Basic types of thinking

1.3 The main stages of the formation of thinking

There are several stages in the formation and development of thinking. The boundaries and content of these stages are not the same for different authors. This is due to the position of the author on this topic. Currently, there are several of the most well-known qualifications of the stages of development of human thinking. All these approaches have certain differences from each other. However, among the generally accepted concepts and teachings, one can also find something in common.

The theory of the development of thinking in childhood, proposed by J. Piaget, within the framework of the ontogenetic direction, has become widely known. Piaget proceeded from the assertion that the basic mental operations have an activity origin. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the theory of the development of the child's thinking, proposed by Piaget, was called "operational". The operation, according to Piaget, is an internal action, a product of the transformation ("interiorization") of an external objective action, coordinated with other actions into a single system, the main properties of which are reversibility. In the development of mental operations, Piaget identified 4 stages:

1. Sensorimotor stage (0 - 2 years) - characterized by the development of the ability to perceive and cognize the objects of the real world that make up the environment of the child. Moreover, under the cognition of objects, it is supposed to comprehend their properties and signs. By the end of the first stage, the child becomes a subject, i.e. distinguishes himself from the surrounding world, is aware of his "I". He has the first signs of volitional control of his behavior, and in addition to cognition of the objects of the world around him, the child begins to cognize himself.

2. Stage of operational thinking (2 - 7 years). This age is characterized by the development of speech, therefore, the process of internalization of external actions with objects is activated, and visual representations are formed. At this time, the child has a manifestation of egocentric thinking, which is expressed in the difficulty of accepting the position of another person. At the same time, there is an erroneous classification of objects due to the use of random and secondary features.

3. The stage of specific operations with objects (7.8 - 11.12 liters) During this period, according to Piaget, mental operations become reversible. Children who have reached this level can already give logical explanations for the actions performed, are able to move from one point of view to another, and become more objective in their judgments. According to Piaget, At this age, children come to an intuitive understanding of the 2 most important principles of thinking. At the same time, children manifest an ability called by Piaget, seriation. The essence of this ability lies in the ability to rank objects according to some measurable feature, for example, by weight, size, volume, brightness, etc. In addition, during this period, the child shows the ability to combine objects into classes and allocate subclasses.

4. Stage of formal operations (11.12 - 14.15 years). It should be noted that the development of operations formed at this stage continues throughout life. At this stage of development, the child develops the ability to perform operations in the mind using logical reasoning and abstract concepts. At the same time, individual mental operations are transformed into a single structure of the whole.

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Man was created to think and think. Over time, the requirements for oneself become tougher, a person tries to achieve more, but the level of thinking does not always allow this. Increasingly popular means of developing thinking.

There are theories that allow answering how the development of thinking occurs in ontogeny and how many stages of development of thinking there are. The theory of J. Piaget divides the following stages in the development of thinking:

• 0-2 years. This is the period of sensorimotor intelligence, which lies in the fact that the formation of thinking in a person occurs exclusively through actions. Connect together sensory information and actions that the child performs in practice. In the process of studying, Piaget determined that the formation of images originates, but as such, imagination is absent.
• 2-8 years old. The pre-operational stage, such a strange name, appeared due to the fact that, as such, the individual is not yet able to perform mental operations. The child can already draw, and, accordingly, transfer objects that have arisen in his subconscious in the form of images to paper, speech develops. It is important that at this age a person develops symbolism. Psychology gives impetus to parents and educators to help the child develop abstraction, symbolism and substitution through play. During this period, the perception of the world occurs from an egocentric point of view.
• 7-12 years old. The study of this stage of development has shown that this is the moment when the child begins to behave like an adult. From the point of view of psychology at this age, having a small amount of information, the reaction to external factors only in some cases resembles the behavior of the reaction of an adult. This is explained by the fact that there is still no necessary level of abstraction and generalization.
• 12 and older. Already in adolescence, for a person, deliberation follows the principle of logic, when an action can be explained or supported by a well-known fact, imagination is developed. Also, Piaget, according to his theory and from the point of view of psychology and medicine, believed that thinking directly depends on the development of the central nervous system and the brain.

How to develop thinking in a teenager

In adolescence, a person not only changes in size in the body, but also his consciousness. It is believed that in adolescence at 15 years of age, brain activity and consciousness can reach the development of an adult. At the same time, information processing is improved, control of one's own emotions is improved, memory and attention work well.

If we compare a child of 7 years old and 14 years old, then it immediately becomes noticeable that in adolescence, mental processes are completed faster. This observation confirms Piaget's theory that the features of the mind depend on the size of the brain and the development of the CNS.

In adolescence, hypothetical development takes a push, which is not the case for children who are accustomed to reasoning within the limits of past events and based solely on them.

But, despite this, one cannot speak of a sharp transition from childish thinking to adult thinking. Features of the development of thinking of individuals in adolescence lie in the inherent nature of egocentrism, as in childhood.

