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MINISTRY OF CULTURE OF THE RUSSIAN FEDERATION

FEDERAL STATE BUDGET EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER EDUCATION

"SAINT PETERSBURG STATE INSTITUTE OF CULTURE"

Department of Management and Economics

ESSAY

in the discipline "Management decisions"

on the topic "Standard and non-standard management decisions"

Is done by a student

gr. SKT/SZ511-5/1

V.A. mortuary

Supervisor

cand. economy Sciences, Associate Professor

E.V. Gaponova

St. Petersburg - 2015

Introduction

The result of the manager's work is a managerial decision. The whole activity of the organization depends on what this decision will be, it also depends on whether the goal will be achieved or not. Therefore, the adoption of a decision by a manager always presents certain difficulties. This is due both to the responsibility that the manager takes on and to the uncertainty that is present when choosing one of the alternatives. Decision making is not the prerogative of managers alone. After all, we all make decisions literally every day. True, not all of our decisions are as fateful as those that company managers have to make. But still, our decisions have a significant impact on our lives. Almost every one of us sometimes thought: that's why I did this at that moment and not otherwise, because because of this I now have new problems? It turns out that in some moments we get rid of some problems, but in the future we face new ones.

But on the other hand, it is impossible not to decide anything at all and let everything take its course. In this case, a person loses understanding of the situation and can no longer control what is happening. Making different decisions every day, we begin to act so mechanically that we no longer notice the processes that precede the decision itself. In everyday life, fractions of a second pass between our awareness of a problem and its solution, and we often cannot say why we acted this way and not otherwise. This is explained by the fact that if a problem occurs very often and every time it is solved in the same way, then the algorithm for solving it already becomes a program that our brain executes automatically. But most of the problems that occur in the work of a manager are not so often repeated, and therefore their solution is also a kind of choice problem that is not always easy to make.

The process of developing management decisions is one of the most important management processes. The success of everything undertaken by the manager largely depends on ensuring its effectiveness.

When making many management decisions, one may encounter unpredictability, the probabilistic nature of the result, which is influenced by many different factors: both internal and external. The unpredictability of the results is the higher, the lower the level of professionalism of the manager (insufficient knowledge in the field of organization management, personnel management, insufficient skills in using methods of socio-psychological influence, technology for developing and making managerial decisions).

Only a manager who owns the technologies for developing, adopting and implementing a managerial decision is able to effectively manage an organization in a complex, constantly changing economic environment.

1. Management decision, essence and tasks

A managerial decision is presented as a social act aimed at resolving a problem situation.

Any management decision goes through three stages:

1. Understanding the problem

2. Drawing up a solution plan

3. Implementation of the decision

In management, the decision links all aspects of the manager's activity: from the formulation of the goal, the description of the situation, the characterization of the problem, to the development of ways to overcome the problem and achieve the goal. A management decision, including an assessment of the situation, identification of alternatives, selection of the best of them, formulation of the task and organizational and practical work on its implementation, ultimately determines the effectiveness of the entire management system and processes.

A management decision is the result of analysis, forecasting, optimization, economic justification and choosing an alternative from a variety of options to achieve a specific goal of the management system.

The impulse of the managerial decision is the need to eliminate, reduce the relevance or solve the problem, that is, the approximation in the future of the actual parameters of the object (phenomenon) to the desired, predictive ones.

2. Classification of management decisions

Solution is the choice of an alternative. At the same time, the decision is a product of managerial work, which ultimately increases or reduces the efficiency of the enterprise.

Usually in making any decision there are three points in varying degrees: intuition, judgment and rationality.

When making a purely intuitive decision, people are based on their own feeling that their choice is correct. There is a "sixth sense" here, a kind of insight, visited, as a rule, by representatives of the highest echelon of power. Middle managers rely more on the information they receive and the help of computers. Despite the fact that intuition sharpens along with the acquisition of experience, the continuation of which is precisely a high position, a manager who focuses only on it becomes a hostage to chance, and from a statistical point of view, his chances of making the right choice are not very high.

