation of beams lying on an elastic foundation”, “On the critical speeds of a rotating shaft”.
A.N. Krylov and artillery
Starting from 1894 during the creation of A.N. Krylov’s theory of the ship’s pitching, the questions of the accuracy of artillery fire during pitching came into the scientist’s field of vision.
In September 1894, Krylov proposed to the Naval Ministry a device invented by him and manufactured at his own expense for an automatic artillery environment - the inclinometer-contact. “The inclinometers for automatic firing now adopted in the Navy,” he wrote in a report dated May 23, 1895, “do not and cannot give accurate results, because, by the very principle of their device, they show the direction not of the true horizontal plane, but of the apparent one. I have invented an inclinometer that gives: 1) the direction of the true plumb line, 2) equipped with a device for automatically closing the current with anticipation of the charge ignition delay time. To this device, he also adapted a pitching stabilizer.
A year later, Krylov reported that, according to his instructions, a special hydraulic inclinometer was built, constantly showing the static roll and trim of the ship during pitching, necessary for using unsinkability tables.
In the early 1900s, being a professor at the Naval Academy, A.N. Krylov carried out a number of theoretical and experimental works to study the causes that affect the accuracy of naval artillery fire, developed a method for training gunners to fire in waves, and designed several optical artillery devices.
In 1904, he took an active part in supplying the naval artillery with optical sights for guns.
The Russian fleet entered the Russo-Japanese War without a single optical sight. By this time, the domestic industry had just begun to master the production of a complex optical sight of the Obukhov plant designed by Ya.N. Perepelkin "model of 1903" and could not provide them with military ships in a timely manner.
Given the current situation, A.N. Krylov developed a project for a simplified optical sight. Krylov's sight was simpler in design than the "model 1903" sight, much cheaper to manufacture and use. In August 1904, this sight was tested by the Commission of Naval Artillery Experiments, which gave it a high rating. Krylov's sight was put into service.
Subsequently, fulfilling the task of the maritime ministry, A.N. Krylov took part in the work to improve the design of Ya.N. Perepelkin and the creation of a new model of the optical sight of the Obukhov plant, adopted by the fleet for service in 1907.
In 1905 A.N. Krylov presented a report on the effect of ship rocking on gun firing. In one of the sections of this report, he outlined the method he had developed for photographic recording of the rocking of the ship. Somewhat later, in 1907, A.N. Krylov applied this method for an experimental study of the effect of the ship's pitching on firing. On the gunboat "Uralets", placed at his disposal, for three months he carried out experimental firing at shields under various conditions. More than 600 shells were fired from the two guns. Experiments have shown that the "telephot" developed by Krylov - a photographic camera of a special design for recording the pitching of a ship - is functioning successfully. Based on these experiments, a new design of the device was developed, which was subsequently applied by A.N. Krylov in his expedition on the steamer "Meteor".
Krylov telephoto - a slit photographic apparatus - was further developed in the works of Russian geophysicists V.V. Shuleikina, A.A. Ivanova, M.A. Kozyreva and others.
The shootings of 1907 brought A.N. Krylov to the idea of creating a special device for teaching gunners to shoot on the roll, with the help of which the shield would swing in front of the gunner's eyes, which would force the gunner to give the sighting line a movement identical to that which it will describe during the actual roll and in which the exercise in aiming and shooting would be carried out without actual shooting.
This device should allow changing the elements of pitching, as well as combinations of pitching, lateral and yaw on the course in accordance with the different direction of movement of the vessel relative to the waves.
In 1909 A.N. Krylov developed a scheme for such a device, which he called a marker. The marker was originally made for a 120 mm gun. But after the preliminary testing of the device showed that the marker would satisfy its purpose, the Marine Technical Committee instructed A.N. Krylov to expand the original task and, in addition to the marker for the 120-mm gun, develop the design of the marker for guns of other calibers.
