Natural, natural ecosystems were formed as a result of the action of the forces of nature. They are characterized by:
- Close relationship between organic and inorganic substances
- A complete, vicious circle of the circulation of substances: starting from the appearance of organic matter and ending with its decay and decomposition into inorganic components.
- Resilience and ability to self-heal.
All natural ecosystems are defined by the following features:
- species structure: the number of each species of animal or plant is regulated by natural conditions.
- Spatial structure: all organisms are arranged in a strict horizontal or vertical hierarchy. For example, in a forest ecosystem, tiers are clearly distinguished, in an aquatic ecosystem, the distribution of organisms depends on the depth of the water.
- Biotic and abiotic substances. The organisms that make up an ecosystem are divided into inorganic (abiotic: light, air, soil, wind, humidity, pressure) and organic (biotic - animals, plants).
- In turn, the biotic component is divided into producers, consumers and destroyers. Producers include plants and bacteria, which, with the help of sunlight and energy, create organic matter from inorganic substances. Consumers are animals and carnivorous plants that feed on this organic matter. Destroyers (fungi, bacteria, some microorganisms) are the crown of the food chain, as they produce the reverse process: organics are converted into inorganic substances.
artificial ecosystems
Artificial ecosystems are communities of animals and plants that live in conditions created for them by man. They are also called noobiogeocenoses or socioecosystems. Examples: field, pasture, city, society, spaceship, zoo, garden, artificial pond, reservoir.
The simplest example of an artificial ecosystem is an aquarium. Here, the habitat is limited by the walls of the aquarium, the influx of energy, light and nutrients is carried out by man, he also regulates the temperature and composition of the water. The number of inhabitants is also initially determined.
First feature: all artificial ecosystems are heterotrophic, i.e. consuming prepared food. Take for example the city - one of the largest artificial ecosystems. The influx of artificially created energy (gas pipeline, electricity, food) plays a huge role here. At the same time, such ecosystems are characterized by a high yield of toxic substances. That is, those substances that in the natural ecosystem later serve for the production of organic matter often become unusable in artificial ones.
Another distinctive feature of artificial ecosystems is an open metabolic cycle. Take for example agroecosystems - the most important for humans. These include fields, orchards, vegetable gardens, pastures, farms and other agricultural lands on which a person creates conditions for the removal of consumer products. A part of the food chain in such ecosystems is taken out by a person (in the form of a crop), and therefore the food chain becomes destroyed.
The third difference between artificial ecosystems and natural ones is their species scarcity.. Indeed, a person creates an ecosystem for the sake of breeding one (rarely several) species of plants or animals. For example, in a wheat field, all pests and weeds are destroyed, only wheat is cultivated. This makes it possible to get the best harvest. But at the same time, the destruction of organisms “unprofitable” for humans makes the ecosystem unstable.
Comparative characteristics of natural and artificial ecosystems
It is more convenient to present a comparison of natural ecosystems and socio-ecosystems in the form of a table:
|
natural ecosystems |
artificial ecosystems |
| The main component is solar energy. | Mainly gets energy from fuel and cooked food (heterotrophic) |
| Forms fertile soil | Depletes the soil |
| All natural ecosystems absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen. | Most artificial ecosystems consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide. |
| Great species diversity | Limited number of species of organisms |
| High stability, ability to self-regulation and self-healing | Weak sustainability, as such an ecosystem depends on human activities |
| closed metabolism | Unclosed metabolic chain |
| Creates habitats for wild animals and plants | Destroys wildlife habitats |
| Accumulates water, using it wisely and purifying |
Nature is multifaceted and beautiful. We can say that this is a whole system that includes both living and inanimate nature. Inside it there are many other different systems that are inferior to it in scale. But not all of them are completely created by nature. In some of them, a person contributes. The anthropogenic factor can radically change the natural landscape and its orientation.
Agroecosystem - resulting from anthropogenic activity. People can plow the land, plant the territory with trees, but no matter what we do, we have always been surrounded and will be surrounded by nature. This is some of its peculiarity. How are agroecosystems different from natural ecosystems? This is worth looking into.
generally
In general, an ecological system is any combination of organic and inorganic components in which there is a circulation of substances.
