Written monologue speech can appear in various forms: in the form of a written message, report, written narration, written expression of thought.

or reasoning, etc. In all these cases, the structure of written speech differs sharply from the structure of oral dialogic or oral monologue speech.

These differences have a number of psychological grounds.

Written monologue speech is speech without an interlocutor, its motive and intention are completely determined by the subject. If the motive of written speech is contact (“-tact”) or desire, demand (“-mand”), then the squeaker must mentally imagine the one to whom he is addressing, imagine his reaction to his message. The peculiarity of written speech lies precisely in the fact that the entire process of control over written speech remains within the activities of the writer himself, without correction by the listener. But in those cases when written speech is aimed at clarifying the concept (“-cept”), it does not have any interlocutor, a person writes only in order to clarify the thought, to verbalize his intention, to expand it without even mental contact with the person to whom the message is addressed.

Written speech has almost no extralinguistic, additional means of expression. It does not imply either knowledge of the situation by the addressee or sympractical contact, it does not have the means of gestures, facial expressions, intonation, pauses that play the role of "semantic markers" in ■ monologue oral speech, and only a partial replacement of these latter are techniques for highlighting individual elements of the text being presented. italics or paragraph. Thus, all information expressed in written speech should be based only on a sufficiently complete use of the expanded grammatical means of the language.

Hence, written speech should be as syn-semantic as possible and the grammatical means that it uses should be completely sufficient to express the message being transmitted. The writer must build his message in such a way that the reader can go all the way back from expanded, external speech to the internal meaning of the text being presented.

The process of understanding written speech differs sharply from the process of understanding oral speech in that what is written can always be reread, that is, one can arbitrarily return to all the links included in it, which is completely impossible when understanding oral speech.

There is, however, another fundamental difference between the psychological structure of written speech and oral speech. It is connected with the fact of a completely different origin of both types of speech.

Oral speech is formed in the process of natural communication between a child and an adult, which used to be sympractical and only then becomes a special independent form of oral speech communication. However, as we have already seen, elements of connection with the practical situation, gesture and facial expressions are always preserved in it.

Written speech has a completely different origin and a different psychological structure.

Written speech appears as a result of special training, which begins with the conscious mastery of all means of written expression of thought. At the early stages of its formation, its subject is not so much the thought that is to be expressed, but rather those technical means of writing sounds, letters, and then words that have never been the subject of awareness in oral-dialogical or oral monologue speech. At these stages, the child develops motor writing skills.

A child who is learning to write first operates not so much with thoughts as with the means of their external expression, with the means of denoting sounds, letters and words. Only much later does the expression of thoughts become the object of the child's conscious actions. Thus, written speech, unlike oral speech, which is formed in the process of live communication, from the very beginning is a conscious arbitrary act in which the means of expression act as the main subject of activity. Such intermediate operations as the isolation of phonemes, the representation of these phonemes by a letter, the synthesis of letters in a word, the successive transition from one word to another, never realized in oral speech, in written speech still remain "for a long time the subject of conscious action. Only after as written speech becomes automated, these conscious actions turn into unconscious operations and begin to occupy the place that similar operations (sound extraction, finding articulation, etc.) occupy in oral speech.

Thus, written speech, both in its origin and in its psychological structure, is fundamentally different from oral speech, and a conscious analysis of the means of its expression becomes the main psychological characteristic of written speech.

That is why written speech includes a number of levels that are absent in oral speech, but are clearly distinguished in written speech. Written speech includes a number of processes at the phonemic level - the search for individual sounds, their opposition, the coding of individual sounds into letters, the combination of individual sounds and letters into whole words. To a much greater extent than is the case in oral speech, it includes in its composition the lexical level, which consists in the selection of words, in the search for suitable necessary verbal expressions, with their opposition to other lexical alternatives. Finally, written speech also includes conscious operations of the syntactic level, which most often proceeds automatically, unconsciously in oral speech, but which constitutes one of the essential links in written speech. As a rule, the writer deals with the conscious construction of a phrase, which is mediated not only by the available speech skills, but also by the rules of grammar and syntax. The fact that any extralinguistic components (gestures, facial expressions, etc.) do not participate in written speech, and the fact that there are no external prosodic components (intonation, pauses) in written speech, determine the essential features of its structure.

