What is the structure of the universe? The study of clusters and superclusters of galaxies makes it possible to create a model of the Universe on a large scale, that is, to determine how matter is distributed within a very large space. In this sense, the most significant result obtained

After analyzing the dictionaries of neologisms, it is possible to identify the basic principles for the development and expansion of the lexical system in the Russian language. The following ways of the emergence of new words are distinguished:

1. Morphological, in which new formations in the language are the result of derivational (word-forming) processes. For example: "mental", "small things". Derivation implies the formation of new words according to certain patterns from morphemes that already exist in the language.

2. Lexico-semantic. In this case, new meanings appear for known words. For example: "case" (a type of garage), "zebra" - a pedestrian crossing.

3. Lexico-syntactic (unproductive). With this method, word formation occurs on the basis of phrases. For example: "today", "now".

4. Morphological-syntactic (unproductive). This is a way in which one part of speech passes into another. For example: “thanks to” (whom?) - a gerund, (what?) - a preposition.

5. External influence. Borrowings are one of the ways of word-formation stock. This includes words such as: “felt pen”, “know-how”, “ikebana”, etc.

According to researchers, the result of word formations in our language is more than 90% of all neoplasms of the last few decades. The main way today remains morphological, when new words appear from the bases and affixes already existing in the language. They, as a rule, are created on the model of already existing words. For example: "PR man" - by analogy "debater".

A neologism that arose along with a new object, thing, concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism. For example, the words Soviet, collectivization, collective farm, team leader, tractor driver, Komsomol member, pioneer, Michurinist, metro builder, virgin lands, lunar explorer, cosmonaut and many others.

Consequently, due to the continuous historical development of the lexical composition of the language, many words, back in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms with an abstract meaning (for example, fiction, liberty, reality, citizenship, humanism- humanity, idea, public, equality etc.), in the modern language are part of the active stock of the dictionary.

And some words, having arisen quite recently (tax in kind, surplus appropriation, ukom, nepman, swagger, party maximum, party minimum, people's commissar etc.), managed to pass into the category of obsolete.

Reasons for the emergence of new words:

1) In everyday speech, we create new words for the following purposes:

1. With the help of a new word, we name new objects and phenomena: dutik boots, wheat variety "Dnepryanka".

2. However, we can create a name for a phenomenon that is well known, but does not have a verbal designation in the language. For example, the departure of the audience from the hall when they do not like the film is not at all new, but we do not designate this phenomenon with a special word. But one Sverdlovsk resident pointed out: “ The hall splashed».

3. Words are also created when we want to more clearly designate a phenomenon that has a name, instead of intricate, Thuringian porcelain is said to be finicky, the sealant is called sticky donut.

4. You can play with words. This is readily done by children who are learning the language, but adults are not averse to sometimes having fun for the sake of composing some kind of word: “Since there is a fountain pen, there must be an autoleg. There is neither a new object nor an old phenomenon without a name. There is word-creation here for the sake of jokes, entertainment.

2) What is observed in everyday speech occurs in artistic or journalistic speech. Here, new objects created by the artist's imagination get new names: cybers at the Strugatskys, the best V. Zorin and others.

New words are divided into two groups depending on the reasons for their appearance in the language. Neologisms are new words created to denote new phenomena. All the rest are occasionalisms.

In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author stand out. Some of them entered the literary language, for example, drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (at M. Lomonosov), industry, love, distraction, touching(at Karamzin), fade away(by F. Dostoevsky), etc.

Others remain part of the so-called occasional author's formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example, mandolin, smile, sickle, hammery, chamberlain and many others (by V. Mayakovsky); roared, roiled ( B. Pasternak), furry, the country of Ant and Muravskaya country ( from A. Tvardovsky), magic, cellophane(by A. Voznesensky), broad-bodied, unfamiliarity, overworld, inflexibility and others (from E. Yevtushenko), etc.

Sources of new words

The sources of new words are: word formation and borrowing from another language. Since we are talking about borrowings in 3.2, here we will talk about the word formation of neologisms and occasionalisms.

A common source of new words is education from active word-building patterns or patterns: puffy boots - dutik, boiled - boiled "denim, the color of which is changed during boiling - cooking". Wed: tanned sheepskin coat - sheepskin coat; dutiki- probably like walkers, panties, although these are different models of word formation.

Occasionalisms are also created according to active word-building models, such formations are called potential words: There, the fortune-teller fiddled with dinner, which was heated on the Gretz kerosene stove, wiped her hands on her apron like a cook, took a bucket with enamel that had broken off in places and went out into the yard for water."(I. Ilf, E. Petrov. Twelve chairs).