In November 1910, Krylov's markers were manufactured and transferred for testing on ships of the Baltic and Black Sea fleets. Based on the test results, the Artillery Department of the Main Directorate of Shipbuilding at the beginning of 1912 decided that ships should be equipped only with Lieutenant General Krylov's marking devices. Krylov's device was of great practical importance, as it made it possible to educate and train gunners without the ship going to sea and without firing expensive shells.
The invention of the marker was extremely important for the Russian Navy. Not a single fleet of the world owned such a device. During the First World War, the Russian fleet proved to be more practiced in rolling shooting than its enemy, the German fleet. For the development of the world's first device for training ship gunners A.N. Krylov received in 1912 the award of the Mikhailovskaya Artillery Academy.
To the devices with which A.N. Krylov sought to improve the accuracy of firing of naval artillery, and the “predictor” device invented by him in 1907 also applies. The device was designed to install the rear sight of the gun, taking into account the speed of the enemy ship. The Commission for the Development of Manual for the Preparation of Ships and Squadrons for Battle under the Naval Ministry approved the memorandum of A.N. Krylov and recommended entrusting the development of the project to the Obukhov plant under the direct supervision of the author. The device was manufactured and tested in the navigation of 1908 in the Baltic Fleet, and in the navigation of 1909 - in the Black Sea. The predictor was awarded the Mikhailovskaya Artillery Academy Prize "for outstanding work in the field of artillery."
Systematizing and summarizing the experience of Russian inventors of the 19th century, A.N. Krylov developed in 1907 the design of a marine optical rangefinder, called the "differential rangefinder" by the author. This device of a very original design was calculated to determine the distance to objects (base), based on their height; in the case when the height of the "base" is not known in advance, then the distance was set by sighting. The technique for using a differential rangefinder was described in detail by A.N. Krylov in "Manual for using the rangefinder of the system of Lieutenant General Krylov". The range finder was manufactured and tested in the navy during the navigation of 1911. In 1912 it was adopted by the Russian fleet. Studying in detail and exploring the results of the use of a differential rangefinder in the fleet, A.N. Krylov listened especially sensitively to the conclusions of the fleet specialists and, on the basis of these comments, carried out work to further improve the differential rangefinder.
The invention of instruments for computing
As you know, A.N. Krylov paid great attention to questions of computation. His work created "an exceptionally high computing culture in our country" . In November 1903, the scientist made a report "The exact theory of the hatchet planimeter, presented in an elementary way" in the Russian Physical and Chemical Society. According to the drawings made by Krylov, an operating device of the original design was made. In the same month, his theory of planimeters and a complete description of the device were presented at a meeting of the Physics and Mathematics Department of the Academy. Noting the completeness and completeness of the developed by A.N. Krylov's theory, the department decided to publish these studies.
Another example of the invention of A.N. The main instrument for approximate calculations is the creation of an integrator of differential equations. He reported on his invention at a meeting of the Russian Physical and Chemical Society in December 1903. Then it was presented in January 1904 by Academician A.M. Lyapunov to the Physics and Mathematics Department of the Academy of Sciences. A.M. Lyapunov emphasized the merits of Krylov's "very ingenious" device in comparison with Lord Kelvin's well-known integrator, which was suitable only for integrating linear differential equations, provided that they were first converted to a known form. Krylov's device did not require any preliminary calculations; it could be used both in the case of integrating nonlinear equations of a very general form, and for the numerical solution of algebraic equations. The department published an article by A.N. Krylov about the integrator in the next issue of the Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences.
Invented by A.N. Krylov, the integrator was highly appreciated by the scientific community. A detailed description of the Krylov device was placed in 1905 in Izvestiya S.-Pb. Polytechnic Institute "S.P. Timoshenko.
NOT. Zhukovsky, representing A.N. Krylov to award him the degree of doctor honoris causa, noted among the devices invented by Krylov "an ingenious machine for integrating equations". Academician B.B. Golitsyn during the nomination of A.N. Krylov for the title of ordinary academician of the Imperial Academy of Sciences in 1916 wrote: “His device for integrating differential equations is distinguished by special originality and wit, in which, using special templates characterizing the types of equations, he manages to find the integral of a given differential equation in a purely mechanical way” . The Krylov integrator is one of the first counting and solving integrating mechanical machines.