Levels of development of thinking

It is customary to talk about 4 types that coincide with levels. In thinking, the following levels of its development are distinguished:

• Theoretical conceptual. The process takes place exclusively in the human mind and does not in any way concern previously acquired experience. When a person reproduces a task and a decision in his mind, using knowledge previously tested by other people in practice.
• Theoretical figurative. There is a similarity with the previous level, only in this case, the place of theoretical ambushes are images that were previously created theoretically. At this level, a person's imagination works. Such thinking is habitual for a creative person.
• Visually figurative. At this level, what is important for a person is what he previously saw or sees now, since visual-figurative thinking is impossible without this element at any age. Unlike theoretical imaginative thinking, the images that occur in this case arise from short-term memory.
• Visually effective. This level is important for people who are busy with practical work, they see a certain object, as well as a layout, picture or description of how it should be after transformation.

Traps in the mind

If we talk about the traps of thinking, then there are too many of them to remember everything. Recently, films that help solve problems and are based on the process of studying human psychology have become popular. It is important to consider common pitfalls in human psychology. We fall into the traps of thinking ourselves, but sometimes we are pushed to buy a product in order to win over or use you as a “weapon”.

In these cases, the process is tritely simple, the information that is in our minds is presented in such a way that a person does not even question it. Examples of how a person falls into the traps of thinking:

• A decision that has already been made. A person makes a decision, after a while the information becomes irrelevant, changes occur, and so on. But instead of admitting that this is no longer relevant, he continues to stand his ground, in most cases the person himself understands that he is wrong, but does not want to give up the previously chosen one.
• Mental transformation of the desired into reality. That moment when we talk about rose-colored glasses. As an example, you trust your loved one, everyone around you says that he uses you, and provide facts. At the same time, instead of adequately looking at the situation, you continue to assure yourself of the opposite. Convince yourself that everything is fine and turn a blind eye to the obvious facts.
• Incomplete information. In this case, not so much imagination as stereotypes will play a significant role for a person. Having incomplete information, it is common for a person at any age to complete it at his own discretion. Most often this happens based on what you have heard about similar people or countries, although it can be exactly the opposite.
• Trust in the first findings. We tend to believe more in the information about the subject or person that we heard for the first time. In psychology, it has long been noted that if you say new information (already real and truthful) about another person, he will question it, and not previously received.

How to change the way you think

The way you think is the factor that moves you forward or keeps you where you are. It is believed that a rich person or a poor one also depends on his way of thinking, and not at all on the abilities of a person.

Useful tricks to help change your mindset in a positive way:

• All victories and defeats help to grow.
• People and events in life replace each other, you need to come to terms with this.
• Leave the fears of a 10-year-old child, do not carry them through life.
• First imagination, then plan, then action.
• Changes are definitely needed.
• The flexibility of the mind and the way of thinking will help to become happy - positive moments are born in the head.

Flexibility of thinking

Few people think about the fact that the flexibility of the mind helps us live. Psychology claims that the flexibility of thinking determines how quickly we find a solution to a particular problem.

They develop the flexibility of the mind at the age of 2-10 years, when the development of speech and thinking takes place. Teachers recommend starting language learning during this period.

Flexibility depends on the development of consciousness and how developed the imagination. Psychology confirms that in order to develop the flexibility of thinking, it is necessary to use not only imagination, but also solve various problems.

To develop flexibility, remember these rules.

• First, do not limit yourself to the knowledge that black is black and white is white, thinking development techniques are based on the use of imagination and going beyond stereotypes to solve the problem.
• The second point, which speaks about the peculiarities of the development of thinking, is based on abandoning one's principles, because holding on to them it is impossible to go beyond the limits in solving the problem.
• Psychology gives the third tip regarding the development of thinking, which will help increase the flexibility of the mind - this is leaving behind past victories and defeats.

Training and development of thinking

To improve the flexibility of thinking, the imagination is not enough to use the same ways of studying a given topic. In adolescence, tasks and methods are suitable, at an older age - films.

This is explained by the fact that in adolescence it is important to learn how to look for ways out of difficult situations, to use different methods and techniques for this. This approach helps to turn on the imagination, develop the flexibility of thinking in order to solve the tasks.

To train your own thinking, try using these techniques:

In addition to the fact that you will adopt such techniques, connect special techniques. There are such ways of developing mental abilities and thinking:

• solving a logic problem;
• reconciliation process;
• logic games that allow you to speed up thinking, improve memory and attention (games "Thoughtaholics", "25 letters", "Dossier on passers-by", "Laws", "New concepts").

Considering the methods and ways of developing mental abilities, special attention should be paid to the IQ test. Those who have had to pass it know perfectly well that this is not only a test of knowledge. This is a great training for the mind, which allows you to show non-standard thinking, but at the same time everything is supported by logic.