Judgment-based decisions are in many ways similar to intuitive ones, probably because at first glance their logic is poorly visible. But still, they are based on knowledge and meaningful, in contrast to the previous case, the experience of the past. Using them and relying on common sense, with the amendment for today, the option that brought the greatest success in a similar situation in the past is selected. However, common sense is rare among people, so this decision-making method is also not very reliable, although it captivates with its speed and cheapness.

Another weakness is that the judgment cannot be related to a situation that has not taken place before, and therefore there is simply no experience of solving it. In addition, with this approach, the leader seeks to act mainly in those areas that are familiar to him, as a result of which he risks missing a good result in another area, consciously or unconsciously refusing to invade it.

3. Types of management decisions

Since decisions are made by people, their character largely bears the imprint of the personality of the manager involved in their birth. In this regard, it is customary to distinguish balanced, impulsive, inert, risky and cautious decisions.

Balanced Decisions are accepted by managers who are attentive and critical of their actions, put forward hypotheses and their testing. Usually, before starting to make a decision, they have formulated the initial idea.

impulsive decisions, the authors of which easily generate a wide variety of ideas in unlimited quantities, but are not able to properly verify, clarify, and evaluate them. Decisions, therefore, turn out to be insufficiently substantiated and reliable; managerial decision standard ruling

Inert solutions are the result of a careful search. In them, on the contrary, control and clarifying actions prevail over the generation of ideas, so it is difficult to detect originality, brilliance, and innovation in such decisions.

risky decisions differ from impulsive ones in that their authors do not need a thorough substantiation of their hypotheses and, if they are confident in themselves, they may not be afraid of any dangers.

Cautious Decisions are characterized by the thoroughness of the manager's assessment of all options, a supercritical approach to business. They are still in lesser degree than inert ones, they are distinguished by novelty and originality.

For strategic and tactical management of any subsystem of the management system, rational decisions based on methods of economic analysis, justification and optimization.

According to the tasks to be solved, they distinguish informational, organizational and.

Information management solutions designed to establish the necessary governance structure. They answer the question: "What can be used here?"

Called to establish the necessary governance structure. They answer the question: "What needs to be done?"

Operational management decisions represent action decisions and answer the question: "How to act?"

Depending on the degree of coverage of problems, management decisions are divided into public and private.

General management decisions relate to the entire management system, to all aspects of its activities.

Private management solutions relate, as a rule, to one problem of particular importance, or to one of the aspects of the activity of the production site.

Depending on your goals, you can highlight strategic, tactical and operational management decisions.

Strategic (forward-looking) decisions determine the directions and ways of development of the management system for the long term.

Tactical (medium-term) decisions designed to ensure the achievement of private goals, the solution of private problems.

Operational management decisions provide for immediate intervention in the process of operation of the controlled system. These decisions are developed on the basis of current, operational information about the functioning of the managed system and its elements. Such decisions are caused by deviations of the functioning of the controlled system from the planned process of activity, from the solution of previously set goals. Such decisions are called regulatory or corrective.

In terms of scale, management decisions can be global affecting the whole organization, and local relating to only one division or a specific aspect of production activity.

According to the time frame, there are retrospective decisions, the consequences of which will be felt for a long time, and current, focused on the needs of the present.

Depending on the duration of the implementation period, there are long-term(over five years) medium-term(one to five years) and short-term(up to one year) decisions. The longer the period for which a decision is made, the more uncertain its result will be, and the decision itself will be risky, and vice versa.

According to the degree of compulsion, management decisions are divided into directive, recommendatory and orienting. In practice, such a division depends on many factors: the level of decision-making, the timing of its validity, and the significance for a given enterprise.

For example, policy decisions most often adopted by the highest authorities in stable conditions about the most important problems of the enterprise and are intended for mandatory execution.

Recommended Solutions are usually prepared by advisory bodies - various kinds of committees and commissions. The execution of such decisions is desirable, but not mandatory, since those who are affected by these decisions are not formally subordinate to those who make them.

Orienting predictive decisions are considered that outline the desirable prospects for the development of a given enterprise.