Thus, written speech is radically different from oral speech in that it must inevitably proceed according to the rules of expanded (explicit) grammar, which is necessary in order to make the content of written speech understandable in the absence of accompanying gestures and intonations. Therefore, any convergence of monologic, written speech with the structure of oral dialogic speech is impossible. This is manifested, in particular, in the fact that those ellipses and grammatical incompleteness that are justified in oral speech become completely inapplicable in written speech.

So, written monologue speech in its structure is always complete, grammatically organized extended structures, almost without using forms of direct speech. That is why the length of a phrase in written speech significantly exceeds the length of a phrase in oral speech, since in extended written speech there are much more complex forms of control, for example, the inclusion of subordinate clauses, which are only occasionally found in oral speech. Bee it gives the grammar-writing a completely different character.

Written speech is an essential tool in the processes of thinking. Including, on the one hand, conscious operations by linguistic categories, it proceeds at a completely different, much slower pace than oral speech, on the other hand, allowing repeated reference to what has already been written, it also provides conscious control over ongoing operations. All this makes written speech a powerful tool for clarifying and working out the thought process. Therefore, written speech is used not only to convey a ready-made message, but also to work out and clarify one's own thought. It is known that in order to clarify a thought, it is best to try to write, to express this thought in writing. That is why written speech, as work on the method and form of utterance, is of great importance for the formation of thinking. The refinement of the thought itself with the help of written speech is clearly manifested, for example, when preparing a report or article. The job of a translator is also not just a translation from one code system to another; this is a complex form of analytical activity, the most important task of which is the awareness of the very logical structure of thought, its logical structure.

1. The form of speech associated with perception, the expression of thoughts in graphic form and thus includes two types of speech activity: productive (writing) and receptive (reading). 2. (writing) A productive type of speech activity, which consists in the written expression of thoughts in a foreign language in graphic form. The objects of linguodidactic testing are: I) writing technique (graphics, spelling, punctuation); 2) productive written speech: the ability to produce one's own written text, combining, if necessary, such complex forms as description, narration, reasoning, as well as the ability to reproduce an audio text in writing, demonstrating the ability to analyze the content of the primary text and the ability to process information in accordance with educational, etc. tasks, as well as in accordance with the requirements of the genre. Types of test tasks by p.r. varied: annotation, abstract (summary, evaluation, etc.), announcement, statement, theses, plan, abstract, etc.

Great Definition

Incomplete definition ↓

WRITTEN SPEECH (LETTER)

a productive type of speech activity in which information is transmitted at a distance using graphic signs. Like all types of speech activity, P. p. has the following structure: 1. Stage of preliminary orientation. At this stage, the writer determines for what purpose, to whom and what he will write. 2. Planning activities. At this stage, the writer plans not only the content, but also the form of his speech. He often uses long-term planning of his speech: at the same time, he can choose the most accurate expressive language means. 3. Implementation of activities, i.e., the writing process itself. In the conditions of the written form of communication, there is no direct recipient and intermediate feedback. The writer does not see the immediate reaction of the reader to each phrase (he can only predict this reaction). The writer is deprived of the opportunity to intotone his speech, use gestures, facial expressions. Often the writer must first introduce the recipient into the appropriate situation, and then express his judgments, otherwise he may be misunderstood. 4. Activity control. The writer is practically unlimited in time, his attention is directed both to the content and to the other form of presentation. Rereading what he has written, he checks to what extent the form used adequately conveys the intent of the statement. P.'s mechanisms of river. are based on the mechanisms of speaking, in the process of P. r. all speech analyzers participate in their interconnection. Greater than in speaking, the role is played by the planning and control of one's utterance. P.'s result r. as a type of speech activity is a written statement. In educational activity subspecies P. of river are used. - listening-P. r., reading-P. R., i.e. the student listens and writes (dictations, presentations, plans, theses, lecture notes) or reads and writes (plans, theses, notes, annotations, abstracts). Recordings not only save the material read or listened to, but also help to assimilate it. Therefore, for educational purposes, such types of records as a plan, theses, notes, etc. are widely used, and the task of the teacher is to teach his students to compose them. Various types of written speech works function in life. Lit.: Methodology / Ed. A.A. Leontiev. - M., 1988; Passov E.I. Fundamentals of communicative methods of teaching foreign language communication. - M., 1989.

