There are many spelling rules in Russian. Most of them cause difficulties in writing not only for schoolchildren and foreigners who study Russian, but also for adults. One such rule is the spelling of prepositions. Basically the problem is to find them correctly. With simple non-derivative prepositions, everything is more or less clear, and most have no difficulty in finding them. But in Russian there is another group of words that, depending on the context, can refer to different parts of speech. These are derivative prepositions that originated from adverbs, nouns or participles. It is they who are so difficult to write that many people have great difficulty meeting them in the text.

Characteristics of derivative prepositions

All prepositions in Russian are service parts of speech that do not have their own meaning and morphological features. They serve as a link between words in a sentence and are used to build a grammatically correct and competent construction. Derivative prepositions in Russian appeared relatively recently. They originated from significant parts of speech due to the loss of their own morphological features and meanings. Because of this, their spelling often began to differ from the original words, and this causes spelling difficulties. In speech, they are used quite often, so every literate person should be able to find them and write correctly.

Features of this part of speech

1. Derived prepositions can be simple, consisting of one word, for example, "near", "around", "thanks", "towards" and others. But many of them consist of two words, retaining the form they had in the role of a significant part of speech. Usually this is a combination of a non-derivative preposition with a noun, so merged with it in meaning and grammatically that it is often perceived as one word. For example: "with the help", "in the absence of", "not counting", "at the expense", "as far as" and others.

2. The spelling of such prepositions must be remembered, because most often it is not regulated by any rules. In difficult cases, you need to check the spelling dictionary. The greatest difficulty is the writing of the prepositions "during", "in continuation", "due to", "subsequently".

3. To determine that it is a derivative preposition, and not an independent part of speech, that is used in the sentence, it is necessary to replace it with another preposition or conjunction. For example, "due to" - "due to", "about" - "about", "towards" - "to", "like" - "how".

4. There is a small group of derivative prepositions that are difficult to distinguish from the independent parts of speech from which they originated. This causes difficulties in their writing. In this case, you can only understand the meaning in the context. These are the words: "about", "due to", "thanks", "despite" and others.

Types of derived prepositions

All considered prepositions are divided into three groups, depending on what part of speech they came from.

1. Adverbial, that is, derivative prepositions formed from adverbs, have retained their meaning. Basically, they denote the time and location of an object in space. For example, "near the house", "after school", "inside the box" and others.

2. Denominative prepositions are so called because they are formed on behalf of a noun. They can denote spatial, temporal, causal, or object relationships. This is a fairly large group of prepositions, and it is they who most often cause spelling difficulties, for example: "in connection", "as far as", "about", "like", "upon arrival" and others.

3. Verbal prepositions originated from gerunds, which have lost their meaning of additional action. They are closely related to nouns and are usually used with only one case. For example: "thanks to (what?)", "in spite of (what?)", "despite (what?)".

What meanings do they have

Each derivative preposition in combination with nouns gives it a certain meaning. Most often they are used with some one case, but circumstantial questions can also be asked to them. The most common meanings of derivative prepositions:

They denote a certain period of time: "during", "at the end", "at the end", "after" and others;

Causal relations are determined by prepositions: "thanks", "contrary", "by force", "due to";

They can indicate the location of an object: "near", "about", "opposite", "ahead" and others.

How to learn to write prepositions correctly

The spelling of independent words is governed by the rules of spelling. Most people learned them during school and have no difficulty in spelling. And derivative prepositions do not lend themselves to any rules. They need to be memorized. But in difficult cases, you can check the spelling dictionary. The difficulty is most often caused by the inability of people to distinguish sentences with prepositions from constructions with independent parts of speech. If you learn to find these words in the text, then there will be fewer errors. After all, most people still know the basic rules of spelling.

Ways to find prepositions in the text

1. You need to try to replace the word with another preposition. Each derivative preposition has a similar one from the category of non-derivatives, for example, "in view of - because of", "about - about", "towards - to", "following - after" and others. Significant parts of speech are replaced only by synonyms: "on account - on a book", "on a meeting - on a date."

2. Ask a question to the word. If there is a preposition in the sentence, then most likely it will be included in the question, and the answer will be a noun: "I live opposite the school - (opposite what?)" or "(where?) - opposite the school." And the word in the role of an independent part of speech itself answers the question: "this house is opposite - (where?) - opposite."