Whether natural or man-made, it is still an ecological system. But still, how do agroecosystems differ from natural ecosystems? About everything in order.
natural ecosystem
A natural system, or, as it is also called, biogeocenosis, is a combination of organic and inorganic components on a plot of the earth's surface with homogeneous natural phenomena: the atmosphere, rocks, hydrological conditions, soils, plants, animals and the world of microorganisms.
The natural system has its own structure, which includes the following components. Producers, or, as they are also called, autotrophs, are all those plants capable of producing organic matter, that is, capable of photosynthesis. Consumers are those who eat plants. It is worth noting that they belong to the first order. In addition, there are consumers and other orders. And, finally, another group is the group of decomposers. It is customary to include various kinds of bacteria, fungi.
The structure of the natural ecosystem
In any ecosystem, food chains, food webs, and trophic levels are distinguished. The food chain is the sequential transfer of energy. A food web is all chains that are interconnected. Trophic levels are the places that organisms occupy in food chains. Producers belong to the very first level, consumers of the first order belong to the second, consumers of the second order to the third, and so on.
A saprophytic chain, or otherwise detrital, begins with dead remains and ends with some kind of animal. There is an omnivorous food chain. Grazing grazing) in any case begins with photosynthetic organisms.
This is all about biogeocenosis. How are agroecosystems different from natural ecosystems?
Agroecosystem
An agroecosystem is an ecosystem created by man. This includes gardens, arable land, vineyards, parks.
Like the previous one, the agroecosystem includes the following blocks: producers, consumers, decomposers. The former include cultivated plants, weeds, plants of pastures, gardens and forest belts. Consumers are all farm animals and humans. The decomposer block is a complex of soil organisms.
Types of agroecosystems
The creation of anthropogenic landscapes includes several types:
- agricultural landscapes: arable lands, pastures, irrigated lands, gardens and others;
- forest: forest parks, shelterbelts;
- water: ponds, reservoirs, canals;
- urban: cities, towns;
- industrial: mines, quarries.
There is another classification of agroecosystems.
Types of agroecosystems
Depending on the level of economic use, the systems are divided into:
- agrosphere (global ecosystem),
- agricultural Landscape,
- agroecosystem,
- agrocenosis.
Depending on the energy features of natural zones, the division occurs into:
- tropical;
- subtropical;
- moderate;
- arctic types.
The first is characterized by high heat supply, continuous vegetation and the predominance of perennial crops. The second - two periods of vegetation, namely summer and winter. The third type has only one growing season, as well as a long dormant period. As for the fourth type, here the cultivation of crops is very difficult due to low temperatures, as well as cold spells for a long time.
Variety of features
All cultivated plants must have certain properties. Firstly, high ecological plasticity, that is, the ability to produce crops in a wide range of fluctuations in climatic conditions.
Secondly, the heterogeneity of populations, that is, in each of them there should be plants that differ in such characteristics as flowering time, drought resistance, and frost resistance.
Thirdly, precocity - the ability for rapid development, which will outstrip the development of weeds.
Fourth, resistance to fungal and other diseases.
Fifth, resistance to harmful insects.
Comparative and agroecosystems
In addition, as mentioned above, these ecosystems are very different in a number of other features. Unlike natural, in the agroecosystem, the main consumer is the person himself. It is he who seeks to maximize the receipt of primary production (crop) and secondary (livestock). The second consumer are farm animals.
The second difference is that the agroecosystem is formed and regulated by man. Many people ask why an agroecosystem is less resilient than an ecosystem. The thing is that they have a weakly expressed ability for self-regulation and self-renewal. Without human intervention, they exist only for a short time.
The next difference is selection. The stability of the natural ecosystem is ensured by natural selection. In the agroecosystem, it is artificial, provided by man and aimed at obtaining the maximum possible production. The energy received by the agricultural system includes the sun and everything that a person gives: irrigation, fertilizers, and so on.
Natural biogeocenosis feeds only on natural energy. As a rule, plants grown by man include several species, while the natural ecosystem is very diverse.
Different nutritional balance is another difference. The products of plants in a natural ecosystem are used in many food chains, but still return to the system. It turns out the circulation of substances.
How are agroecosystems different from natural ecosystems?
Natural and agroecosystems differ from each other in many ways: plants, consumption, vitality, resistance to pests and diseases, species diversity, type of selection, and many other traits.
A human-made ecosystem has both advantages and disadvantages. The natural system, in turn, cannot have any disadvantages. Everything is beautiful and harmonious in it.