10 movies that will change your reality

Films will help at an older age to draw conclusions for oneself, it will be easier to do this, since there is a wealth of knowledge gained in the process of studying psychology, philosophy and other sciences. Such films have an exciting plot and give an “explosion” to the brain:

• "Changing reality";
• "Beyond myself";
• "Butterfly Effect";
• "Thirteenth floor";
• "Regions of darkness";
• "Lucy";
• "Time";
• "Start";
• "Source";
• "Superiority".

Almost all films that develop thinking show what is quite real in our world, but no one has come across this and paid no attention to it. After looking at such pictures in the form of training, you can use the continuation of the plot, but by yourself.

But this does not mean at all that teenagers cannot watch films, they can and even need to, but the effect will be more at the level of impressions, and not a semantic load.

Everyone can develop thinking, but for the brain, as well as for the body, maintaining shape directly depends on training. All kinds of games, own theories and conclusions help to give the necessary load and develop mental abilities.

thinking mental figurative

There are several stages in the formation and development of thinking. The boundaries and content of these stages are not the same for different authors. This is due to the position of the author on this issue. Currently, there are several of the most well-known classifications of stages in the development of human thinking. All these approaches have certain differences from each other. However, among the generally accepted concepts and teachings, one can also find something in common.

Thus, in most of the currently existing approaches to the periodization of the stages of development of thinking, it is generally accepted that the initial stage of the development of human thinking is associated with generalizations. At the same time, the first generalizations of the child are inseparable from practical activity, which finds expression in the same actions that he performs with objects similar to each other. This tendency begins to appear already at the end of the first year of life. The manifestation of thinking in a child is a vital trend, since it has a practical orientation. Operating with objects on the basis of knowledge of their individual properties, the child can solve certain practical problems already at the beginning of the second year of life. So, a child at the age of one year and one month, in order to get nuts from the table, can substitute a bench for him. Or another example - a boy at the age of one year and three months, in order to move a heavy box with things, first took out half of the things, and then performed the necessary operation. In all these examples, the child relied on the experience he had previously received. And this experience is not always personal. A child learns a lot by watching adults.

The next stage in the development of the child is associated with the mastery of speech. The words that the child masters are for him a support for generalizations. They very quickly acquire a general meaning for him and are easily transferred from one subject to another. However, the meanings of the first words often include only some individual signs of objects and phenomena, which the child is guided by, referring the word to these objects. It is quite natural that a sign that is essential for a child is in fact far from being essential. The word "apple" by children is often compared with all round objects or with all red objects.

At the next stage in the development of the child's thinking, he can name the same object in several words. This phenomenon is observed at the age of about two years and indicates the formation of such a mental operation as comparison. In the future, on the basis of the operation of comparison, induction and deduction begin to develop, which by the age of three - three and a half years already reach a fairly high level of development.

Based on the information presented, we can identify several of the most significant features of the thinking of a preschool child. Thus, an essential feature of a child's thinking is that his first generalizations are connected with action. The child thinks by acting. Another characteristic feature of children's thinking is its visibility. The visibility of children's thinking is manifested in its concreteness. The child thinks based on single facts that are known to him and are available from personal experience or observations of other people. To the question "Why can't you drink raw water?" the child answers, based on a specific fact: “One boy drank raw water and fell ill.”

When a child reaches school age, there is a progressive growth in the mental capabilities of the child. This phenomenon is associated not only with age-related changes, but primarily with those intellectual tasks that a child needs to solve while studying at school. The range of concepts acquired by the child in the process of learning at school is expanding more and more and includes more and more new knowledge from various fields. At the same time, a transition is made from concrete to more and more abstract concepts, and the content of concepts is enriched: the child learns a variety of properties and features of objects, phenomena, as well as their interconnection; he learns which features are essential and which are not. From simpler, superficial connections of objects and phenomena, the student moves to more complex, deep, versatile.

In the process of forming concepts, the development of mental operations takes place. The school teaches the child to analyze, synthesize, generalize, develops induction and deduction. Under the influence of schooling, the necessary qualities of mental activity develop. The knowledge acquired at school contributes to the development of the breadth and depth of thought of students.

It should be noted that with the end of school, a person retains the possibility of developing thinking. However, the dynamics of this development and its direction depend only on itself.

Currently, modern science pays a lot of attention to the development of thinking. In the practical aspect of the development of thinking, it is customary to single out three main areas of research: phylogenetic, ontogenetic, and experimental.

The phylogenetic direction involves the study of how human thinking developed and improved in the process of the historical development of mankind. The ontogenetic direction is associated with the study of the main stages of development in the life of one person. In turn, the experimental direction is associated with the problems of experimental research of thinking and the possibility of developing intelligence in special, artificially created conditions.