Adverb like a cook formed according to the productive model “by- + adjective + -i”. We can use it to form a large number of words like: as a cook, as a student, as a journalist, as a driver and so on, depending on our imagination. The model is open. The education we receive in some cases seems unacceptable, like in a chef's way, in others - as if even existing, normative. This is the property of the productive model, in which the boundary between formative and occasional formations is blurred due to units that exist, as it were, at the tip of the pen, so it is impossible to say whether we chose them from our vocabulary or just created them in connection with an emerging need. expressions of thought.

Occasionalisms are also formed according to the word-pattern. In “Newspaper Portraits” by V. Konyakhin, the following series of words was created: “ The most hard-working, the most selfless patriots of their newspaper and their city are obtained from former work correspondents, correspondent engineers, rural correspondents, military correspondents, junkors and housewives correspondents. Their special advantage is their excellent knowledge of the geography and demography of all enterprises and dynasties of the city.».

The words " engineers" and "housewives" modeled after neighboring words. If desired, this series can again be continued, because there are many professions: teacher, physician.

Occasionalism can be obtained through the semantic transformation of the existing model. For example, in Y. Bondarev’s novel “The Shore”, the following adverbs are used: “ The attic reddened with tiles in hot beams withered by the sun, near - pines, illuminated in the morning on one side of the trunks "; "The lilac bloomed snow"; “Senior sergeant Zykin, in gloomy isolation, stared stone-like at the flame of the bowl”; “... a tinny jingle of corn in the wind».

Adverbs with the help of suffixes -o / -e are formed from qualitative adjectives and denote a feature related to the action: good writing - good writing. Here adverbs are formed from relative adjectives: morning, snowy, stone, tin. Has the general meaning of the resulting adverbs changed? Certainly. They stand for
sign of action through comparison: the trunks are illuminated by the sun as
it happens in the morning; the lilac blossomed like snow; stared as motionless as a stone; the buds rang like tin. And again we can replenish a number of similar formations: they blushed like bricks, walked woodenly, smiled heavenly.

Occasionally, occasionalism is a derivational synonym for an existing word. For example, instead of the standard talking shop V. Konyakhin in "Newspaper Portraits" uses the following: " He will not be offended, because in principle he does not go to these sayings».

The root of occasionalism is the same as that of the normative lexical unit, but the word-forming element has changed: instead of the suffix -ln-, the suffix -lk- is used. Here the scope for our imagination has been significantly reduced, we can only try on two or three suffixes for this root: talker, talker, talker, and absolutely
sounds strange" speaking". It must be said that these neoplasms are much less natural than the one used by the writer, and, therefore, if we were to consider including them in our text, most likely we would need some kind of justification, explanation, assessment, in general - an apology to the reader for a clumsy creation. Or it would be necessary to create a special context that would justify our education.
For example: " There was not a hubbub around, but rather a talker - everyone broke into groups and talked, talked, talked about their affairs».

Finally, occasionalism can be created by the author, so to speak, according to an original project, as a result of an original combination of morphemes. For example, S. Kirsanov in the poem "Max-Emelyan" created from the verbs " sleep" and " wake up» two nouns: from usnyavins to prosnyavins. Nouns have no such model; this way of combining morphemes belongs to the poet.

Until now, we have considered occasionalisms that were built from the real morphemic material: existing roots, suffixes, interfixes, prefixes. However, cases have already been shown earlier when the word was built by the author directly from sounds, recall Marshak's "alinon". There is also a sword in "Smart Things" zing zeng- the word is also made up of sounds, and not of morphemes. These cases are rare and always artistically substantiated, for example, as an experiment. Here is a poem by V. Khlebnikov "Thunderstorm":

Whoa, whoa, whoa!

Take the Zocern. Ve-cerci.

Wow, wow!

Wrap, Wrap, Wrap!

Googog. Gak. Gakri.

Vivavevo...

It is given to someone, it is not given to someone to hear in this set of sounds the roar of a thunderstorm and a fraction of rain. For our topic, the very fact of trying to paint a picture not with musical, but with linguistic sounds is important. This is an extreme case of co-creation. And for completeness of the description, it is necessary to mention it.

1.6.3 Test questions to consolidate the material

1. What groups is the vocabulary of the national language divided into?

2. What words belong to the active vocabulary of the language? Give examples.

3. What words belong to the passive vocabulary of the language? Give examples.

4. What are the features of the process of loss of words by the language?

5. What groups are obsolete words divided into? Tell me about each in detail. Give examples.

6. How can obsolete words be used?

7. What are the ways to explain obsolete words in the text?

8. What words are called neologisms?

9. What are the reasons for the appearance of new words?

10. What are the sources of new words?

New words (neologisms)

Ways to explain obsolete words in the text

Obsolete words included in a literary text require explanation in some cases. It can be done:

1) in a footnote or in a dictionary after the text;

2) sometimes an explanation is given in brackets (see the article by Yuri Shatalov "The First Tomb of the Holy Prince" in Appendix 30);

3) more complex ways of interpreting obsolete words, included in the artistic presentation itself.