Other inventions and engineering developments
Krylov, among other measuring instruments, designed a cathetometer - a device for accurately measuring the vertical distances between points in physical experiments. Krylov's cathetometer was a further development of a similar device, improved in the 70s of the XIX century by D.I. Mendeleev.
Due to the great interest in aeronautics, A.N. Krylov in March 1907 made a report "On the significance of the form of a controlled balloon, on the figure and place of setting propellers on it."
One of the most important engineering works of A.N. Krylov is the development of conditions for sea and river transportation of a batch of railway equipment purchased for Russia in 1921 - 1923. abroad. Having studied the technical documentation of more than three thousand ships, A.N. Krylov chose a suitable model of the steamer and transformed it. He developed a scheme for the placement of steam locomotives in the holds and on the deck and was directly involved in the loading and fastening of steam locomotives. So for the first time the transportation of steam locomotives on ships in assembled form was carried out.
A.N. Krylov refuted pre-existing ideas about the conditions of navigation and, along the intended path, proved the possibility of the passage of large ships through shallow water areas. The savings obtained from this method of transportation amounted to two and a quarter million rubles in gold.
A.N. Krylov owns more than 30 inventions of unique devices and mechanisms. A specific feature of the creative method of A.N. Krylov - the combination of scientific research with engineering developments, the creation of new theories and the invention of new designs, devices and devices based on them manifested themselves at all stages of his long and fruitful professional activity.
Used sources
- History of physical and mathematical sciences: Sat. Art. / Ed. A.T. Grigoryan, A.P. Yushkevich. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1956, T. 15. - 356 p.
- Handwritten legacy of Academician Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov: Nauch. description / ed. acad. IN AND. Smirnova. - L.: Nauka, 1969. - 334 p.
- Varganov Yu. Both schoolchildren and veterans go to the museum // Fleet. - 1997. - No. 104 - 105. - S. 6.
- Varganov Yu. For eternity: Book collection of academician A.N. Krylov // Library. - 1996. - No. 8. - S. 22 - 24; No. 9. - S. 35 - 38.
- Grigoryan G.G., Morozova S.G. The history of engineering thought in Russia in the exhibitions and expositions of the Polytechnic Museum // Proceedings of the VI Scientific and Practical Conference "Russian Scientific and Technical Museum: Problems and Prospects". - N. Novgorod, 1996. - S. 88 - 95.
- Grigoryan G.G., Morozova S.G. Scientific and methodological foundations for the development of the direction "History of Engineering Thought of Russia" in the State Polytechnic Museum // Theoretical issues of the history of technology and scientific and technological progress: Sat. Art. - M.: Nauka, 1994. - S. 100.
- Krylov L.N. On the location of the arrows in the compass card // Mor. Sat. - 1886. - No. 5.
- . Krilov. Le Dromoscope. - St. Petersburg, 1886. - 13 p.
- Luchiinov S.T. Inventive activity of Aleksey Nikolaevich Krylov // Shipbuilding. - 1973. - No. 8. - S. 60.
- Khanovich I.G. Academician Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov (1863 - 1945). - L .: Nauka, 1967. - S. 101.
- Gire I.V. Activities of A.N. Krylov in the Experimental Shipbuilding Basin // Shipbuilding. - 1963. - No. 8. - S. 16 - 19.
- Pisarzhevsky O. Both a navigator and a carpenter // Inventor and innovator. - 1964. - No. 5. - S. 30 - 32.
- Academician Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov: On the 45th anniversary of the scientific and teacher. activities // Mor. Sat. - 1935. - No. 5. - S. 39 - 142.
- Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences. F. 759, inventory 11, file 58.
- Shtreikh S.Ya. Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov: Essay on life and work. - M.: Military Publishing House, 1956. - S. 94.
- Boikov V.I. Academician A.N. Krylov and artillery science // Art. magazine. - 1950. - No. 10. - S. 50.