The theory of the development of intellect in childhood, proposed by J. Piaget within the framework of the ontogenetic direction, has become widely known. Piaget proceeded from the assertion that the basic mental operations have an activity origin. Therefore, it is no coincidence that the theory of the development of the child's thinking, proposed by Piaget, was called "operational". An operation, according to Piaget, is an internal action, a product of the transformation (“interiorization”) of an external objective action, coordinated with other actions into a single system, the main properties of which are reversibility (for each operation there is a symmetrical and opposite operation). Piaget identified four stages in the development of mental operations in children.

The first stage is sensorimotor intelligence. It covers the period of a child's life from one to two years and is characterized by the development of the ability to perceive and cognize the objects of the real world that make up the child's environment. Moreover, under the knowledge of objects, it is supposed to comprehend their properties and features.

By the end of the first stage, the child becomes a subject, that is, he distinguishes himself from the world around him, realizes his "I". He has the first signs of volitional control of his behavior, and in addition to cognition of the objects of the world around him, the child begins to cognize himself.

The second stage - operational thinking - refers to the age of two to seven years. This age, as is known, is characterized by the development of speech, therefore, the process of interiorization of external actions with objects is activated, and visual representations are formed. At this time, the child has a manifestation of egocentric thinking, which is expressed in the difficulty of accepting the position of another person. At the same time, there is an erroneous classification of objects due to the use of random or secondary features.

The third stage is the stage of specific operations with objects. This stage begins at the age of seven or eight and lasts until the age of 11 or 12. During this period, according to Piaget, mental operations become reversible.

Children who have reached this level can already give logical explanations for the actions performed, are able to move from one point of view to another, and become more objective in their judgments. According to Piaget, at this age, children come to an intuitive understanding of the two most important logical principles of thinking, which can be expressed by the following formulas:

The first formula is that if

A = B and B -= C, then A = C.

The second formula contains the statement that

A + B = B + A.

At the same time, children manifest an ability called by Piaget seriation. The essence of this ability lies in the ability to rank objects according to some measurable feature, for example, by weight, size, loudness, brightness, etc. In addition, during this period, the child manifests the ability to combine objects into classes and allocate subclasses.

The fourth stage is the stage of formal operations. It covers the period from 11-12 to 14-15 years. It should be noted that the development of operations formed at this stage continues throughout life. At this stage of development, the child develops the ability to perform operations in the mind using logical reasoning and abstract concepts. At the same time, individual mental operations are transformed into a single structure of the whole.

In our country, the theory of the formation and development of intellectual operations, proposed by P.Ya. Galperin. This theory was based on the idea of ​​a genetic dependence between internal intellectual operations and external practical actions. This approach was also used in other concepts and theories of the development of thinking. But unlike other areas, Galperin expressed his ideas regarding the laws of development of thinking. He talked about the existence of a gradual formation of thinking. In his works, Galperin singled out the stages of internalization of external actions, determined the conditions that ensure the successful transfer of external actions into internal ones. It should also be noted that Galperin's concept is of great importance not only for understanding the essence of the process of development and formation of thinking, but also for understanding the psychological theory of activity, since it shows the process of mastering a specific action at the level of formation of mental operations.

Galperin believed that the development of thinking in the early stages is directly related to objective activity, to the manipulation of objects. However, the transfer of external actions into internal ones with their transformation into certain mental operations does not occur immediately, but in stages. At each stage, the transformation of a given action is carried out only for a number of parameters. According to Galperin, higher intellectual actions and operations cannot be formed without relying on previous methods of performing the same action, and those rely on the previous methods of performing a given action, and in the end, all actions are based on visual-effective methods.

According to Galperin, there are four parameters according to which the action is transformed. These include: performance level; measure of generalization; completeness of actually performed operations; development measure. In this case, the first parameter of the action can be located on three sublevels: actions with material objects; actions in terms of external speech; actions in the mind. The other three parameters characterize the quality of the action formed at a certain sublevel: generalization, abbreviation, mastery.

The process of formation of mental actions in accordance with the concept of Galperin has the following stages:

* The first stage is characterized by the formation of an indicative basis for future action. The main function of this stage is to get acquainted in practice with the composition of the future action, as well as with the requirements that this action must ultimately meet.

* The second stage of the formation of mental action is associated with its practical development, which is carried out using objects.

* The third stage is connected with the continuation of mastering the given action, but without relying on real objects. At this stage, the action is transferred from the external, visual-figurative plan to the internal plan. The main feature of this stage is the use of external (loud) speech as a substitute for manipulating real objects. Galperin believed that the transfer of an action to a speech plan means, first of all, the speech performance of a certain objective action, and not its voicing.

* At the fourth stage of mastering the mental action, there is a rejection of external speech. The transfer of the external speech execution of the action entirely into internal speech is carried out. A specific action is performed "silently".