When creating artificial systems, a person must carefully treat nature so as not to disturb this harmony.
Ecosystems is one of the key concepts of ecology, which is a system that includes several components: a community of animals, plants and microorganisms, a characteristic habitat, a whole system of relationships through which the interchange of substances and energies is carried out. In science, there are several classifications of ecosystems. One of them divides all known ecosystems into two large classes: natural, created by nature, and artificial, those created by man.
Natural ecosystems They are characterized by: A close relationship between organic and inorganic substances A complete, vicious circle of the circulation of substances: from the appearance of organic matter to its decay and decomposition into inorganic components. Resilience and ability to self-heal.
All natural ecosystems are determined by the following features: 1. Species structure: the number of each species of animal or plant is regulated by natural conditions. 2. Spatial structure: all organisms are arranged in a strict horizontal or vertical hierarchy. 3. Biotic and abiotic substances. The organisms that make up an ecosystem are divided into inorganic (abiotic: light, air, soil, wind, humidity, pressure) and organic (biotic animals, plants). 4. In turn, the biotic component is divided into producers, consumers and destroyers.
Artificial Ecosystems Artificial ecosystems are communities of animals and plants that live in conditions created for them by humans. They are also called noobiogeocenoses or socioecosystems. Examples: field, pasture, city, society, spaceship, zoo, garden, artificial pond, reservoir.
Comparative characteristics of natural and artificial ecosystems Natural ecosystems Artificial ecosystems The main component of solar energy. It mainly receives energy from fuel and cooked food (heterotrophic) Forms fertile soil Depletes soil All natural ecosystems absorb carbon dioxide and produce oxygen Most artificial ecosystems consume oxygen and produce carbon dioxide High species diversity Limited number of organism species High resilience, ability to self-regulate and self-repair Poor resilience, as such an ecosystem depends on human activities Closed metabolism Unclosed metabolic chain Creates habitats for wild animals and plants Destroys wildlife habitats
The ecosystem includes all living organisms (plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms), which, to one degree or another, interact with each other and their inanimate environment (climate, soil, sunlight, air, atmosphere, water, etc.) .).
The ecosystem has no definite size. It can be as big as a desert or a lake, or as small as a tree or a puddle. Water, temperature, plants, animals, air, light and soil all interact together.
The essence of the ecosystem
In an ecosystem, each organism has its own place or role.
Consider the ecosystem of a small lake. In it, you can find all kinds of living organisms, from microscopic to animals and plants. They depend on things like water, sunlight, air, and even the amount of nutrients in the water. (Click to learn more about the five basic needs of living organisms).
Lake ecosystem diagram
Any time an "outsider" (a living being(s) or an external factor such as rising temperatures) is introduced into an ecosystem, catastrophic consequences can occur. This is because the new organism (or factor) is capable of distorting the natural balance of interaction and causing potential harm or destruction to the non-native ecosystem.
Generally, the biotic members of an ecosystem, together with their abiotic factors, depend on each other. This means the absence of one member or one abiotic factor can affect the entire ecological system.
If there is not enough light and water, or if the soil is low in nutrients, the plants may die. If the plants die, the animals that depend on them are also at risk. If animals that depend on plants die, other animals that depend on them will also die. The ecosystem in nature works the same way. All of its parts must function together to maintain balance!
Unfortunately, ecosystems can be destroyed by natural disasters such as fires, floods, hurricanes, and volcanic eruptions. Human activity also contributes to the destruction of many ecosystems and.
Main types of ecosystems
Ecological systems have indefinite dimensions. They are able to exist in a small space, for example, under a stone, a rotting tree stump or in a small lake, and also occupy large areas (like the entire tropical forest). From a technical point of view, our planet can be called one huge ecosystem.
Diagram of a small rotting stump ecosystem
Types of ecosystems depending on the scale:
- microecosystem- a small scale ecosystem like a pond, puddle, tree stump, etc.
- mesoecosystem- an ecosystem, such as a forest or a large lake.
- Biome. A very large ecosystem or collection of ecosystems with similar biotic and abiotic factors, such as an entire rainforest with millions of animals and trees, and many different water bodies.
Ecosystem boundaries are not marked with clear lines. They are often separated by geographical barriers such as deserts, mountains, oceans, lakes, and rivers. Since boundaries are not strictly fixed, ecosystems tend to merge with each other. This is why a lake can have many smaller ecosystems with their own unique characteristics. Scientists call this mixing "Ecoton".