06turning to the book by V. Kataev "The Broken Life, or the Magic Horn of Oberon" , in which the word is for the author the same subject of memory as the people, things and events that surrounded him in childhood. Therefore, the meaning of the word is revealed in detail and lovingly, through a specially stipulated parallel with a modern word or through a live picture - a description of the subject:

“I really loved it when my mother took me with her to the Midget store for shopping. I must add that the Dwarf himself was always in a bowler hat, somewhat reminiscent of junk workers, since all the junk workers in our city wore bowlers and were called not junk workers, but "old-timers". », “We immediately - without wasting time - ran into the basement of Zhenya Dubasty's house and quickly found a lot of all sorts of things there ... and among other things, a tube of universal glue "syndeticon", very popular at that far, far away time. ... "Syndeticon" really tightly glued a variety of materials, but in particular, fingers stuck together from it, which were then very difficult to unstick. This thick, smelly, amber-yellow glue had the ability to stretch in infinitely thin, infinitely long hair strands that stuck to clothes, furniture, walls, so that careless, hasty use of this universal glue was always accompanied by a lot of trouble ... ".

New words that appear in the language as a result of the emergence of new concepts, phenomena, qualities are called neologisms (from gr. neos- new + logos- word).

Neologisms are divided into two types:

1) lexical neologisms denote the appearance in life of new things, phenomena, qualities (for example, virgin lands, lunar, astronaut, etc.);

2) semantic neologisms- a new name for something that already has a name (for example, background - the lining of a peasant shirt, the hype - gold leaf, etc.).

A neologism that arose along with a new object, thing, concept is not immediately included in the active composition of the dictionary. After a new word becomes commonly used, publicly available, it ceases to be a neologism. For example, the words Soviet, collectivization, collective farm, team leader, tractor driver, Komsomol member, pioneer, Michurinist, metro builder, virgin lands, lunar explorer, cosmonaut and many others.

Consequently, due to the continuous historical development of the lexical composition of the language, many words, back in the 19th century. perceived as neologisms with an abstract meaning (for example, fiction, liberty, reality, citizenship, humanism- humanity, idea, public, equality etc.), in the modern language are part of the active stock of the dictionary.

And some words, having arisen quite recently (tax in kind, surplus appropriation, ukom, nepman, swagger, party maximum, party minimum, people's commissar etc.), managed to pass into the category of obsolete.

Reasons for the emergence of new words:

1) In everyday speech, we create new words for the following purposes:

1. With the help of a new word, we name new objects and phenomena: dutik boots, wheat variety "Dnepryanka".

2. However, we can create a name for a phenomenon that is well known, but does not have a verbal designation in the language. For example, the departure of the audience from the hall when they do not like the film is not at all new, but we do not designate this phenomenon with a special word. But one Sverdlovsk resident pointed out: “ The hall splashed».

3. Words are also created when we want to more clearly designate a phenomenon that has a name, instead of intricate, Thuringian porcelain is said to be finicky, the sealant is called sticky donut.

4. You can play with words. This is readily done by children who are learning the language, but adults are not averse to sometimes having fun for the sake of composing some kind of word: “Since there is a fountain pen, there must be an autoleg. There is neither a new object nor an old phenomenon without a name. There is word-creation here for the sake of jokes, entertainment.

2) What is observed in everyday speech occurs in artistic or journalistic speech. Here, new objects created by the artist's imagination get new names: cybers at the Strugatskys, the best V. Zorin and others.

New words are divided into two groups depending on the reasons for their appearance in the language. Neologisms are new words created to denote new phenomena. All the rest are occasionalisms.

In addition to neologisms, which are the property of the national language, new words formed by one or another author stand out. Some of them entered the literary language, for example, drawing, mine, pendulum, pump, attraction, constellation, etc. (at M. Lomonosov), industry, love, distraction, touching(at Karamzin), fade away(by F. Dostoevsky), etc.

Others remain part of the so-called occasional author's formations. They perform figurative and expressive functions only in an individual context and, as a rule, are created on the basis of existing word-formation models, for example, mandolin, smile, sickle, hammery, chamberlain and many others (by V. Mayakovsky); roared, roiled ( B. Pasternak), furry, the country of Ant and Muravskaya country ( from A. Tvardovsky), magic, cellophane(by A. Voznesensky), broad-bodied, unfamiliarity, overworld, inflexibility and others (from E. Yevtushenko), etc.