Functionally, one can consider organizational, coordinating, regulating and controlling decisions.

Organizational management decisions, for example, distribute official duties among individual performers.

Example coordinating decisions- the order of distribution of the current work among the performers.

Regulatory management decisions most often prescribe a way to carry out certain actions in certain situations. They are expressed in various kinds of rules, routines, schedules, norms, standards.

Control solutions serve to evaluate the results of certain actions.

Depending on the degree of completeness and reliability of information, there are deterministic and probabilistic solutions.

Deterministic Management Decisions accepted in the presence of complete and reliable information. Such decisions are usually easily formalized and can be made using economic and mathematical methods and computers.

Probabilistic decisions have to be made in conditions of insufficiency and incomplete information. To justify such decisions, methods of expert assessments, game theory, jury opinion, brainstorming, etc. are often used.

According to the levels of management, management decisions are distinguished territorial, sectoral, individual firms, enterprises, bodies, divisions, departments.

According to the field of activity, management decisions are divided into social, economic, organizational, technical, technological, environmental, legal, etc.

According to the organization of development, management decisions can be divided into individual, collegial, collegial.

Sole management decisions are accepted by the manager without agreement with specialists, without discussion in the team. Such decisions include operational decisions that provide for rapid intervention in the activities of the managed system.

Collegial management decisions taken on complex issues requiring comprehensive discussion. Managers of various levels and specialists in the relevant field are involved in the development of such solutions.

Collective management decisions are accepted at meetings of collectives by all participants.

According to the procedure for preparing and accepting, one can single out standard and non-standard management decisions.

4. Standard and non-standard management solutions

The standard (they are also called program or standard) include management decisions, the essence of which is clearly defined, the adoption procedure is well developed and the implementation is characterized by a certain frequency. A standard solution is one that assumes an unambiguous choice of a variant. Standard decisions are made, as a rule, in well-known (standard), recurring situations. When making such a decision, the manager understands that it may not be the best, but due to various circumstances (limited time, desire to follow traditions, unwillingness to search for the optimal solution, etc.), he chooses exactly the well-known, proven with the best side in the past, the course of action.

Examples of a standard solution are: reprimanding an employee who has committed a serious violation of labor discipline; holding a meeting of heads of departments to coordinate their actions at the initial stage of the implementation of any plan; obtaining a bank loan to provide financial resources for a new project, etc.

Such solutions greatly simplify the management process. Therefore, it is necessary to strive for the maximum possible standardization of the structure of techniques and procedures for making and implementing management decisions.

Non-standard (problematic, atypical) creative problem solving that requires new information, search for other combinations of decision making, development and evaluation of previously unknown alternatives, etc.

Such managerial decisions cannot be formulated and planned in advance. They appear in the management process when problems arise that are not provided for by standard tasks and solutions, and are determined by the state of the control object, the influence of external and internal conditions.

An example of a non-standard management decision.

Antarctica. Scientific village. People worked for several months and counted the days until the ship arrived for them. But for some reason, the arrival of the ship is delayed for a month or two. The tension in the team is such that sparks fly in the event of a collision. Look, someone is going to kill someone! And then the head of the station decides to take the fire upon himself: he begins to find fault with everyone, mocks the workers, comes up with the stupidest prohibitions. Soon the whole team unites in the fight against the authorities. Then they admitted that they were thinking about rebellion and isolating him from the team. But he achieved his goal: people waited for the ship, no one went crazy and did not hurt his comrades.

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"Most of my problems have no solution -
or the solution is worse than the problem itself.”
Ashley Diamond

In the list of problems that periodically arise in our daily life, there are quite unusual ones, when we simply do not know which side to approach it or which specialist to contact to solve it.

I can give an example of such a problem.

One of the entrepreneurs bought a car from a young man by proxy. After a while, he called her and said that he wanted to cancel the deal, return the money to her and take the car back. At the same time, he made it clear to her that she should not resist this request, since he is a member of one of the groups and can always insist on his own. The lady, suspecting something was wrong, decided to seek help. She was afraid to turn to law enforcement agencies, as she was afraid of possible consequences and decided to ask us for advice and help.