Types of ecosystems by type of occurrence:
In addition to the above types of ecosystems, there is also a division into natural and artificial ecological systems. A natural ecosystem is created by nature (forest, lake, steppe, etc.), and an artificial one is created by man (garden, garden plot, park, field, etc.).
Ecosystem types
There are two main types of ecosystems: aquatic and terrestrial. Every other ecosystem in the world falls into one of these two categories.
Terrestrial ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems can be found anywhere in the world and are subdivided into:
forest ecosystems
These are ecosystems that have an abundance of vegetation or a large number of organisms living in a relatively small space. Thus, the density of living organisms in forest ecosystems is quite high. A small change in this ecosystem can affect its entire balance. Also, in such ecosystems you can find a huge number of representatives of the fauna. In addition, forest ecosystems are divided into:
- Tropical evergreen forests or tropical rainforests: receiving an average rainfall of more than 2000 mm per year. They are characterized by dense vegetation dominated by tall trees located at different heights. These territories are a refuge for various species of animals.
- Tropical deciduous forests: Along with a huge variety of tree species, shrubs are also found here. This type of forest is found in quite a few parts of the world and is home to a wide variety of flora and fauna.
- : They have quite a few trees. It is dominated by evergreen trees that renew their foliage throughout the year.
- Broad-leaved forests: They are located in humid temperate regions that have sufficient rainfall. During the winter months, the trees shed their leaves.
- : Located directly in front, the taiga is defined by evergreen conifers, sub-zero temperatures for six months and acidic soils. In the warm season, you can meet a large number of migratory birds, insects and.
desert ecosystem
Desert ecosystems are located in desert regions and receive less than 250 mm of precipitation per year. They occupy about 17% of the entire land mass of the Earth. Due to the extremely high air temperature, poor access to and intense sunlight, and not as rich as in other ecosystems.
grassland ecosystem
Grasslands are located in the tropical and temperate regions of the world. The area of the meadow mainly consists of grasses, with a small number of trees and shrubs. The meadows are inhabited by grazing animals, insectivores and herbivores. There are two main types of meadow ecosystems:
- : Tropical grasslands that have a dry season and are characterized by singly growing trees. They provide food for a large number of herbivores, and are also a hunting ground for many predators.
- Prairies (temperate grasslands): This is an area with a moderate grass cover, completely devoid of large shrubs and trees. In the prairies, forbs and tall grass are found, and arid climatic conditions are also observed.
- Steppe meadows: Territories of dry grasslands, which are located near semi-arid deserts. The vegetation of these grasslands is shorter than in the savannas and prairies. Trees are rare, and usually found on the banks of rivers and streams.
mountain ecosystems
The highlands provide a diverse range of habitats where a large number of animals and plants can be found. At altitude, harsh climatic conditions usually prevail in which only alpine plants can survive. Animals that live high in the mountains have thick fur coats to protect them from the cold. The lower slopes are usually covered with coniferous forests.
Aquatic ecosystems
Aquatic ecosystem - an ecosystem located in an aquatic environment (for example, rivers, lakes, seas and oceans). It includes aquatic flora, fauna, and water properties, and is divided into two types: marine and freshwater ecological systems.
marine ecosystems
They are the largest ecosystems that cover about 71% of the Earth's surface and contain 97% of the planet's water. Sea water contains a large amount of dissolved minerals and salts. The marine ecological system is divided into:
- Oceanic (relatively shallow part of the ocean, which is located on the continental shelf);
- Profundal zone (deep water area not penetrated by sunlight);
- Bental region (area inhabited by benthic organisms);
- intertidal zone (a place between low and high tides);
- Estuaries;
- Coral reefs;
- Salt marshes;
- Hydrothermal vents where chemosynthetic feeders.
Many types of organisms live in marine ecosystems, namely: brown algae, corals, cephalopods, echinoderms, dinoflagellates, sharks, etc.
Freshwater ecosystems
Unlike marine ecosystems, freshwater ecosystems cover only 0.8% of the Earth's surface and contain 0.009% of the world's total water supply. There are three main types of freshwater ecosystems:
- Stagnant: Waters where there is no current, such as pools, lakes or ponds.
- Flowing: Fast moving waters such as streams and rivers.
- Wetlands: places where the soil is permanently or intermittently flooded.