- Bahrakh L.M. Optical devices A.N. Krylov // Nature. - 1949. - - No. 3. - S. 79.
- Krylov L.N. Report of Colonel A.N. Krylov about the experiences of firing on the roll from the gunboat "Uralets" in 1907 - St. Petersburg, 1910.
- Samaria V.G. Telefot Krylov // Nature. - 1963. - No. 5. - S. 91 - 95.
- Bahrakh L.M. Academician A.N. Krylov and precision instrumentation // From the history of domestic technology. - L., 1950. - S. 195.
- Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Fund 759, inventory 2, d.72.
- Khanovich IG. Notes // Krylov A.N. Fav. tr. - M., 1958. - S. 769.
- Extracts from the minutes of the meetings of the Academy of Sciences. Physics and Mathematics Department // Izv. Imp. Acad. Sciences. - 1904. - T.20. - No. 1. - S. VIII.
- L. Kriloff. Sur un integrateur des equations differentielles ordinaires // Izv. Imp. Acad. Sciences. - 1904. - T. 20, No. 1. - S. 17 - 37.
- Timoshenko S.P. Description of the device A.N. Krylov for the integration of ordinary differential equations // Izv. St. Petersburg. Polytech, in-ta. - 1905. - T. 3. - Issue. 3 - 4. - S. 397 - 406.
- Zhukovsky N.E. Collected works. T. 7. - M. - L.: Gostekhizdat, 1950. - S. 263.
- Archive of the Russian Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg branch). Fund 759, inventory 2, item 12, l. fifteen.
- Kurensky M. Academician A.N. Krylov // Techn. book. - 1938. - No. 12. - S. 36 - 40.
- Lavrentiev M.L., Favorov P.L. Alexey Nikolaevich Krylov. 1863 - 1945 // Shipbuilding. - 1963. - No. 8. - S. 1 - 4.
- Yakovlev I.I. On the instructions of Lenin // Shipbuilding. - 1970. - No. 2. - S. 50 - 52.
- A brief outline of the scientific and engineering activities of Acad. Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov // Vestn. metal industry. - 1939. - No. 4. - S. 9.
- Kremer L.M. New materials about Academician A.N. Krylov // Shipbuilding. - 1975. - No. 8. - S. 63.
- Archive of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR: Review of archival materials. - T. 3. - M.: Publishing House of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1950. - S. 26 - 28.
Prepared by:
Morozova, S.G. (Polytechnic Museum), Varganov, Yu.V. (Museum of the Naval Academy named after N.G. Kuznetsov). Analysis of the source base of the creative heritage of Academician A.N. Krylova (1863 - 1945) // Problems of cultural heritage in the field of engineering: Sat. Art. - Issue. 2. - M., 2001. - S. 116–141. - Bibliography: pp. 139 - 141.
The book of Academician Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov "My memories" is an amazing example of memoir literature. It was published for the first time in 1942 and has gone through six editions since then. Nevertheless, it is now a bibliographic rarity. Therefore, the decision of the publishing house "Sudostroenie" to release it in mass circulation will be met by readers with great enthusiasm.
It so happened that I was a witness to her writing. The fact is that Alexey Nikolaevich is my maternal grandfather. Anna Alekseevna Kapitsa - nee Krylova. Aleksey Nikolaevich always lived in Leningrad, our family lived in Moscow, and we met in the first months of the war in Kazan, where the scientific institutions of the USSR Academy of Sciences were evacuated.
I remember well how in the first days of August 1941, together with the staff of the Institute for Physical Problems, the director of which was then my father Pyotr Leonidovich Kapitsa, I left for Kazan. Father and mother were still in Moscow.
The city struck me with its silence and some peacefulness. Of course, war was felt here too, but there were no daily air raid alerts, the rumble of anti-aircraft guns, windows glued crosswise with paper strips, invariable gas masks on the side, night duty on the roof. Shortly after my arrival, a blackout was introduced.