* At the fifth stage, the action is performed completely internally, with appropriate reductions and transformations, with the subsequent departure of the performance of this action from the sphere of consciousness (i.e., constant control over its implementation) into the sphere of intellectual skills and abilities.

Other well-known domestic scientists were also involved in the problem of the development and formation of thinking. Thus, a huge contribution to the study of this problem was made by L.S. Vygotsky, who, together with L.S. Sakharov investigated the problem of concept formation. In the course of experimental research, three stages of the process of concept formation in children were identified.

At the first stage, an unformed, disordered set of objects is formed, which can be denoted by one word. This stage, in turn, has three stages: choosing and combining objects at random; selection based on the spatial arrangement of objects; reduction to one value of all previously combined items.

At the second stage, the formation of concepts-complexes on the basis of individual objective features takes place. Researchers have identified four types of complexes: associative (any externally noticed connection is taken as a sufficient basis for classifying objects as one class); collectible (mutual complement and association of objects on the basis of a particular functional feature); chain (transition in association from one attribute to another so that some objects are combined on the basis of some, and others - on completely different attributes, and all of them are included in the same group); pseudo-concept.

Finally, the third stage is the formation of real concepts. This stage also includes several steps: potential concepts (singling out a group of objects according to one common feature); true concepts (singling out essential features and, on their basis, combining objects).

In recent years, a number of new concepts for the development of thinking have appeared. The active formation of new approaches is observed in the framework of the development of the problem of artificial intelligence. One of the most striking concepts of this type is the information theory of intellectual-cognitive development proposed by Klar and Wallace. The authors of this theory suggest that a child from birth has three qualitatively different hierarchically organized types of productive intellectual systems. These include: a system for processing perceived information and switching attention from one type to another; a system responsible for setting goals and managing targeted actions; a system responsible for changing existing systems of the first and second types and creating new similar systems.

Within the framework of this theory, a number of hypotheses were put forward regarding the features of the functioning of systems of the third type. Including:

1. During the period when the processing of information coming from outside is not performed (for example, a person is sleeping), systems of the third type are engaged in the processing of previously received information. Moreover, this procedure always precedes mental activity.

2. The purpose of this revision is to identify the consequences of previous activity that are the most stable, as well as to determine the nature of the consistency between the newly identified stable elements.

3. On the basis of the operations carried out above, at the subsequent stage, a new system of the first or second type is generated.

4. The new system being formed at a higher level includes the previous systems as elements.

In conclusion, it should be noted that, despite the progress made in studying the problem of human thinking, modern researchers face a number of questions that psychological science cannot yet answer. The problem of identifying patterns of emergence, formation and development of thinking is still one of the most relevant in psychology.

Man's thinking develops, his intellectual abilities improve. Psychologists have long come to this conclusion as a result of observations and the application in practice of methods for the development of thinking. In practical terms, the development of intelligence is traditionally considered in three directions: phylogenetic, ontogenetic and experimental. Phylogenetic aspect involves the study of how human thinking has developed and improved in the history of mankind. ontogenetic includes the study of the process and the allocation of stages in the development of thinking throughout the life of one person, from birth to old age. Experimental approach to solving the same problem is focused on the analysis of the process of development of thinking in special, artificially created (experimental) conditions, designed to improve it.

One of the most famous psychologists of our time, the Swiss scientist J. Piaget, proposed a theory of the development of intelligence in childhood, which had a great influence on the modern understanding of its development. In theoretical terms, he adhered to the idea of ​​a practical, active origin of the main intellectual operations.

The theory of the development of the child's thinking, proposed by J. Piaget, was called "operational" (from the word "operation"). An operation, according to Piaget, is “an internal action, a product of the transformation (“interiorization”) of an external, objective action, coordinated with other actions into a single system, the main property of which is reversibility (for each operation there is a symmetrical and opposite operation). psychology: Psychology of thinking. - M., 1981. - S. 47.

In the development of operational intelligence in children, J. Piaget identified the following four stages:

• 1. The stage of sensorimotor intelligence, covering the period of a child's life from birth to about two years. It is characterized by the development of the ability to perceive and cognize the objects surrounding the child in their fairly stable properties and features.
• 2. Stage of operational thinking, including its development at the age of two to seven years. At this stage, the child develops speech, an active process of interiorization of external actions with objects begins, and visual representations are formed.
• 3. The stage of specific operations with objects. It is typical for children aged 7-8 to 11-12 years. Here mental operations become reversible.
• 4. Stage of formal operations. In their development, it is reached by children in middle age: from 11-12 to 14-15 years. This stage is characterized by the child's ability to perform mental operations using logical reasoning and concepts. Internal mental operations are transformed at this stage into a structurally organized whole. Nemov R.S. Theories of the development of children's intelligence, including Piaget's concept, are considered in more detail in the second volume.

In our country, the theory of the formation and development of intellectual operations, developed by P. Ya. Galperin, has received the widest practical application in teaching mental actions. Galperin P.Ya. Formation of mental actions // Reader in general psychology: Psychology of thinking. - M., 4981.

