The formation of the opposing blocs took place over a number of years. Their configuration changed under the influence of the dynamics of foreign policy contradictions.
Triple Alliance- the military-political unification of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy - was created back in 1882. However, distinct forms of bloc confrontation emerged during local armed conflicts at the turn of the century. These were the first wars for the redistribution of territories: the Spanish-American War (1898), the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902) and the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). The Moroccan crises, the Balkan wars, and the national liberation revolutions in a number of colonial and semi-colonial countries had no less active influence on the formation of the system of bloc confrontation.
At the time of the signing by England and France of the Entente Cordiale, Russia was at war with Japan. Before signing the treaty with France, England had already concluded a military-political alliance with Japan directed against Russia, thus the Anglo-French alliance was directed mainly against Germany. Under the circumstances, Germany tried to take advantage of the Russo-Japanese War to weaken the political and economic positions of Russia, but at the same time took into account the danger of the emerging alliance between England and France, inclining Russia towards an alliance. This was evidenced by the meeting of the German Kaiser Wilhelm II and the Russian Emperor Nicholas II in the summer of 1905.
The further aggravation of the contradictions between Germany, France and England served First Moroccan Crisis 1905-1906 At the Algeciras (Spain) conference on the problem of Morocco, France received firm support not only from England, but also from Russia, which was a step towards Russia's entry into the Entente. A member of the Triple Alliance - Italy - also supported France, recognizing its claims to Morocco, thereby moving away from Germany and Austria-Hungary.
A year after the end of the Russo-Japanese War, England, given the imbalance of power in the East and the growing hostility on the part of Germany, signed an agreement with Russia, which determined the spheres of influence of the two countries in Iran, Afghanistan, Northeast China and Tibet.
The agreement between England and Russia finally formalized the bloc Entente.
The steady growth of the power of the German navy led to an intensification of its confrontation with the first maritime power in the world - England.
The main epicenter of controversy on the eve of the First World War was Balkans, where the interests of not only the great derwarriors of the Zhavs, but also the small peoples inhabiting this
region. Traditionally oriented towards Russia, Bulgaria and Serbia in 1912 concluded an alliance treaty with a number of secret annexes, which provided, in case of violation of their sovereignty, a joint armed action, as well as attempts to partition Macedonia. This treaty was directed primarily against Austria-Hungary and Turkey. It was soon joined by Greece and Montenegro, forming a broad coalition that went down in history as Balkan union.
In the autumn of 1912, the First Balkan War established military-political alliance with Turkey. The reason for the war was the anti-Turkish uprising in Albania and Macedonia and Turkey's refusal to grant autonomy to Macedonia. Intervention in the conflict of the great powers (Austria-Hungary, Russia and
By 1914, Europe was split into two major alliances, which included the six most powerful powers. Their confrontation escalated into a world war. Britain, France and Russia formed the Entente, while Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy united in the Triple Alliance. The split into alliances exacerbated the explosiveness and completely quarreled the countries.
The beginning of the formation of alliances
Having won a series of victories (1862-1871), the Prussian Chancellor Otto von Bismarck created a new German state, united from several small principalities. However, Bismarck feared that after the formation of the new state, neighboring countries, especially France and Austria-Hungary, would feel threatened and begin to take action to destroy Germany. Bismarck saw the creation of alliances as the only way out in order to stabilize and balance the forces on the geopolitical map of Europe. He believed that this could stop the inevitability of war for Germany.
dual union
Bismarck understood that France as an ally for Germany was lost. After the defeat of France in the Franco-Prussian War and the occupation of Alsace and Lorraine by Germany, the French treated the Germans sharply negatively. Britain, on the other hand, strove for dominance and actively prevented the formation of any alliances, fearing possible competition from their side.
Based on these circumstances, Bismarck decided to turn to Austria-Hungary and Russia. As a result, in 1873 they united in the Union of the Three Emperors, whose members guaranteed mutual support if hostilities suddenly began. Five years later, Russia decided to leave the union. The following year, the remaining members of the alliance formed the Dual Alliance and now began to consider Russia a threat. They agreed on military assistance should Russia attack either them or provide military support to anyone else.
Triple Alliance
In 1881, Italy joined the two countries participating in the alliance, and the Triple Alliance was formed, and France has now been added to the list of threats. Moreover, the alliance guaranteed that if any of its members was at war with two or more states, the alliance would come to the rescue.