Freshwater ecosystems are home to reptiles, amphibians and about 41% of the world's fish species. Fast-moving waters typically contain a higher concentration of dissolved oxygen, thereby supporting more biodiversity than stagnant pond or lake water.
Structure, components and factors of the ecosystem
An ecosystem is defined as a natural functional ecological unit consisting of living organisms (biocenosis) and their inanimate environment (abiotic or physico-chemical), which interact with each other and create a stable system. Pond, lake, desert, pasture, meadow, forest, etc. are common examples of ecosystems.
Each ecosystem consists of abiotic and biotic components:
Ecosystem structure
Abiotic components
Abiotic components are unrelated factors of life or the physical environment that influence the structure, distribution, behavior and interaction of living organisms.
Abiotic components are mainly represented by two types:
- climatic factors which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity, etc.
- Edaphic factors, including soil acidity, topography, mineralization, etc.
Importance of abiotic components
The atmosphere provides living organisms with carbon dioxide (for photosynthesis) and oxygen (for respiration). The processes of evaporation, transpiration and occur between the atmosphere and the surface of the Earth.
Solar radiation heats the atmosphere and evaporates water. Light is also essential for photosynthesis. provides plants with energy for growth and metabolism, as well as organic products to feed other life forms.
Most living tissue is made up of a high percentage of water, up to 90% or more. Few cells are able to survive if the water content falls below 10%, and most of them die when the water content is less than 30-50%.
Water is the medium through which mineral food products enter plants. It is also essential for photosynthesis. Plants and animals get water from the Earth's surface and soil. The main source of water is atmospheric precipitation.
Biotic Components
Living things, including plants, animals, and microorganisms (bacteria and fungi) present in an ecosystem are biotic components.
Based on their role in the ecological system, biotic components can be divided into three main groups:
- Producers produce organic substances from inorganic substances using solar energy;
- Consumers feed on ready-made organic substances produced by producers (herbivores, predators, etc.);
- Reducers. Bacteria and fungi that destroy dead organic compounds of producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for nutrition, and emit simple substances (inorganic and organic) into the environment, formed as by-products of their metabolism.
These simple substances are re-produced as a result of cyclical exchange of substances between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem.
Ecosystem levels
To understand the layers of an ecosystem, consider the following figure:
Ecosystem Tier Diagram
Individual
An individual is any living being or organism. Individuals do not breed with individuals from other groups. Animals, unlike plants, are usually included in this concept, since some representatives of the flora can interbreed with other species.
In the diagram above, you can see that the goldfish interacts with the environment and will breed exclusively with members of its own species.
population
A population is a group of individuals of a given species that live in a particular geographic area at a given time. (An example is the goldfish and representatives of its species). Note that a population includes individuals of the same species that may have various genetic differences such as coat/eye/skin color and body size.
Community
The community includes all living organisms in a certain area at a given time. It may contain populations of living organisms of different species. In the diagram above, notice how goldfish, salmon, crabs, and jellyfish coexist in a particular environment. A large community usually includes biodiversity.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem includes communities of living organisms interacting with the environment. At this level, living organisms depend on other abiotic factors such as rocks, water, air, and temperature.
Biome
In simple terms, it is a collection of ecosystems that have similar characteristics with their abiotic factors adapted to the environment.
Biosphere
When we look at different biomes, each of which transitions into another, a huge community of people, animals and plants is formed, living in certain habitats. is the totality of all ecosystems present on Earth.
Food chain and energy in an ecosystem
All living beings must eat to get the energy they need to grow, move, and reproduce. But what do these living organisms eat? Plants get their energy from the sun, some animals eat plants and others eat animals. This ratio of feeding in an ecosystem is called the food chain. Food chains generally represent the sequence of who feeds on whom in a biological community.
The following are some of the living organisms that can fit in the food chain:
food chain diagram
The food chain is not the same as. The trophic web is a combination of many food chains and is a complex structure.
Energy transfer
Energy is transferred along food chains from one level to another. Part of the energy is used for growth, reproduction, movement and other needs, and is not available for the next level.
Shorter food chains store more energy than long ones. The spent energy is absorbed by the environment.