This theory was based on the idea of ​​a genetic dependence between internal intellectual operations and external practical actions. Earlier this position was developed in the French psychological school (A. Vallon) and in the works of J. Piaget. L.S. based his theoretical and experimental works on it. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, V.V. Davydov, A.V. Zaporozhets and many others.

P.Ya. Galperin introduced new ideas into the relevant area of ​​research. He developed a theory of the formation of thinking, called the concept of the systematic formation of mental actions. Galperin singled out the stages of internalization of external actions, determined the conditions that ensure their most complete and effective translation into internal actions with predetermined properties.

The process of transferring an external action inward, according to P.Ya. Galperin, is carried out in stages, passing through strictly defined stages. At each stage, the given action is transformed according to a number of parameters. This theory states that a full-fledged action, i.e. an action of the highest intellectual level cannot take shape without relying on previous ways of performing the same action, and ultimately on its original, practical, visually effective, most complete and detailed form.

The four parameters by which the action is transformed as it moves from outside to inside are the following: the level of performance, the measure of generalization, the completeness of the operations actually performed, and the measure of mastery.

According to the first of these parameters, the action can be on three sublevels: action with material objects, action in terms of loud speech and action in the mind. The other three parameters characterize the quality of the action formed at a certain level: generalization, secrecy and mastery.

The process of formation of mental actions, according to P.Ya. Galperin is presented as follows:

• 1. Familiarization with the composition of the future action in practical terms, as well as with the requirements (samples) that it will eventually have to meet. This familiarization is the orienting basis for future action.
• 2. Performing a given action in an external form in practical terms with real objects or their substitutes. Mastering this external action proceeds along all the main parameters with a certain type of orientation in each.
• 3. Performing an action without direct reliance on external objects or their substitutes. Transfer of action from the external plan to the plan of loud speech. The transfer of an action to a speech plane, - P.Ya. Galperin considered, - means not only the expression of an action in speech, but, first of all, the verbal performance of an objective action See: Galperin P.Ya. Formation of mental actions // Reader in general psychology: Psychology of thinking. - M., 1981.

• 4. Transferring the loud speech action to the internal plan. Free pronunciation of the action entirely "to oneself."
• 5. The performance of an action in terms of inner speech with its corresponding transformations and reductions, with the departure of the action, its process and details of execution from the sphere of conscious control and the transition to the level of intellectual skills and abilities.

A special place in research on the development of thinking belongs to the study of the process concept formation. It represents the highest level of formation of speech thinking, as well as the highest level of functioning of both speech and thinking, if considered separately.

From birth, the child is given concepts, and this fact is generally recognized in modern psychology. How are concepts formed and developed? This process is the assimilation by a person of the content that is inherent in the concept. The development of a concept consists in changing its volume and content, in expanding and deepening the scope of this concept.

The formation of concepts is the result of a long, complex and active mental, communicative and practical activity of people, the process of their thinking. The formation of concepts in an individual has its roots in deep childhood. L.S. Vygotsky and L.S. Sakharov were among the first psychologists in our country who studied this process in detail See: Vygotsky L. S., Sakharov L. S. The study of the formation of concepts: Methods of double stimulation // Reader on general psychology: Psychology of thinking. - M., 1981.

They established a series of stages through which the formation of concepts in children passes.

The essence of the methodology used by L.S. Vygotsky and L.S. Sakharov (she received the name of the “double stimulation” technique) boils down to the following. The subject is offered two series of stimuli that play a different role in relation to behavior: one is the function of the object to which the behavior is directed, and the other is the role of a sign with which the behavior is organized.

For example, there are 20 volumetric geometric shapes, different in color, shape, height and size. On the lower flat base of each figure, hidden from the gaze of the subject, unfamiliar words are written denoting the concept being assimilated. This concept includes several of the above features at the same time, for example, size, color and shape.

The experimenter, in front of the child, turns over one of the figures and gives him the opportunity to read the word written on it. Then he asks the subject to find all the other figures with the same word, without turning them over and using only the signs noticed on the first figure shown by the experimenter. Solving this problem, the child must explain aloud what signs he is guided by, choosing the second, third, etc. to the first figure.

If at some step the subject made a mistake, then the experimenter himself opens the next figure with the desired name, but one on which there is a sign that was not taken into account by the child.

The described experiment continues until the subject learns to accurately find figures with the same names and determine the features included in the corresponding concept.