Italy, being the weakest member of the alliance, insisted on the inclusion in the treaty of an additional clause that she had the right to withdraw from it if the Triple Alliance acted as an aggressor. Shortly thereafter, Italy signed a treaty with France, pledging its support in the event of a German attack on them.
"Reinsurance" agreement
Bismarck was frightened by the possibility of a war on two fronts, and this meant the settlement of relations either with France or with Russia. The Germans' relations with the French were badly damaged, so Bismarck's choice fell on the Russians. The Chancellor invited Russia to sign a "reinsurance agreement". Under the terms of this agreement, both parties were to remain neutral in the event of a war with a third country.
However, this agreement was valid only until 1890, then the German government canceled it, sending Bismarck to resign. Russia sought to keep the treaty in force, but Germany did not want this. This decision is considered the main mistake of Bismarck's successors.
Franco-Russian alliance
Bismarck's carefully crafted foreign policy began to crumble after his departure. In an effort to expand the German Empire, Kaiser Wilhelm II pursued a policy of aggressive militarization. The expansion and strengthening of the German fleet caused concern in England, France and Russia, which caused the rallying of these countries. Meanwhile, the new German government was not competent enough to maintain the alliance that had been created, and Germany soon faced the distrust and hostility of the European powers.
In 1892, Russia entered into an alliance with France within the framework of a secret convention. The terms of this alliance assumed mutual assistance in case of war, without imposing other restrictions. The Alliance was created in opposition to the Triple Alliance. Germany's departure from the political course laid down by Bismarck put her in a dangerous position. Now the empire faced the threat of war on two fronts.
The growing tension between the major powers of Europe made Britain think about the need to join one of the alliances. Britain did not support France in the Franco-Prussian War, but nevertheless the countries concluded the Entente Cordiale agreement between themselves in 1904. Three years later, a similar agreement appeared between Great Britain and Russia. In 1912, the Anglo-French Naval Convention made this bond even stronger. The Alliance is in effect.
World War
When the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated in 1914, the reaction of Austria-Hungary was immediate. In the next few weeks, a full-scale war unfolded across Europe. The Entente fought with the Triple Alliance, which Italy soon left.
The parties to the conflict were sure that the war would be fleeting and end by Christmas 1914, but it lasted 4 long years, during which time the United States was also drawn into the conflict. During the entire period, it claimed the lives of 11 million soldiers and 7 million civilians. The war ended in 1919 with the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.
A well-known example of the confrontation of political blocs in the international arena is the clash of large countries during the 1900s.
During the period of tension before the events of the First World War, strong players on the world stage came together to dictate their policies and have an advantage in resolving foreign policy issues. In response, an alliance was created, which was supposed to be a counterbalance to these events.
Thus begins the history of confrontation, the basis of which was the Entente and the Triple Alliance. Another name is Antanta or Entente (translated as "cordial consent").
Countries - members of the Triple Alliance
The international military bloc, which was originally formed to strengthen hegemony, included the following list of countries (see table):
- Germany- played a key role in the formation of the union, concluding the first military agreement.
- Austria-Hungary- the second participant who joined the German Empire.
- Italy- joined the union last.
A little later, after the events of World War I, Italy was withdrawn from the bloc, but nevertheless the coalition did not break up, but on the contrary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria additionally entered it.
Creation of the Triple Alliance
The history of the Triple Alliance begins with an allied agreement between the German Empire and Austria-Hungary - these events took place in the Austrian city of Vienna in 1879.
The main clause of the agreement indicated the obligation to enter into hostilities on the side of the ally, if aggression was carried out by the Russian Empire.
In addition, the pact included a requirement to comply with the neutral side if the allies were attacked by someone other than Russia.
At the same time, Germany was worried about the growing position in the international arena of France. Therefore, Otto von Bismarck was looking for ways to push France into isolation.
Favorable conditions developed in 1882, when the Austrian Habsburgs were involved in the negotiations, which played a decisive role in Italy's decision.
The secret alliance between Italy and the Germany-Austria-Hungary bloc consisted in providing support for troops in the event of French military aggression, as well as maintaining neutrality in the event of an attack on one of the coalition member countries.
Aims of the Triple Alliance in World War I
The main goal of the Triple Alliance on the eve of the war was the creation of such a military-political coalition, which in its power would oppose the alliance of the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France (opponents).
However, the participating countries also pursued their own goals:
- The German Empire, due to its rapidly growing economy, needed as many resources as possible and, as a result, more colonies. The Germans also had claims to the redistribution of spheres of influence in the world, aimed at the formation of German hegemony.