3. A derivative preposition cannot be thrown out of a sentence without losing its meaning and destroying the grammatical structure: "to go ahead of the column - to go (?) Of the column." If you remove the significant part of speech, then although the meaning will be depleted, the sentence will not lose its integrity: "he walked ahead - he walked."

4. They can also be distinguished by meaning. For example, "during the day" is a preposition denoting a period of time, and "in the course of a river" is a noun that denotes the flow of water.

What derivative prepositions are written together

Among the words of this part of speech there are many that have long been used in the Russian language. Some prepositions are so merged with nouns in meaning that almost no one has difficulty spelling them. For example, "near", "like", "in view of", "instead of", "like", "inside" and others. But there are also words that are written together only when they are used as prepositions. And here we must be able to distinguish them from significant parts of speech. For example, "because of the rain" is a preposition, you can replace it with the word "because of", and "in the investigation of the case" is a noun: "(in what?) - in the investigation." More examples of frequently used prepositions and their difference with homonymous parts of speech: "towards each other" - "to meet friends", "about repair" - "to the bank account". It must also be remembered that "not" in prepositions formed from gerunds is written together: "despite his advanced age (despite what?)" - this is a preposition, but compare: "he walked without looking (without looking) around" .

Compound derivative prepositions

Difficulties are also caused by the spelling of prepositions that consist of two words. But they are not connected with the separate spelling of these words, but most often with the letter at the end of the preposition. It needs to be memorized, since basically it is not at all the same as that of the nouns from which these words originated:

The letter "and" is written at the end of the prepositions "after", "upon arrival", "upon completion", "in connection", "in accordance", "in comparison", "throughout";

You need to remember the spelling of prepositions with the letter "e" at the end: "during", "in continuation", "in conclusion", "in contrast", "in conclusion", "in commemoration", "on arrival", "on arrival ";

There is also a group of prepositions that cause almost no difficulties: "by virtue", "to the extent", "in connection" and some others.

In order for a person’s speech to be literate, it is necessary to use derivative prepositions as much as possible. They enrich the language, allow you to express your thoughts more accurately and use grammatically correct constructions.

Dependence of nouns, pronouns, numerals on other words in phrases and sentences. Prepositions, like all functional words, cannot be used independently, they always refer to some noun (or a word used in the function of a noun). Due to their syntactic non-independence, prepositions never act as members of a sentence. They serve control as a kind of subordination, being associated with the control component of the phrase.

This part of speech was formed due to other lexical and grammatical categories. This is largely due to the heterogeneity of prepositions. During the XIX-XX centuries, there is a continuous replenishment of the composition of derivative prepositions. The prepositions that express the most abstract meanings - objective, causal, target, etc. develop most interestingly. The growing role of journalistic and scientific speech in the Russian language of the 19th century affects the development of new prepositions.

Some prepositions, mostly derivatives, combine a number of meanings. Yes, suggestions. for, under, from, from, into, on combine causal, spatial and temporal meanings. Pretext through, expressing spatial ( through the mountains) and temporary ( through the centuries) relationship, colloquially found when expressing causal relationships ( through you I lost my family). Other prepositions combine causal meanings with goal meanings, for example for, by, a.

Classification by origin and structure

Structure classification

Classification by use with cases of nouns (valence)

Relationship Classification

As the researchers note, in the modern Russian language the range of meanings of prepositions, the sphere of relations expressed by them, is expanding and deepening. So, prepositions do not change and are not members of the sentence, but they express different relationships:

• spatial - around, among, on and etc.;
• temporary - during, in continuation and etc.;
• causal - in view of , due to , because of , due to and etc.;
• target - for and etc.;
• object - and etc.;
• comparative
• defining
• concessions - in spite of
• accompanying

Spelling

1. Prepositions are written through a hyphen from behind, from under, above, behind

2. Prepositions are written separately during, in continuation, in contrast to, in conclusion, in connection with, due to, for the purposes of, at the expense of, in the form and etc.