With the help of this technique, it was found that the formation of concepts in children goes through three main stages:

• 1. The formation of an unformed, disordered set of individual objects, their syncretic coupling, denoted by one word. This stage, in turn, is divided into three stages: the selection and combination of objects at random, the choice based on the spatial arrangement of objects, and the reduction to one value of all previously combined objects.
• 2. Formation of concepts-complexes on the basis of some objective features. Complexes of this kind have four types: associative (any externally noticed connection is taken as a sufficient basis for classifying objects in one class), collection (mutual complement and association of objects on the basis of a particular functional attribute), chain (transition in association from one attribute to another so , that some objects are combined on the basis of some, and others - on completely different signs, and all of them are included in the same group), a pseudo-concept (externally - a concept, internally - a complex).
• 3. Formation of real concepts. Here, the child's ability to isolate, abstract elements and then integrate them into a holistic concept, regardless of the objects to which they belong, is assumed. This stage includes the following stages: the stage of potential concepts, at which the child singles out a group of objects according to one common feature; the stage of true concepts, when a number of necessary and sufficient features are abstracted to define a concept, and then they are synthesized and included in the corresponding definition.

Syncretic thinking and thinking in concepts-complexes are typical for children of early, preschool and primary school age. A child comes to thinking in real concepts only in adolescence under the influence of learning the theoretical foundations of various sciences. The facts obtained by L.S. Vygotsky and L.S. Sakharov, in this respect are quite consistent with the data that J. Piaget cites in his work on the development of children's intelligence. With adolescence, he also associated the transition of children to the stage of formal operations, which, apparently, implies the ability to operate with real concepts.

In conclusion, let us consider the information theory of intellectual-cognitive development associated with the information-cybernetic theory of thinking. Its authors, Klar and Wallace, suggested that a child from birth has three qualitatively different, hierarchically organized types of productive intellectual systems: 1. A system for processing perceived information and directing attention from one type of it to another. 2. The system responsible for setting goals and managing purposeful activities. 3. A system responsible for changing existing systems of the first and second types and creating new similar systems.

Klar and Wallace put forward a number of hypotheses regarding the operation of systems of the third type:

• 1. At a time when the body is practically not busy processing incoming information from the outside (when, for example, it is sleeping), the third type system processes the results of previously received information that precedes mental activity.
• 2. The purpose of this revision is to identify consequences of previous activity that are sustainable. Thus, for example, there are systems that manage the recording of previous events, the division of this record into potentially stable, consistent parts with each other, and the determination of this consistency from element to element.
• 3. As soon as such a consistent sequence is noticed, another system comes into play - the one that generates a new one.
• 4. A higher level system is formed, which includes the previous ones as elements or parts.

So far, we have considered the natural ways of individual development of thinking. The data obtained in recent years at the intersection of general and social psychology show that the formation of thinking can be stimulated by group types of intellectual work. It has been observed that the collective activity of solving problems contributes to the enhancement of the cognitive functions of people, in particular, the improvement of their perception and memory. Similar searches in the field of the psychology of thinking led scientists to the conclusion that in some cases, with the possible exception of complex individual creative work, group mental work can contribute to the development of individual intelligence. It has been found, for example, that teamwork helps generate and critically screen creative ideas.

One of the methods of organizing and stimulating group creative intellectual activity is called “brainstorming” (literally “brainstorming”). Its implementation is based on the following principles:

• 1. To solve a certain class of intellectual problems for which it is difficult to find the optimal solution, working on them individually, a special group of people is created, between whom interaction is organized in a special way, designed to obtain a "group effect" - a significant increase in the quality and speed of accepting the desired solutions compared to individual search.
• 2. Such a working group includes people who differ from each other in psychological qualities that are collectively necessary to find the optimal solution (one, for example, is more inclined to express ideas, and the other to criticize them; one has a quick reaction, but not in able to carefully weigh the consequences, the other, on the contrary, reacts slowly, but carefully thinks through each step, one seeks risk, the other is prone to caution, etc.). thinking creativity intelligence
• 3. In the created group, due to the introduction of special norms and rules of interaction, an atmosphere is created that stimulates joint creative work. Any idea, no matter how strange it may seem at first glance, is encouraged. Only criticism of ideas is allowed, not the people who expressed them. Everyone actively helps each other in their work, the provision of creative assistance to a group partner is especially highly appreciated.

Under the conditions of such organized group creative work, a person of average intellectual abilities begins to express almost twice as many interesting ideas as when he thinks about solving a problem alone.

4. Individual and group work alternate with each other. At some stages of the search for a solution to the problem, everyone thinks together, at others, everyone thinks separately, at the next stage, everyone works together again, and so on.

The described technique of stimulating individual thinking was created and used until now mainly with adults. However, we think that it would be very useful for the development of thinking in children, and most importantly, for uniting the children's team and developing in children of different ages the skills and abilities of interpersonal communication and interaction necessary in modern life.

An important component of the mental development of a person is his thinking. Without it, human socialization is impossible. Throughout life, there are opportunities to improve the working of thinking. To make sure that the development of the child occurs without deviations, it is customary in psychology to track transformations in mental activity in phases of ontogenesis.