- The goals of Austria-Hungary were to establish control over the Balkan Peninsula. For the most part, the case was carried out for the sake of capturing Serbia and some other Slavic countries.
- The Italian side had territorial claims to Tunisia, and also sought to secure its access to the Mediterranean Sea, bringing it under its absolute control.
Entente - who was part of and how it was formed
After the formation of the Triple Alliance, the distribution of forces in the international arena changed dramatically and led to a clash of colonial interests between England and the German Empire.
Expansive action in the Middle East and Africa prompted Britain to act more actively, and they began negotiations for a military agreement with the Russian Empire and France.
The beginning of the definition of the Entente was laid in 1904, when France and Great Britain concluded a pact, according to which all colonial claims on the African question were transferred under its protectorate.
At the same time, obligations for military support were confirmed only between France and the Russian Empire, while England in every possible way avoided such confirmation.
The emergence of this military-political bloc made it possible to level the differences between the major powers and make them more capable of resisting the aggression of the Triple Alliance.
Accession of Russia to the Entente
The events that marked the beginning of the drawing of the Russian Empire into the Entente bloc occurred in 1892.
It was then that a powerful military agreement was concluded with France, according to which, in case of any aggression, the ally country would withdraw all available armed forces for mutual assistance.
At the same time, by 1906, tensions were growing between Russia and Japan, caused by the negotiations on the Treaty of Portsmouth. This could provoke the loss of some Far Eastern territories by Russia.
Realizing these facts, Foreign Minister Izvolsky set a course for rapprochement with Great Britain. This was a favorable move in history, since England and Japan were allies, and an agreement could settle mutual claims.
The success of Russian diplomacy was the signing of the Russo-Japanese Agreement in 1907, according to which all territorial issues were settled. This greatly influenced the acceleration of negotiations with England - the date of August 31, 1907 marked the conclusion of the Russian-English agreement.
This fact was final, after which Russia finally joined the Entente.
The final design of the Entente
The final events that completed the formation of the Entente bloc were the signing of mutual agreements between Britain and France to settle colonial issues in Africa.
This included the following documents:
- The division of the territories of Egypt and Morocco was made.
- The borders of England and France in Africa were clearly separated. Newfoundland completely departed from Britain, France received part of the new territories in Africa.
- Settlement of the Madagascar question.
These documents formed a bloc of alliances between the Russian Empire, Great Britain and France.
Plans of the Entente in the First World War
The main goal of the Entente on the eve of the First World War (1915) was to suppress the military superiority of Germany, which was planned to be implemented from several sides. This is, first of all, a war on two fronts with Russia and France, as well as a complete naval blockade by England.
At the same time, the members of the agreement had a personal interest in:
- England had claims to the rapidly and steadily growing German economy, the rate of production of which had an overwhelming effect on the English economy. In addition, Britain saw the German Empire as a military threat to its sovereignty.
- France sought to regain the territories of Alsace and Lorraine lost during the Franco-Prussian clash. These lands were also important for the economy due to the large amount of resources.
- Tsarist Russia pursued as its goals the spread of influence on the important economic zone of the Mediterranean and the settlement of territorial claims on a number of Polish lands and territories in the Balkans.
The results of the confrontation between the Entente and the Triple Alliance
The result of the confrontation following the results of the First World War was the complete defeat of the Triple Alliance- Italy was lost, and the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian empires, which were part of the union, collapsed. The system was destroyed in Germany, where a republic reigned.
For the Russian Empire, participation in the Entente and the First World War ended in civil clashes and revolution, which led to the collapse of the empire.
Entente (from the French Entente, Entente cordiale - cordial agreement) - the union of Great Britain, France and Russia (Triple agreement), took shape in 1904-1907 and united during the First World War (1914-1918) against the coalition of the Central Powers more than 20 states including USA, Japan, Italy.
The creation of the Entente was preceded by the conclusion in 1891-1893 of the Russian-French alliance in response to the creation of the Triple Alliance (1882) led by Germany.
The formation of the Entente is associated with the delimitation of the great powers at the end of the 19th - beginning of the 20th century, caused by a new balance of power in the international arena and the aggravation of contradictions between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy on the one hand, France, Great Britain and Russia, on the other.
The sharp aggravation of the Anglo-German rivalry, caused by the colonial and commercial expansion of Germany in Africa, the Middle East and other areas, the naval arms race, prompted Great Britain to seek an alliance with France, and then with Russia.
In 1904, a British-French agreement was signed, followed by a Russo-British agreement (1907). These treaties actually formalized the creation of the Entente.