After talking with the client, we made inquiries and found out that the specified group really specializes in vehicle fraud. The scheme used was simple and effective - the buyer was sold a car by proxy, and after some time they strongly demanded to terminate the transaction and return the car to the owner, promising to return the previously paid amount. But with the receipt of money during the meeting, there were most often problems - taking back the car and documents for it, the sellers could hand over a “doll” or counterfeit banknotes. Attempts to restore justice, as a rule, were unsuccessful, because three or four muscular guys usually came with the seller, who made it clear that it was not worth protesting or turning to anyone for help.

Our task was rather unusual - it was necessary not to allow our client to be deceived during the transaction and at the same time to exclude any provocation of the conflict and its further development of force.

According to the plan developed by us and approved by the client, a meeting with the seller was scheduled in the central part of the city next to one of the branches of Sberbank. Together with the client there was our employee who was supposed to conduct all negotiations and whose instructions the client had to follow without any discussion. He was introduced to the seller and the guys accompanying him as a "personal consultant" of the client. His stylish suit, excellent courtesy, good physical shape, ability to negotiate and correctly position himself in communication with this contingent (which was achieved by extensive experience of previous service in one of the specialized organizations) immediately made an impression and transferred communication to a completely different plane. He offered to continue the negotiations to go to the spacious hall of the bank, and after this was done, he said that all the documents had been prepared, the car was standing next to the bank, and after the money was transferred, the seller would receive everything back. Only the transfer of money should take place as follows - the seller gives cash to the bank teller with the details of the account where they should be transferred and then, in exchange for a receipt, receives documents and car keys. This is where the “Mkhatov pause” arose. As it turned out, the seller had only half the amount with him. Trying to forcefully solve this problem was hampered by the presence of a “personal consultant” and a well-chosen place where there were security guards and video cameras. After conferring with the "escort group", the seller asked for a delay of 15 minutes and returned a quarter of an hour later with the remaining amount. A few minutes later, the transaction was completed to the satisfaction of our client and the obvious displeasure of the opposite side.

Now we can move on to the second part of the heading - to solving complex problems.

In our opinion, a complex problem is one that requires the involvement of professionals of various profiles - lawyers, economists, psychologists, experts, security specialists, etc. Solving such problems is accompanied by a number of difficulties - firstly, the client needs to find such specialists and correctly assess the level of their professionalism. Secondly, it is necessary to assemble a team of them aimed at achieving a common goal, which, you see, is not so simple, given interpersonal relationships, ambitions and much more. Thirdly, you need to choose the leader of this team, who will take on not only the coordination of actions, but also responsibility for the final result.

Can the client do all this himself? Of course, he can - in the event that he has a lot of free time or he is not very interested in the final result. In the end, when an expensive Japanese TV breaks down, we don’t go into it with a screwdriver and a soldering iron - we invite a master. And our clients have problems much more serious than the Japanese TV.

As an example.

One of the clients turned to us to solve a very complex and acute problem for him. As he happened to know, his son owed large sums to several individuals. After he made a serious conversation with him, it turned out that his son, trying to do business, took money from his acquaintances at interest. The business did not work out, and the debts amounted to a fairly large amount - about 10 million rubles. Seeing that the debtor was not paying, some of the creditors were preparing to go to court, while the other part turned to outright threats against the debtor and his family. The situation escalated so much that the client was ready to collect part of the money to solve the problem, but they were not enough to pay even half of the specified amount. In addition, the development of such a scandal could have a negative impact on the position of the client himself, who at that time held a fairly high position in one of the law enforcement agencies. On the advice of his friend, he decided to turn to us for advice, and if possible, for help.

The first thing we proposed was to prevent the conflict from reaching an acute stage and, for this, to hold negotiations with all creditors. At the same time, the conduct of these negotiations should be entrusted to an absolutely outsider who cannot represent the interests of any of the parties in this conflict. He must participate in this process as a professional invited to solve the problem. And only following the results of negotiations with each creditor, after clarification of their positions and intentions, it will be possible to determine possible directions of action, draw up a plan indicating the specialists whose services will be in demand, etc.