At the same time, Aleksey Nikolaevich arrived in Kazan from Leningrad, and I moved from his hostel to a small house on Volkov Street, on the outskirts of the city, not far from Lake Kaban. I was ten years old, so I preferred to rush around the city with my peers, play war or make my way to the railway station to look at military equipment loaded onto platforms and Red Army men in carts, rather than sit with my old grandfather. But inevitably, by the end of the day, I ended up at home.
In the large room where the dining table stood, by a kerosene lamp with a large paper cone shade, I settled down to read some travel book. Opposite sat the grandfather and diligently wrote something with a pencil in a large common notebook. Near the table sat his wife Nadezhda Konstantinovna reading.
One evening, grandfather put down his pencil and said:
Listen to what I wrote.
Well, how interesting? - asked the grandfather, closing the notebook.
After that, Alexei Nikolaevich read to us what had been written during the day.
Almost forty years have passed since then, but I remember well how I hurried home from school (it was located near the Kazan Kremlin) in order to be in time for the evening reading about the events, as it seemed to me then, of very ancient times. Of course, I didn’t understand much, I was especially upset that my grandfather, although he was a general, never participated in battles, did not command warships. I remember once I asked my grandfather a question:
Why were you not shot as a general during the revolution?
And his answer:
General to general - discord.
Now, as I write these lines, there are five common notebooks in front of me in gray paper bindings with the inscription “A. N. Krylov. Memories of my life. There are 551 pages in them, written in a compact, almost calligraphic handwriting. They were written in 27 days - from August 20 to September 15, 1941. Moreover, my grandfather, who was then 78 years old, wrote down all the numbers, dates, surnames from memory - he did not keep diaries.
Having finished the work, Alexei Nikolayevich reread it for several days and made corrections in ink (there are few such corrections in notebooks), then he took a large thick diary bound in calico and with an insert with a rondo pen copied his memoirs cleanly. In the margins are the dates of the beginning and end of the rewriting: September 22 - October 10, 1941.
Later I learned that at that time there were difficulties with correspondence on a typewriter. But the typesetters, having looked at the manuscript, agreed to type directly from it.
On May 12, 1942, the book was signed for publication, and on October 15 I received as a gift a copy of the book with an instructive inscription:
“To my grandson Andrei Kapitsa, 11 years old. with advice so that he always and everywhere remembers that he is not alone in the world,
from grandfather A. Krylov
Alexei Nikolaevich was seriously ill. In 1942 he had a stroke, from which he almost completely recovered, and he was sent to the resort of Borovoe, in northern Kazakhstan. In the summer of 1943 I also visited him. It was the year of his 80th birthday.
In July, he was awarded the title of Hero of Socialist Labor. In August, on his birthday, he received many congratulations, and the celebration itself took place later, in the fall, in Moscow.
Until August 1945 we lived side by side, and I often asked him to help me with school mathematics. He was happy to prove the theorem in his original way, which he explained to me very intelligibly. Unfortunately, the teachers did not appreciate the originality of the solution, and I got deuces.
We again got a deuce with you, ”I said to my grandfather, running to him after school.
Aleksey Nikolaevich was terribly angry and threatened to go to school someday and restore order there.
Admirals often came to my grandfather with daggers in luxurious black uniforms with gold shoulder straps. He loved these visits very much and somehow tightened himself up, his eyes began to gleam mischievously, especially when he told some incident from his life, sometimes seasoning it with strong sea words. I adored these conversations, although I was not supposed to be present at them, so it was often heard:
And what are you eavesdropping on, well, get out of here.
In August 1945 A. N. Krylov returned to Leningrad. On October 26 he died. The sailors buried him with all the military honors due to an admiral of the fleet, and he was seen off, as it seemed to me, by the whole of Leningrad.
I have read My Memoirs many times. And perhaps some involvement in their writing makes me irreconcilable to the revisions that later editions were subjected to. He, who was not afraid of neither generals, nor ministers, nor the king, was tried to somehow comb his hair, ennoble. His sometimes rather "strong" lexicon is tried to be edited. But Aleksey Nikolaevich cannot be squeezed into the framework of polite decency.