Russia and France were allies bound by mutual military obligations, determined by the military convention of 1892 and subsequent decisions of the general staffs of both states. The British Government, despite contacts between the British and French General Staffs and the Naval Command established in 1906 and 1912, made no definite military commitments. The formation of the Entente softened the differences between its members, but did not eliminate them. These disagreements were revealed more than once, which Germany used in an attempt to tear Russia away from the Entente. However, the strategic calculations and aggressive plans of Germany doomed these attempts to failure.
In turn, the Entente countries, preparing for war with Germany, took steps to separate Italy and Austria-Hungary from the Triple Alliance. Although Italy formally remained part of the Triple Alliance until the outbreak of the First World War, the ties of the Entente countries with it grew stronger, and in May 1915 Italy went over to the side of the Entente.
After the outbreak of the First World War, in September 1914 in London between Great Britain, France and Russia an agreement was signed on the non-conclusion of a separate peace, replacing the allied military treaty. In October 1915, Japan joined this agreement, which in August 1914 declared war on Germany.
During the war, new states gradually joined the Entente. By the end of the war, the states of the anti-German coalition (not counting Russia, which left the war after the October Revolution of 1917) included Great Britain, France, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Haiti, Guatemala, Honduras, Greece, Italy, China, Cuba, Liberia, Nicaragua , Panama, Peru, Portugal, Romania, San Domingo, San Marino, Serbia, Siam, USA, Uruguay, Montenegro, Hijaz, Ecuador, Japan.
The main participants in the Entente - Great Britain, France and Russia, from the first days of the war entered into secret negotiations about the goals of the war. The British-French-Russian agreement (1915) provided for the passage of the Black Sea straits to Russia, the London Treaty (1915) between the Entente and Italy determined the territorial acquisitions of Italy at the expense of Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Albania. The Sykes-Picot Treaty (1916) divided Turkey's Asian possessions between Britain, France and Russia.
During the first three years of the war, Russia pulled back significant enemy forces, quickly coming to the aid of the Allies as soon as Germany launched serious offensives in the West.
After the October Revolution of 1917, Russia's withdrawal from the war did not disrupt the victory of the Entente over the German bloc, for Russia fully fulfilled its allied obligations, unlike England and France, who more than once broke their promises of assistance. Russia gave England and France the opportunity to mobilize all their resources. The struggle of the Russian army allowed the United States to expand its production capacity, create an army and replace Russia that had withdrawn from the war - the United States officially declared war on Germany in April 1917.
After the October Revolution of 1917, the Entente organized an armed intervention against Soviet Russia - on December 23, 1917, Great Britain and France signed a corresponding agreement. In March 1918, the Entente intervention began, but the campaigns against Soviet Russia ended in failure. The goals that the Entente set for itself were achieved after the defeat of Germany in the First World War, but the strategic alliance between the leading countries of the Entente, Great Britain and France, was preserved in subsequent decades.
The general political and military leadership of the bloc's activities in various periods was carried out by: the Inter-Allied Conferences (1915, 1916, 1917, 1918), the Supreme Council of the Entente, the Inter-Allied (Executive) Military Committee, the Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Forces, the main headquarters of the Supreme Commander-in-Chief, the commanders-in-chief and headquarters on separate theaters of war. Such forms of cooperation were used as bilateral and multilateral meetings and consultations, contacts between commanders in chief and general staffs through representatives of the allied armies and military missions. However, the difference in military-political interests and goals, military doctrines, the incorrect assessment of the forces and means of the opposing coalitions, their military capabilities, the remoteness of the theaters of military operations, the approach to the war as a short-term campaign did not allow the creation of a unified and permanent military-political leadership of the coalition in the war.
The material was prepared on the basis of information from RIA Novosti and open sources
On August 31, 1907, a Russian-British treaty was signed in St. Petersburg, which completed the creation of the Entente
Source: http://deduhova.ru
Trinity danger
The emergence of the Entente was inevitable: by the end of the 19th century, the expansionist policy of Germany and Austria-Hungary had become too great, striving to significantly change the world order that had developed by that time. Knowing full well that the European space is becoming a very narrow and cramped field of activity, and outside the Old World the interests of the two powers can intersect at any moment, the Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph and the German Emperor Wilhelm II found the only possible way out: the signing of an interstate union.