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Read also:
|
| natural ecosystem | Agroecosystem |
| SIMILARITIES: 1. They absorb solar energy (they are open systems). 2. Includes producers, consumers and decomposers. 3. There are food chains inside them. 4. All factors of evolution (hereditary variability, struggle for existence, natural selection) operate. 5. They have a circulation of substances. | |
| DIFFERENCES: | |
| 1. The species composition of organisms has developed naturally. | 1. The species composition is artificially selected by man. |
| 2. The species composition is varied | 2. The species composition is poor, usually 1-2 species predominate |
| 3. Food chains are long | 3. Food chains are short, one of the links is a person |
| 4.Stable system | 4. The system is unstable, without the help of a person does not exist on its own |
| 5. Organic matter remains inside the system | 5. Organic matter is removed from the system by humans |
| 6. The circulation of substances is natural, closed | 6. The circulation of substances is open, supported by man through the application of fertilizers |
| 7. The only source of energy is the energy of the Sun | 7. In addition to the energy of the Sun, other types of energy are used (the energy of machines, people, electrical, etc.) |
| 8. All factors of evolution are active | 8. The action of evolutionary factors is weakened by man, artificial selection prevails |
Natural ecosystems (biogeocenoses) are the main components of the biosphere. Their diversity and distribution over the earth's surface is of great importance for man, since from them he receives food, substances for treatment, materials for making clothes and housing, raw materials for industrial production, etc.
Human activity, especially in the last century, began to dramatically change the state of natural ecosystems and the biosphere as a whole. As a result, thousands of years of existing ecosystems are being destroyed, and many species of plants and animals are disappearing.
The main human activities that lead to ecosystem change: with construction of cities, roads, dams , d custom of minerals, hunting, fishing, collection of valuable plants , deforestation, plowing of land , burning large amounts of fossil fuels, etc.
Consequences of human activity:
1. Reducing the area of natural ecosystems.
2. Destruction of species habitats, extinction of some species, reduction of biodiversity.
3. Pollution of the atmosphere, oceans.
4. Earth climate change.
5. The deterioration of the health of the world's population.
6. Reduction of natural resources with their growth in consumption.
7. Reduction of habitable territories with the growth of the world's population.
8. Reducing the stability of the biosphere.
Ways to save ecosystems:
1. Application of resource-saving and energy-saving technologies (non-waste technologies, recycling of raw materials).
2. The fight against pollution of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, soil (improvement of cleaning, waste disposal, non-waste technologies, clean energy sources, economic and legal measures - fines, tougher liability, environmental monitoring).
3. Land reclamation, soil erosion control (land restoration after mining, construction, pollution, etc., organization of sanitary protection zones around cities, industrial enterprises)
4. Environmental measures (adoption of laws, Red Books, creation of specially protected natural areas, limitation of fishing, fight against poachers).
5. Birth control (by adopting programs of control, demographic development, laws, contraception).
6. Education of ecological consciousness in people. (rejection of consumer attitude to nature, fostering a caring attitude, a sense of responsibility to future generations)
2. Angiosperms are the dominant group of plants on Earth. Angiosperm classes. Among herbarium specimens or living plants, find angiosperms belonging to different classes. By what signs do you distinguish them?
Department Angiosperms includes plants that form flowers and fruits. They are descended from gymnosperms. Flowering - the largest and highly organized department in the plant kingdom, uniting 250 thousand species out of 350 thousand species of all plants. Compared with gymnosperms, angiosperms have a number of advantages that have allowed them to become the dominant group of plants on Earth. The appearance of the flower ensured more reliable pollination, and the appearance of the fruit ensured the protection of seeds and their distribution. Double fertilization ensures the development of not only a diploid embryo, but also a triploid endosperm (nutrient tissue for the embryo). A variety of adaptations allows you to live in various conditions.
Characteristic features of the department:
1) They have a flower in which the ovules are protected inside the ovary.
2) They form a fruit, inside of which there are seeds, and the seed embryo is protected by both the seed coat and the pericarp.
3) Double fertilization, which results in the formation of a diploid embryo and a triploid endosperm - a nutrient tissue for the development of the embryo.
4) Conductive tissues (vessels and sieve tubes with satellite cells) are well developed.
5) They have a variety of life forms (herbs, trees, shrubs, shrubs and trees), forming multi-tiered biocenoses.
6) They have various adaptations for pollination, seed dispersal, evaporation, feeding, receiving light, etc.
In the department of angiosperms, two classes are distinguished: Dicotyledonous and Monocotyledonous.