That is why I took the liberty of restoring the text of A. N. Krylov’s memoirs according to the first “Kazan” edition of 1942. The publication offered to readers also includes essays on the history of Russian science, shipbuilding, written in different years and well complementing the main text. The selection of essays is based on the 1945 edition, the last lifetime version of A. N. Krylov's memoirs.
"My Memoirs" is not an autobiography, although the events are presented in chronological order. Aleksey Nikolaevich omitted some stages of his life. So, in addition to information about the childhood period, the reader learns practically nothing about the author's personal life. Memories end 1928
In order for the reader to have a complete picture of the life and work of A. N. Krylov, I will give some information from his biography.
He was born on August 3 (according to the old style), 1863, in the village of Visyaga, Ardatovsky district, Simbirsk province. His father, Nikolai Alexandrovich Krylov, a former officer, a participant in the hostilities of the Anglo-French-Russian war of 1855–1856, was an outstanding person. He had a literary gift and published several works on the history of the region, he was a good business executive.
He was married to Sofya Viktorovna Lyapunova.
The grandfather of Alexei Nikolaevich, Alexander Alekseevich Krylov, was also a military man who distinguished himself in the Patriotic War of 1812. He was wounded near Borodino and during the capture of Paris. He was awarded a golden weapon for bravery and orders for military merit. He was married to Maria Mikhailovna Filatova.
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It is not known whether his own brother, Andrei Mikhailovich, served him as an object of observation, but only many years later, at the end of the 80s, Ivan Mikhailovich transmitted such a story to S.P. Botkin:
“Here, Ivan Mikhailovich, I had an interesting patient today, your fellow countryman; I signed up in advance, I accept, greet, sit down in an armchair and begin to narrate himself:However, it is unlikely that Ivan Mikhailovich told his friend S.P. Botkin about the no less "correct" way of life of his brother Andrei."I must tell you, professor, that I have been living in the countryside almost without a break for a long time, I feel healthy so far and lead a very correct life, but nevertheless, when I got to Petersburg, I decided to consult with you. Let's say, in the summer I get up at four o'clock and drink a glass of [tea] vodka; they give me droshky, I go around the fields. I will arrive home at about 6 1/2 hours, drink a glass of vodka and go around the estate, barnyard, horse yard, etc. I will return home at 8 o’clock, drink a glass of vodka, have a snack and I'll go to bed to rest. I'll get up at 11 o'clock, drink a glass of vodka, work with the headman, steward until 12. At 12 o'clock I will drink a glass of vodka, have lunch and lie down to rest after dinner. I will get up at 3 o'clock, drink a glass of vodka ... etc. ."Botkin:"Let me ask you, how long have you been leading such a correct way of life?"Landowner:“I retired after the capture of Warsaw [by Paskevich in 1831] and settled on the estate, and so since then; otherwise, you know, I served in the regiment, I served in the cavalry, it was difficult to observe the correct way of life, especially then: only that they finished fighting the Turks, how the Poles rebelled. So, professor, tell me, what kind of regime should I follow?"Botkin:"Keep on with your correct way of life, it is apparently to your advantage. You, Ivan Mikhailovich, do not know this eccentric?"Sechenov:"Whoever does not know him in our area is Nikolai Vasilyevich Priklonsky."
Steamboats on the Volga
As a child, Alexei Nikolaevich Krylov went with his parents to the Nizhny Novgorod fair every year. Most of the journey had to be made along the Volga, so he left very curious sketches about the steamers of that time:"In the early 1870s, passenger steamers of the Samolet, Across the Volga, Kavkaz and Mercury companies operated on the Volga. All steamers were single-deck, the bow part of the deck was open and was intended mainly for cargo. side racks spardek, called the "bridge", where only passengers of the 1st and 2nd classes were allowed.
The steamboats were wheeled, mostly with an oscillating cylinder, built by the Belgian company Cockerill.