The Austro-German Treaty, later called the Dual Alliance (by analogy with the Triple Alliance), was signed in Vienna in 1879 for five years, but was renewed several times and remained in effect until the very end of the two famous empires. The union that emerged had an openly anti-Russian orientation: its very first article provided that if Russia attacked one of the empires, the second would immediately come to the rescue “with the entire aggregate of military forces”; and yet - not to conclude peace otherwise than by mutual agreement. The same order of support would also apply if the participating countries were attacked by any other power, on the side of which the Russian Empire would act. Obviously, the “other power” meant France, the only major European country at that time that could count on Russian support.
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Three years later, Italy joined the Dual Alliance, and it turned into a Triple Alliance. St. Petersburg and Paris reacted to this development in the only possible way: they concluded their own agreement on support in the event of aggression from the new military-political bloc. However, the Franco-Russian agreement was much more than just a military alliance. Having suffered a recent defeat, France more than ever needed a strong ally. And she found him in the face of Russia, which turned the Russians into almost the best friends of the French.
But big politics rarely makes it possible to get what you want without an unpleasant “appendage”. And it is quite obvious that the emergence of these two alliances - the Tripartite and Franco-Russian - became the starting point on the path to the creation of the Entente and the first step towards the First World War.
London in search of allies
The development of the situation in the Old World at the turn of the 19th-20th centuries and the flaring up colonial disputes outside it quickly demonstrated to all the leading powers that the contradictions accumulating between them, the further, the less they can be resolved exclusively by diplomatic methods. The rapid militarization of the Triple Alliance and the intensification of its colonial claims began to cause increasing concern in Great Britain, which saw Germany as its new rival on the world stage. If Russia was a British rival on land, primarily in the Middle East and Central Asia, then the German colonies in the regions that England traditionally considered the sphere of its interests were a challenge at sea as well. In addition, the German fleet was rapidly building up its muscles, posing an increasing threat to the Grand Fleet. And the UK, which tried not to join any military-political unions, had no other choice but to look for official allies.
In 1904, the island empire officially confirmed its rejection of "brilliant isolation", as the policy of not joining international alliances in Britain, was concluded by concluding a Franco-British agreement. Formally, this was not a military-political union, but the terms of this agreement, which delimited the spheres of influence of the two powers in Africa and the New World, made it possible to conclude that England and France were formalizing allied relations. And the rhetoric that accompanied the agreement in both countries was also allied.
Source: http://history.syktnet.ru
Having found a common language with its longtime rival in the European theater, Britain did not stop, but continued to search for new allies. The air smelled more and more clearly of a big war, and London needed an additional alliance that would make it possible to force Germany and Austria-Hungary to fight on two fronts in the event of hostilities. It was not necessary to count on the small states of Southern Europe: they would hardly have been able to withstand the combined military power of the Triple Alliance for a long time. So Britain had no choice but to turn its eyes to the east, to another eternal rival - Russia.
Divide and Conquer
It must be admitted that St. Petersburg was no less interested in reaching an agreement with London. The just-ended forced Russia to look for an ally capable of putting pressure on Tokyo, and in a short series of such countries, Great Britain undoubtedly occupied the first place. In addition, Russia found itself in a strange position: its closest ally, France, had allied itself with the British, and now the Russian Empire had to take this fact into account when building its own relations with both powers.
Source: https://commons.wikimedia.org
Mutual interest in concluding a Russo-British treaty turned out to be great enough to outweigh many of the Anglo-Russian contradictions. In addition, in 1906, the former Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, Count Vladimir Lamzdorf, known for his sympathy for the German Empire, was replaced in this post by Alexander Izvolsky, whose views were marked by Germanophobia. The new head of the Russian Foreign Ministry, by his own admission, withstood a real struggle with everyone, right down to his employees in the ministry, but achieved the implementation of the most important, as it seemed to him, plan: the signing of the Russo-British agreement.
Like the Franco-British agreement of 1904, the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1907 concerned primarily the delimitation of interests in those world regions in relation to which St. Petersburg and London could not reach an agreement for more than a dozen years - the Middle East and Tibet. The agreement, signed on August 31 in St. Petersburg, stipulated that Russia renounces its claims to Afghanistan, which becomes the sphere of influence of Great Britain, but gets the opportunity to directly influence the state of affairs in the northern part of Persia. The southern part of this region became a zone of British interests, and the center, primarily the coast of the Persian Gulf, was decided to be considered neutral. Both powers decided to declare Tibet just as neutral, recognizing Chinese sovereignty in relation to this region and abandoning attempts to control events in Lhasa.
Postcard depicting the flags of the main countries that joined the Entente at the beginning of the First World War