Are written together

The participle in the sentence acts as circumstances characterizing the main action contained in the predicate. Therefore, the subject-doer for performing the main and additional actions is the same. For example, in the sentence “Waves, thundering and sparkling”, the subject “waves” performs the main action “rushing” and two additional ones - “rattling and sparkling”. Please note that another construction of a sentence with the used gerund is impossible, except for the gerund turnover to a one-part impersonal infinitive sentence. Compare:
“By closing the book, you will restore the text of the poem to your memory.” - The proposal is well structured.
- "By closing the book, you can restore the text of the poem to memory." – The sentence is built correctly (the adverbial turnover is used in a one-part impersonal sentence).
“When I closed the book, I immediately remembered the poem.” - The proposal is built incorrectly, because. the subject "poem" does not perform the additional action "closing".

The participle is always formed from the original verb, retaining the sign of the form and. For example, “crack → crack” (an imperfect gerund, without a sign of recurrence); “→ laughing” (perfect form, with a sign of recurrence). Sometimes verbs have variant forms of gerunds: “get cold → chilled, chilled”. The latter form is stylistically labeled "obsolete" and is usually used to create an artistic image.

Do not confuse the gerund, denoting an additional action, and formed by moving from one part of speech to another.
“He walked very slowly, limping on his right leg.” - The gerund “limping” is an additional action and has the meaning of the manner of action.
“He walked with a limp.” – The adverb “limping” has lost the meaning of an additional action and denotes only the sign of the action “walked”.

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Those who have had a chance to independently understand the structure of mechanical watches, probably know that stones are used in them. The number of these elements indicates the quality of the watch. This indicator is so important that very often the number of stones is even indicated on the dial. Why are stones used in watches?

Why are stones used in watches?

The effective operation of the watch mechanism is directly related to the number of stones. Experienced watchmakers will tell you a secret: stones can significantly reduce the harmful friction between the individual parts of the watch mechanism.

The more stones in the watch, the higher its resistance to wear. This statement was even reflected in the standards adopted at one time in Switzerland.

The first mechanical clocks to use rubies were made at the beginning of the 18th century. The English watchmaker Gray was one of the first to think of how to reduce the coefficient of friction between the parts of the watch mechanism. During his life, this master made several thousand watches. And each used rubies.

However, in modern quality watches, stones are used not only to reduce friction. Modern materials from which watch parts are made have high characteristics, and therefore are able to compete with rubies in eliminating harmful effects. Why do stones remain a necessary element in the design of a watch mechanism?

Secrets of watch stones

The fact is that the pins of the axes of mechanical watches have an extremely small diameter. The stones are able to reduce the pressure on the parts and keep the supporting elements intact. In addition, the stones are not afraid of corrosion, which is inherent in, therefore, the polished surface of an artificial ruby ​​retains its working properties much longer.

It is an artificial ruby ​​that is best suited for watch movements. This stone is resistant to wear, has considerable hardness, and is easy to grind and polish.

The use of rubies guarantees the uninterrupted operation of the mechanism for a long time without any deformation.

What is the optimal number of stones? This directly depends on the complexity of the mechanism that sets the hands in motion. For example, in modern electronic-type watches, which have additional functions, fifteen or more stones are used.

However, it should be remembered that in the pursuit of prestige, individual manufacturers use an unreasonably large number of stones in the construction of watches, which is not actually caused by a real need. This makes it possible to proudly declare that these watches are of excellent quality. If you do not want to overpay for a dubious advantage, you should remember that the total number of stones in a quality watch must exactly match the number of axles used in the movement.

Pretext- an official part of speech that formalizes the subordination of one significant word to another in a phrase or sentence and thereby expresses the relationship to each other of those objects and actions, states, signs that these words are called. (Example: speak about travel, talk during hours, near from at home, bored among strangers)

Classification (Grammar80)

According to their formal organization, prepositions are divided, on the one hand, into primitive and non-primitive, on the other hand, on simple and complex.

Primitive prepositions are a small, non-replenishing group of simple words that are not connected by living word-formation relations with any significant words. Many of them are able to connect with more than one case form of the name, almost all primitive prepositions are polysemantic. Primitive suggestions include: without (without), in (in), for, before, for, from (iso), to (ko), except, between, between, on, over (necessary), o (about, both), from (oto) , before (before), for the sake of, through, under (under), y, about.