After some thought, the client said that he would like us to solve his problem. After the conclusion of the contract, one of the members of our team began to conduct preliminary negotiations with each of the creditors individually. The main theses that were presented to the creditors were as follows:

• each creditor has a documented debt to him and can at any time go to court. There is no doubt that the court will decide in his favor. But the fact that this decision will be executed raises very big doubts, since officially the debtor does not own any property. Therefore, the creditor can only count on a part of the monthly amount withheld from the debtor's salary;
• the parents of the debtor, realizing their moral responsibility for the actions of their son, are ready to allocate a certain amount to cover his debts;
• an attempt to transfer the problem to a criminal plane immediately changes the status of the creditor, making him a possible accomplice in criminal acts.

After the initial negotiations, which were conducted professionally and as kindly as possible, 15 out of 18 creditors expressed their desire to resolve the problem out of court. The three remaining remained with their decision to go to court.

Then the hard work began. An agreement was reached that, due to the limited funds for repaying the debt, only the amount of the principal debt (excluding interest) would be taken into account, which immediately required the involvement of economists who were supposed to determine the amounts that were subject to compensation based on receipts, scattered draft records of creditors and the debtor.

Part of the receipts caused the debtor's doubts about their authenticity, and for verification, we involved experts who gave opinions on the authenticity of certain documents.

Since the consequences of this problem were also reflected in the debtor's family, psychologists had to be involved in solving the problem.

At the first stage of work, we had to resolve issues of ensuring the safety of the debtor and his family.

After three months of work, the client's problem was removed. After paying the agreed sums, the creditors withdrew their claims.

Moreover, what is interesting is that creditors were also satisfied with our work, although they received only 40% of the declared amounts. In their opinion, if it were not for our work, they would have no other way but to go to court or to the services of criminal structures. That in no way guaranteed a solution to the debt problem, and in the second case could lead to the emergence of new problems.

Can we solve all the problems or are there unsolvable ones? Only one thing can be said for sure - any problem must be tried to be solved, or it will remain in the category of unsolvable.

Probably, every person has come across some insoluble problem, when it is necessary to make their choice correctly and quickly, but, for some reason, this does not work out. How to make the right decision, which you will not have to regret later? So, here are a few ways to help awaken your intuition a little from sleep.

Let's look at a familiar situation. You have been offered a new job, with a higher salary and new interesting responsibilities. On the one hand, you want to learn something new, improve your financial situation, but on the other hand, you are afraid of not being able to cope with new responsibilities, not getting along with future management and colleagues. In this case, most people begin to be tormented by doubts. But well-known psychologists tried to help us, and put forward several of their methods for making non-standard decisions.

One of the most popular and interesting methods was invented by the famous philosopher, mathematician, physicist and physician Rene Descartes. This truly wise and decisive man was able to achieve a lot in his life: his analytical works on geometry became the basis of all modern mathematics textbooks. In addition, it was René Descartes who produced some interesting formulations of the main psychological and philosophical concepts that are often used in modern psychology.

To decide something important for yourself, Descartes advises to ask four main questions that will help you find an alternative in any life situation.

The first question to ask yourself is: What happens if this happens? Asking yourself this question, you must try to answer directly. Imagine what would happen if, for example, you accepted a new job. It is the pictures that come to mind when answering this question that are important. An example of responses that may pop up:

If I accept this job, I will start earning more.

If I accept this job, I will start to respect myself.

If I accept this job, I will advance in my career.

The second question you should ask yourself is: What will NOT happen if this happens? When asking this question, it is also necessary to be completely honest with yourself. At the same time, along with the positive aspects, with each of our decisions, we also receive some negative aspects. They must also be taken into account when making an important decision. So, the answers to such a question can be as follows:

If I accept this job, I won't be able to see my former colleagues anymore.

If I take this job, I won't be able to spend so much time with my family.