Written monologue speech can appear in various forms: in the form of a written message, report, written narrative, written expression of thought or reasoning, etc. In all these cases, the structure of written speech differs sharply from the structure of oral dialogic or oral monologue speech.

These differences have a number of psychological grounds.

Written monologue speech is speech without an interlocutor, its motive and intention are completely determined by the subject. If the motive of written speech is contact (“-tact”) or desire, requirement (“-mand”), then the writer must mentally imagine the one to whom he is addressing, imagine his reaction to his message. The peculiarity of written speech lies precisely in the fact that the entire process of control over written speech remains within the activities of the writer himself, without correction by the listener. But in those cases when written speech is aimed at clarifying the concept (“-cept”), it does not have any interlocutor, a person writes only in order to clarify the thought, to verbalize his intention, to expand it without even mental contact with the person to whom the message is addressed.

Written speech has almost no extralinguistic, additional means of expression. It does not imply either D knowledge of the situation by the addressee or sympractical contact, it has means of gestures, facial expressions, intonation, pauses that play the role of "semantic markers" in monologue speech, and only a partial replacement of these latter are the methods of highlighting individual elements of the text in italics or paragraph. Thus, all information expressed in written speech should be based only on a sufficiently complete use of the expanded grammatical means of the language.

Hence, written speech should be as synsemantic as possible and the grammatical means that it uses should be completely sufficient to express the message being transmitted. The writer must build his message in such a way that the reader can go all the way back from expanded, external speech to the internal meaning of the text being presented.

The process of understanding written speech differs sharply from the process of understanding oral speech in that what is written can always be reread, that is, one can arbitrarily return to all the links included in it, which is completely impossible when understanding oral speech.

There is, however, another fundamental difference between the psychological structure of written speech and oral speech. It is connected with the fact of a completely different origin of both types of speech.

Oral speech is formed in the process of natural communication between a child and an adult, which used to be sympractical and only then becomes a special independent form of oral speech communication. However, as we have already seen, elements of connection with the practical situation, gesture and facial expressions are always preserved in it.

Written speech has a completely different origin and a different psychological structure.

Written speech appears as a result of special training, which begins with the conscious mastery of all means of written expression of thought. At the early stages of its formation, its subject is not so much the thought that is to be expressed, but rather those technical means of writing sounds, letters, and then words that have never been the subject of awareness in oral dialogic or oral monologue speech. At these stages, the child develops motor writing skills.

A child who is learning to write first operates not so much with thoughts as with the means of their external expression, with the means of denoting sounds, letters and words. Only much later does the expression of thoughts become the subject of the child's conscious actions, and how does written speech, in contrast to oral speech, which is formed in the process of live communication, from the very beginning is conscious arbitrary, in which the means of expression act as "the main objective activity. Thus, intermediate operations, such as highlighting phonemes, the representation of these phonemes by a letter, the synthesis of letters in a word, the successive transition from one word to another, which were never realized in oral speech, in written speech remain for a long time the subject of conscious action. Only after written speech is automated, these conscious actions turn into unconscious operations and begin to occupy the place that similar operations (sound extraction, finding articulation, etc.) occupy in oral speech.

Thus, written speech, both in its origin and in its psychological structure, is fundamentally different from oral speech, and a conscious analysis of the means of its expression becomes the main psychological characteristic of written speech.

That is why written speech includes a number of levels that are absent in oral speech, but are clearly distinguished in written speech. Written speech includes a number of processes at the phonemic level - the search for individual sounds, their opposition, the coding of individual sounds into letters, the combination of individual sounds and letters into whole words. To a much greater extent than is the case in oral speech, it includes in its composition the lexical level, which consists in the selection of words, in the search for suitable necessary verbal expressions, with their opposition to other lexical alternatives. Finally, written speech also includes conscious operations of the syntactic level, which most often proceeds automatically, unconsciously in oral speech, but which constitutes one of the essential links in written speech. As a rule, the writer deals with the conscious construction of a phrase, which is mediated not only by the available speech skills, but also by the grammar rules of the syntax. Thus, written speech is radically different from oral speech in that it must inevitably proceed according to the rules of expanded (explicit) grammar, which is necessary in order to make the content of written speech understandable in the absence of accompanying gestures and intonations. Therefore, any convergence of monologic, written speech with the structure of oral dialogic speech is impossible. This is manifested, in particular, in the fact that those ellipses and grammatical incompleteness that are justified in oral speech become completely inapplicable in written speech.