Paired prepositions-fusions: because of, from under, (outdated because of, above)

Non-primitive prepositions are prepositions that have live word-building relationships and lexical-semantic connections with significant words - nouns, adverbs and verbs (germs). All of them are not meaningful, each preposition is connected with only one case form.

All non-primitive items are divided into: denominative (in view of, as, in the name of, along the line, under the guise), adverbial (near, over, after, according to) and verbal (including, excluding, not counting).

Simple items are both primitive and non-primitive, which consist of one word.

Composite items - those non-primitive prepositions that consist of two or three words: forms of a name, participle or adverb in combination with one or two primitive prepositions. (before, away from, in contrast to, according to, in relation to)

Non-primitive prepositions can be divided into ADVERSIBLE, DESIGNATIVE, VERBAL, depending on motivational relations (formed from adverbs, nouns or verbs).

Adverbs: simple and compound.

Simple adverbs coincide with the adverb. Examples: near, close, deep, along, instead of, inside, instead of, on the eve of, on the contrary, regarding, contrary to, about, around, contrary to, relatively, before, etc.

Compound adverbial prepositions are a combination of an adverb with a primitive preposition. Most of them are combined with the instrumental case, compatibility with one or another case is predetermined by the primitive preposition.

Examples: close to, far from, together with, away from, regardless of, in proportion to, along with, on par with, next to, next to, etc.

Denominative prepositions in form are

or (1) the prepositional case form of the name (i.e. the form of the indirect case of an abstract noun with a primitive preposition or the preposition OUTSIDE): without help, as, at the expense of, during, as a result, in relation to, during, from, etc.

or (2) such a prepositional case, accompanied by another (second) primitive preposition: depending on, towards, in contrast to, in response to, in connection with, in comparison with, etc.

or (3) the non-prepositional form genus. or tv. P. : order (something), by way of (something), type (someone-something)

Prepositions of groups 1 and 2 are compound, 3 are simple.

Verbal prepositions.

In form, they are gerunds, in their modern state not related to the paradigm of the verb, carrying the meaning of the relationship.

Simple verbal: thanks, including, not reaching, later, later. The case form of the name attached by such a preposition is predetermined by the nature of the strong connection of the corresponding verb. Exception: thanks, not reaching - they have their own control.

All such prepositions are unambiguous, relations are based on the lexical meanings of the corresponding verbs, excl. thanks to - has its own abstract meaning of cause, cause.

Compound verbal prepositions: looking at, looking at, judging by, based on, starting from, despite, despite.

Case forms with these prepositions reproduce the connections of the corresponding verbs: look, look at something, look at someone, something ..

All such prepositions are unambiguous, the relations they express are also based on the lexical meanings of the corresponding verbs.

Lexical meaning. The lexical meaning of a preposition as a single word is the meaning of one or another relation. This relationship can be maximally abstract, broad, specific, narrow. In any case, the preposition has a lexical meaning, only the degree of its abstractness is different. The meanings of non-primitive prepositions (except for some ambiguous ones) are somehow connected with the lexical meaning of those significant words with which they are motivated.

Together with the case form of the name, the preposition forms a syntactic unity, the so-called. prepositional case form of the name. In most cases, it is impossible to establish a case value separate from the preposition in such a connection. For example, in combinations fatherless, with friends, in front of the house for SRY, the meaning of the case form cannot be considered outside of its combination with the preposition: at the level of syntactic semantics, the prepositional case form is indivisible.

Ranks of prepositions by meaning and by combination with case forms

Prepositions express all sorts of relationships between significant words. The main types of relations expressed are:

1) spatial: "return to Moscow", "come from the south", "rest in the countryside";

2) temporary: "sleep until the morning", "work for a month", "meet in a few days", "find out during the session", etc.;

3) objective: "telling about yourself", "knowing about yourself", "sickness for the homeland", "falling in love with a stranger";

4) target: "apply with claims", "live for a career", "give as a keepsake";

5) comparisons, likenings: "live with mine", "a fist the size of a head", "daughter is all like a mother";

6) the meaning of the instrument of action: "screw with a screwdriver"; "establish during experiments";

7) the meaning of the mode of action: "say without any expression", "dine with appetite";

8) attributive relations: "apple trees in bloom", "coat on batting".

The meanings of prepositions are realized only in combination with forms of indirect cases.