The third, no less important question that needs to be answered is: What happens if this does NOT happen? This question implies that a person should think about what will happen if he refuses to implement his plan. Of course, with such a question, the answers can be both positive and negative. For example:

If I do not agree to this job, then I can not worry about my future.

If I don't take this job, I will regret the missed opportunity for the rest of my life.

And the last, fourth question will be: What will NOT happen if this does NOT happen? Of course, this question scares almost everyone a little, because our brain intuitively rejects the “extra” not. But still try to honestly answer this question. Answers can vary, for example:

If I do not accept this job, I will not show myself how insignificant I am and will not be disappointed in myself.

If I don't take this job, I won't lose my dream.

By summing up all your answers, it becomes easier for a person to choose the path that will help you in the future.

Success never comes suddenly, it is either preceded by many years of long-term work, or it is promoted by non-standard thinking and actions, unexpected and interesting. Going beyond the established framework is half the success in e, in art, and in ordinary life.

Is it difficult to think and act outside the box?

There is nothing wrong with standard thinking and actions, most of us have a standard education, moral and behavioral principles. Any skills (business, social, personal) are automatically performed actions that a person subconsciously perceives as correct and safe. This is their advantage and disadvantage at the same time.

While life or the situation is familiar, actions at the level of reflexes help out. But, as soon as the situation changes dramatically, a new objective assessment is required - the stereotype immediately turns into an obstacle. Developing the ability to think and act unexpectedly, originally and creatively is very important for a successful businessman. Then he will be among the first to see opportunities and prospects that are not obvious to his colleagues and competitors. But all the cream is removed first!

It's very hard to be creative. To do this, you need to learn to see the hidden and overcome several inhibiting habits in yourself:

• Too lazy to think. It is often easier to get away from a question, problem, or situation than to look for a way to get out of it without losses or with profit. Helplessness arises.
• Extra emotions. A spontaneous decision under the influence of mood can be brilliant, but most often it is wrong. Emotions should not be confused with commercial flair or intuition; actions dictated solely by feelings can be destructive (both in business and in life).
• Scattered, disorganized and confused. Doing many things at the same time, poisoning with information leads to chaos in thoughts and deeds. A new idea cannot be born exactly like that, it is possible to start making mistakes in ordinary actions.

Non-standard solutions for business

The best creatives in business are those entrepreneurs for whom the chosen business is a real hobby, not a chore. Numerous examples of the success of the most modern ones confirm this. If the owner is sincerely passionate about the business, he always finds original ways to develop it.

Thus, the success of an elite restaurant is unthinkable if its owner is not a true gourmet who wants to please guests with delicious dishes. You can also go in an unconventional way, as the McDonald's restaurant chain did, emphasizing the speed of service and the standard menu. The result is millions of grateful customers around the world.

An original feature, packaging, presentation or other zest can bring success. For example, having studied the needs of its audience, one of the Russian publishing houses released a "pocket" series of classics in paperback, so that it was convenient to read on the go - and sales jumped. The owner of an American pizzeria equipped his vehicles with ovens - and customers began to receive pizza only hot, which affected income.

There are also completely crazy ideas that, if presented correctly and appropriately, guarantee a real sensation. These include the development of Japanese perfumers who created a fashionable line of perfumes with the smells of burnt rubber and acetone.

Of course, finding an original business solution and implementing it is quite difficult and risky, but it instantly sets you apart from competitors and pays off many times over. After all, ordinary profitable niches are busy and very competitive, only a new type of service and product gives unprecedented success. You can present something old in an original or unusual way by modifying it, but this requires real entrepreneurial talent.

Creativity is everything

The ability to think outside the box, the rejection of frames and stereotypes allows you to create a fundamentally new and live much richer and more interesting. A creative person always sees the goal, believes in it, and, despite the obstacles and skepticism of those around him, he always achieves the result.

The most out-of-the-box thinking people are children. They are sincerely interested in the world, they try to realize themselves in it, they create. And only restrictions on the part of adults turn them into blinkered creatures, devoid of entrepreneurial qualities, freedom of thought and creativity.