So, written monologue speech in its structure is always complete, grammatically organized extended structures, almost without using forms of direct speech. That is why the length of a phrase in written speech significantly exceeds the length of a phrase in oral speech, since in extended written speech there are much more complex forms of control, for example, the inclusion of subordinate clauses, which are only occasionally found in oral speech. All this gives the grammar of written speech a completely different character.

Written speech is an essential tool in the processes of thinking. Including, on the one hand, conscious operations by linguistic categories, it proceeds at a completely different, much slower pace than oral speech, on the other hand, allowing repeated reference to what has already been written, it also provides conscious control over ongoing operations. All this makes written speech a powerful tool for clarifying and working out the thought process. Therefore, written speech is used not only to convey a ready-made message, but also to work out and clarify one's own thought. It is known that in order to clarify a thought, it is best to try to write, to express this thought in writing. That is why written speech, as work on the method and form of utterance, is of great importance for the formation of thinking. The refinement of the thought itself with the help of written speech is clearly manifested, for example, when preparing a report or article. The job of a translator is also not just a translation from one code system to another; this is a complex form of analytical activity, the most important task of which is the awareness of the very logical structure of thought, its logical structure.

The ratio of oral and written speech. Written speech options

In conclusion, we would like to dwell on the last provision, which has only a particular meaning, but, despite this, is of significant interest for the psychological analysis of oral and written speech.

We are talking about the various relationships that oral and written speech can enter into, and about the various forms in which the interaction of these basic types of speech activity can take place. There are at least three types of such relationships.

Normally, oral and written speech, as mentioned above, proceed according to completely different rules and are constructed grammatically in completely different ways.

Oral speech included in the situation, accompanied by gestures, intonation, semantic pauses, allows contractions, ellipses and agrammatisms; in certain cases of dialogic or monologic speech, these peculiar features stand out with particular distinctness.

Written speech in its structure is always speech in the absence of an interlocutor. Those means of coding thoughts in a speech utterance that occur in oral speech without awareness are here the subject of conscious action. Written speech does not have any extralinguistic means (knowledge of the situation, gestures, facial expressions), therefore, it must have sufficient grammatical completeness, and only this grammatical completeness makes it possible to make the written message understandable enough. However, for a beginner to learn written language, the situation may be different.

Let's try to analyze the written speech of a person who learned it at a mature age and still has insufficient command of it. In the written speech of this person, the techniques of oral speech are partially transferred, and in part it reflects the activity of conscious mastery of the means of the language, which is characteristic of it.

As an example, you can take a letter from a person who has poor command of written language. It can have the following character: “Hello, dear mom, dad, sister Nina and brother Kolya. Your sister Katya is writing to you. I want to tell you this, that, and that, and I also want to tell you this, that, and that. Such written speech, on the one hand, reflects those forms that are accepted in oral speech, on the other hand, the writer conveys the very fact of writing a letter: he tells who writes what he wants to convey, and describes the actions that he performs when writing letters. Thus, a person who is at this stage of mastering the written language writes as he speaks and as he acts; his written speech is characterized by completely different features than the written speech of a person who is accustomed to using it as a constant means of communication.

However, not only oral speech can affect written language (as we saw above), but also written language can affect oral speech. In a person who has a well-developed automated written speech, often the rules of written speech begin to be transferred to oral speech, and such a person begins to speak the way he writes. - We are dealing here with her case of the "clerical" style of oral speech - a style that does not allow ellipses or irregularities. In these cases, live, oral speech is deprived of the elements of intonation accompanying gestures and becomes hypergrammatical and formal, super-expanded, repeating those features that are characteristic of written speech.