All steamers were almost the same, but the "aircraft" ones were especially famous, and they were preferred to the "Volga" and "Merkuriev" ones.Heating on all ships was wood-burning. Oak firewood, arshin long, from thick logs. They were obtained by splitting an eight-inch ridge into four parts.
Firewood was loaded at the piers, located approximately 50-70 miles from one another. Loaded by women who, with amazing agility, ran to carry firewood from the shore pile to the steamer. Instead of a stretcher, two unfastened poles with two pegs driven into the middle part of each of them served. On the steamboat, firewood was very cleverly thrown into the wood hold with a great roar.
At night it was seen how a whole column of sparks flew out of the chimneys, which circled behind the chimney in a whirlwind, presenting a picture of amazing liveliness and beauty by the variety of their movements.In 1871 or 1872, the first two-deck steamship "Alexander II", of the American system, appeared on the Volga, with an extensive, almost its entire length, two-story superstructure, in which passenger rooms were located. The heating on this ship was oil, apparently, of some very imperfect system, because a cloud of black smoke poured from the pipes, which spread along the water behind the ship, forming, as it were, a "smoke screen", if the current term is used.
Although the passenger quarters on this ship, especially the 3rd class, were much more convenient than on other ships, for the first two years it did not enjoy the trust of the public, various legends circulated about it, either that it would be overturned by the wind, or, that oil would explode on it, etc., so he was avoided.But then the enterprising businessman Zeveke immediately put five steamships of the American system on the Nizhny-Astrakhan line, and also four or five on the Nizhny-Rybinsk line. These steamboats of the upper reach were with one rear wheel.
Seeweke brought down the price of passenger transportation, his steamships gained the confidence of the public, and by the end of the 1880s all other societies were also forced to work with American-style steamships.
Shadrinsk
In the Vyatka province in the 19th century there was a county town of Shadrinsk. Then he changed his administrative subordination several times. A.N. Krylov, according to his father, explained the origin of this name:“The landowners Rodionovs had 10,000 acres of centuries-old elm forest in the Vyatka province. Elms were in two and three girths, but there was no alloy, so Shadrik farming was carried out in the forest, now completely forgotten.
This economy consisted in the fact that the century-old elm was chopped, branches and thin branches were cut off from it, put into a large fire and burned. It turned out a small pile of ash; this ash was called shadrik and was sold at that time in Nizhny at a fair at two rubles per pood; the trunk was left to rot in the forest.
After that, it is not surprising that there were no memories left of the centuries-old elm forests of the Vyatka province.
Free time on the ship
"During the anchorage on a warship, a cat, a priest and a doctor are free and have their time."
Law of God
In the Sevastopol district school, Alyosha studied the Law of God at the lessons of the archpriest, rector of the cathedral. He taught them the Law of God according to the catechism of Philaret, an old edition, in which, to the text: "obey and submit to those in power," when listing the authorities that should be submitted, it appeared: "serfs to their landowners and masters." Serfdom was abolished in 1861, but there was no newer edition of the catechism in the Sevastopol shop, and the guys confused the priest with the question of how this "faith" had been changed by the tsar's decree. The usual answer was:"Before the end of the lesson, kneel in the corner, learn how it is printed; and whoever else asks, I'll tear his ears."
About timber rafting
along the Volga and its tributaries A.N. Krylov said:"Most of the timber cargo was transported on belyany, which were built for one flight. From Unzha, Vetluga and Sura, the timber was delivered either on belyany or on "barks", with their decorated "kichki".Let me explain that belyana is a flat-bottomed, unpainted barge of almost rectangular shape. Bark is also a flat-bottomed vessel, but with a pointed bow and stern; could also sail.
The alloy was made stern forward, for which special large alloy rudders were installed. The ship dragged a cast-iron cargo weighing from 50 to 100 pounds, which was called a “lot”, and the rope on which it was dragged was called a “bitch” (from the verb to knot). This rope, when steering the vessel, was seized from one side or the other, for which a square platform was arranged on the bow, the entire width of the vessel, called the “kichka”. Hence the team of ancient Volga robbers:“Saryn [i.e. barge haulers], on the kichka!”