Doing “like everyone else” because “this is how it should be” is a very bad way for business. Yes, you can achieve good results in or, but you will not be able to achieve true success. Only independent thinking, a look at a problem or task from an unexpected angle and absolute fearlessness on the way to the goal - the road to business with a capital letter.

A person with a flexible mind will find himself in any business, become successful in any business, always choose the best solution for himself. And it will do it naturally and easily. Remember, for example, how many decisions, options for action and instantly come to mind when you need to do a hated job.

Cognitive activity is subdivided into reproducing (reproductive) - solving typical problems using known methods, and search (productive) - a detailed thought process aimed at solving a non-standard cognitive task. Cogitative activity in solving non-standard tasks is carried out in the form of a successive series of stages (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. The structure of solving non-standard mental problems

First stage search cognitive activity - awareness by an individual problem situation. Such situations are associated with the unusual nature of the current situation, sudden difficulties in resolving certain issues. The act of thinking in this case begins with the awareness of the inconsistency, ambiguity of the initial conditions of activity, the need for cognitive search. Awareness of the cognitive barrier that has arisen, the insufficiency of available information gives rise to the desire to fill the information deficit. First of all, the objectification of the unknown is formed - the search for the formulation of the cognitive question begins, the clarification of what you need to know or be able to do in order to get out of the problem situation that has arisen. The problem situation, as it were, prompts the subject to the corresponding sphere of knowledge - a cognitive problem is formulated.

Problem(Greek problema - task) and means an obstacle, difficulty, and from a psychological point of view - awareness of the issue to be researched. Problem Statement- the beginning of the interaction of the subject of knowledge with the object of knowledge. If the problem interacts with the cognitive base of the subject of cognition, allows him to outline what he is looking for, which he can find through some transformations of the initial conditions, a problem arises. The task is a structurally organized problem. At the same time, the unknown is realized in its hidden objective relationships with the known.

To define a task means to single out the starting conditions for cognitive activity in a problem situation.

The transformation of a problem situation into a problem, and then into a task is the first, initial act of cognitive-search activity. The cognitive question of the task determines the cognitive goal, and the latter determines the necessary system of actions.

The division of the main question into a number of hierarchically related questions − formation of a program for solving the problem.

This establishes what can be learned from the available data and what new information is needed to complete the entire search program.

Task types are defined by those ways of thinking that underlie their decision. All cognitive-search tasks are divided into three classes according to objective content - tasks: 1) recognition (determining whether a given phenomenon belongs to a certain class of objects); 2) design; 3) explanation and proof.

Explanation- the use of a system of judgments regarding the essence of any phenomena. Most often this is a logical consequence.

Proof- the mental process of asserting the truth of any position (thesis) through a system of other axiomatic judgments. In this case, the initial argument is first sought, and then the system of connecting arguments leading to the final conclusion.

Problems of proof are solved in three ways: 1) by referring to the organization of the object, its inherent stable structural relationships; 2) identification of stable relationships between objects and their parties; 3) identification of functional relationships of objects.

Thinking tasks are divided into simple and complex. Simple tasks are typical, standard tasks. Known rules and algorithms are used to solve them. Intellectual search here consists in identifying the type of task by its identification features, correlating a particular case with a general rule. With the systematic solution of such problems, appropriate intellectual skills and habitual schemes of actions are formed.

Complex tasks include non-standard, non-standard tasks, the most complex - tasks with incomplete initial data(for example, arising from the investigation of non-obvious crimes). In this case, the primary heuristic action is to expand the information field of the problem by transforming the original information. One of the methods of this transformation is to split the problem into a number of particular problems, formation of a "tree of problems".

The second stage of solving the problem — finding a way to solve it. For this, it is necessary to explain the possible causes of the phenomenon by high-probability assumptions - hypotheses. If the task is an information system with its elements mismatched, then the hypothesis is the first attempt to coordinate all the elements. On this basis, a person mentally changes the problem situation in a certain direction.