Ontogeny and its relationship with thinking

Ontogeny in science is usually understood as the whole process of the life cycle of the human body. In other words, the whole life of a person from birth to death is ontogeny.

Important! Thinking as the highest cognitive process does not exist separately from speech, perception and other mental activities.

In the process of thinking, a reflection of reality takes place, as a result of which a person receives theoretical and practical experience.

Why does thinking change depending on the stage of ontogeny?

• the human nervous system improves and develops;
• the individual gains more experience and knowledge, including in the process of socialization;
• depending on age, the social roles of a person change, which allows you to create new conclusions and conclusions;
• vocabulary is accumulated and speech develops;
• cognitive abilities are formed for operating with images, and not just concepts.

Even in writing, one can understand what level of ontogenesis a person belongs to.

Signs of thinking

The main task of mental activity is to help identify connections between objects in order to make the right decision on choosing an action. This allows you to navigate in space and the environment. This process always implies activity. His task is to find a solution to the problem. Additional signs of thinking should be considered:

Types of thinking include:

• verbal-logical;
• visual and effective;
• visual-figurative.

They are determined by what a person repels more in his judgments.

The main stages of ontogenesis

Those who study the problems of the development of thinking most often rely on the work of J. Piaget. The scientist believed that the process of improving mental activity occurs independently and has certain patterns. Individual shifts due to more experience are acceptable. After all, the appearance of speech, too, in each person begins at a different age. The deviations are not very significant.

In the process of improving human cognitive activity, Piaget identified the following stages:

• before reaching 2 years - the stage of sensorimotor operations;
• from 2 to 7 years - the stage of pre-operational intelligence;
• from 8 to 11 years - the stage of specific operations;
• from 12 to 15 years - the stage of formal operations.

Each stage has certain characteristics, where the main elements are the speech and actions of the child.

Thinking at the stage of sensorimotor operations

The baby is not able to perceive himself as a separate subject in the world around him. He identifies with family members or other people. The whole world for him consists of sensations. Choosing the right action, he focuses on them. The stage is also characterized by:

Attention! It is important at the age of 2 years to instill in the baby the ability to deal with objects and group them. This will happen anyway, but being late in mastering leads to a delay in thinking at other stages.

Pre-operational intelligence child

The baby at this stage of ontogenesis is significantly transformed. Instead of a defenseless child, a bright personality appears. Up to five years there are no complex judgments, they are partial and categorical. It is still difficult for a baby to build a chain of events.

Signs of new mental actions are:

• formed speech;
• representations are transformed into thoughts;
• from the age of 6 activation;
• there are a lot of egocentric constructions in speech, it is difficult for a child to interpret situations where it is necessary to operate with different positions;
• lack of ability to prove and argue.

Egocentrism is inherent in any age of the child, but manifests itself in different ways. It forces children to focus their attention on individual objects. Therefore, it should not cause resistance among others and especially parents. Many researchers study the development of thinking in ontogenesis precisely on the basis of egocentrism.

Features of the development of specific and formal operations

Logic at the age of 8–11 years still needs to be reinforced with visual images, which is reflected in speech. In general, children are already able to:

• build reasoning;
• draw correct conclusions;
• build long chains of links between objects;
• use the properties of reversibility, when the initial data about the object are remembered, to which you need to return in the process of solving a problem or building a thought;
• carry out seriation operations, i.e. the child can arrange objects in a chain, taking into account the relationships between them;
• see what is unchanged in a changing environment, for example, pouring sand from one container to another (they understand that the volume has not changed);
• classify things according to different criteria.

A teenager is characterized by drastic changes in character, behavior and mood. Hormonal changes also affect thinking. It may be difficult for him to form previously habitual judgments. Memory impairment is accompanied by the loss of some complex concepts from speech.

The last stage of children's ontogeny finally forms logical thinking. This age group tends to theorize. They often want to create their own concepts. The teenager resorts to the ability to think like adults.

The need to resort to specific objects is lost. Visual-figurative thinking becomes secondary, and visual-effective thinking comes to the fore.

Development of thinking according to P. Galperin

A popular classification of stages of ontogeny is the theory of P. Galperin. He distinguished five stages:

If in the early stages the development of thinking is more connected with objective activity, then later it will be transformed. The child does not need objects to operate on to form judgments.

The action is transformed with age according to the following parameters:

• execution level;
• degree of generalization;
• the completeness of the operations performed;
• the level of assimilation of actions or knowledge.

The acquisition of logical skills and the improvement of speech require special classes. While the main mental actions are formed independently. If the brain is not given ground for development, then thinking can be simplified.

Obviously, the main stages in the growth of thought processes occur in childhood. After 15 years, a person already operates with the entire arsenal of tools that the mental process provides. At each stage, it is required to provide the opportunity for the child to act independently so that he gains valuable experience. To do this, his environment must be filled with age-appropriate items, toys or books.

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