Hypothesis(Greek hypothesis - assumption) - a probabilistic assumption about the essence, structure, mechanism, cause of a phenomenon, this is the basis of the hypothetical-deductive method of cognition, probabilistic thinking. A hypothesis is used in cases where the causes of a phenomenon are inaccessible to experimental research and only its consequences can be investigated.. The advancement of a hypothesis (version) is preceded by a study of all the signs of the phenomenon available for observation, the preceding, accompanying and subsequent circumstances of the event.

Hypotheses (versions) are formed only in certain information situations - in the presence of conceptually comparable inputs, serving as the basis for high-probability assumptions.

The following basic rules for putting forward a hypothesis can be distinguished: 1) the hypothesis must be compatible with all the facts related to it; 2) it is necessary to put forward the smallest possible number of hypotheses with the greatest possible connection between them; 3) from a number of opposing hypotheses, the one that more uniformly explains a series of facts is preferable; 4) contradictory hypotheses cannot be true; 5) the hypothesis must be based on theoretical knowledge.

In various branches of practice, specific features of solving problems by the inductive-hypothetical method arise. Thus, standard versions are widely used in investigative practice.

Hypothesis- an information-probabilistic model, a mentally represented system that displays the elements of a problem situation and allows you to transform these elements in order to fill in the missing links of the reconstructed system.

Carrying out a model-probabilistic method of studying an event, the subject uses various methods: analogy, interpolation, extrapolation, interpretation, thought experiment.

Analogy(Greek analogia - similarity) - the similarity of various phenomena in some respects, on the basis of which a conclusion is made about the possible presence of certain previously unidentified properties in the object under study. The method of analogy contributes to the reflection in our minds of the most common connections and relationships. Objects that are similar in one respect, as a rule, are similar in another. However, by analogy, only probabilistic knowledge can be obtained. Assumptions by analogy should be subject to verification actions. The more objects are similar in essential properties, the higher the probability of their similarity in other features. A distinction is made between the analogy of properties, the analogy of relations, and the analogy of isomorphism.

Method interpolation(from lat. interpolatio - change, substitution) for a series of these values, a function of intermediate values ​​\u200b\u200bis found. So, by establishing a certain dependence in a numerical sequence, we can fill in the numerical gap: 2, 4, 8, 16, (?), 64.

Problem situations resolved by the interpolation method allow finding logically justified intermediate elements. However, the interpolation method for filling the gap is possible only under certain conditions: the interpolation function must be fairly "smooth" - it must have a sufficient number of derivatives that do not increase too rapidly. With their excessively rapid increase, interpolation is difficult (for example, in the following series: 2, 4, (?), 128).

Method extrapolation(from Latin extra - beyond measure and polite - to finish off) tasks are solved that allow the transfer of knowledge about one group of changes to another group, generalization of the phenomenon as a whole in its part.

Method interpretations(lat. interpretatio - interpretation, clarification) means interpretation, disclosure of the meaning of the event.

Probabilistic information models link individual aspects of the event under study in spatio-temporal and cause-and-effect relationships.

One of the learning methods is thought experiment. The heuristic significance of a thought experiment lies in the fact that it links empirical knowledge with theoretical knowledge; at the same time, it becomes possible to overcome those cognitive difficulties that are not resolved only at the empirical level.

Probabilistic information models are dynamic, as information accumulates, they are transformed, equipped with rigid nodes, the variability of elements decreases - a probabilistic information model is getting closer and closer to a reliable information model.

So, probabilistic modeling - the second a necessary step in solving non-standard problems.

Third stage problem solving - verification of consequences from the assumptions made. It is carried out in different fields of activity by various specific means. For example, an investigator, investigating an incident, establishes a system of investigative actions necessary in this case.

If, when putting forward a hypothesis, the thought goes from the particular to the general, then when it is tested, it goes from the general to the system of particular manifestations. At the same time, all necessary and possible manifestations of the general in the particular should be analyzed.

On the fourth and final stage problem solving, the obtained results are compared with the initial requirement. Their agreement means creation of a reliable information-logical model of the object under study, the solution to the problem. A reliable information model of the event under study is formed as a result of checking such a version, all the consequences of which are actually confirmed and give all the facts the only possible explanation.