Touching upon the issues of different attitudes of written and oral speech at successive stages of mastering written speech, on the one hand, and different attitudes towards oral and written speech, on the other hand, we move on to a new section of science - stylistics, which is much more developed in linguistics and requires more special psychological coverage.

This section of the psychology of the basic forms of verbal communication is beyond the scope of the book and requires special research.

The literary language is the highest form of the national language and the basis of the culture of speech. It serves various spheres of human activity: politics, legislation, culture, verbal art, office work, interethnic communication, everyday communication.

A distinctive feature of the literary language is also the presence of two forms of speech utterance:
- oral speech,
- written language.

Their names indicate that oral speech is sounding, and written speech is graphically fixed. This is their main difference.

The second difference is related to the time of occurrence: oral speech appeared earlier. For the appearance of a written form, it was necessary to create graphic signs that would convey the elements of sounding speech. For languages ​​that do not have a written language, the oral form is the only form of their existence.

The third difference is related to the genesis of development: oral speech is primary, and written speech is secondary, because, according to Christian Winkler, writing is an auxiliary tool that overcomes the inconstancy of the sound of speech.

The English parliamentarian Fox used to ask his friends if they had read his published speeches: “Did the speech read well? Then that's bad speech!"

The perception of these two forms of utterance differs from each other and is situational and personal in nature. In the opinion of Heinz Kühn: "Some amazingly well-sounding speeches, if we read them the next day in newspapers or in parliamentary minutes, would have perished in the ashes of oblivion." Karl Marx, for example, had great mental acuity but was not a good speaker. "Written" can be rich in meaning; in extreme cases, if the thought is not clear, you can repeat the reading. “Speech is not writing,” the aesthetics specialist F. T. Visher said briefly and firmly.

The art of speech is the oldest branch of knowledge. In ancient times, the art of speech played a prominent role: Demosthenes delivered angry speeches against Philip of Macedon. (From that time to the present day, the concept of “philippics” has come down.) When Philip subsequently read these speeches, he exclaimed under a strong impression: “I think that if I heard this speech along with everyone, I would vote against myself.”

One old adage says: “It is a nasty flaw if a person speaks like a book. After all, any book that speaks like a person is a good read.

Speech is not identical to the text that the speaker pronounces, since speech affects the listener not only in content and form, but in the whole manner of speaking. Speech interacts between speaker and listener; It is created for a certain moment and is aimed at a certain composition of listeners.

Written and spoken language are in a relatively complex relationship with each other. On the one hand, they are closely related to each other. But their unity also includes very significant differences. Modern written language is alphabetic in nature; signs of written speech - letters - denote the sounds of oral speech. However, written language is not simply a translation of spoken language into written signs. The differences between them do not boil down to the fact that written and oral speech use different technical means. They are deeper. Great writers are well known who were weak orators, and eminent orators whose speeches, when read, lose much of their charm.

Oral speech is associated not only with (her, perceptual organization,), but also with elements (facial expressions, gestures, postures, etc.). It is also associated with the semantic field (after all, the word "thank you" can be said with different intonation and meaning), and written speech is unambiguous in meaning.

Written and oral speech usually perform different functions:
- oral speech for the most part functions as colloquial speech in a conversation situation,
- written speech - as business, scientific, more impersonal speech, intended not for the directly present interlocutor.

In this case, written speech is aimed primarily at conveying more abstract content, while oral, colloquial speech is mostly born from direct experience. Hence a number of differences in the construction of written and oral speech and in the means that each of them uses.

In oral, colloquial speech, the presence of a common situation that unites the interlocutors creates a commonality of a number of immediately obvious prerequisites. When the speaker reproduces them in speech, his speech seems to be unnecessarily long, boring and pedantic: much is immediately clear from the situation and can be omitted in oral speech. Between two interlocutors, united by a common situation and - to some extent - experiences, understanding is possible from a half-word. Sometimes between close people one hint is enough to be understood. In this case, what we say is understood not only or sometimes even not so much from the content of the speech itself, but on the basis of the situation in which the interlocutors are. In colloquial speech, therefore, much is not agreed. Conversational speech is situational speech. Moreover, in oral speech-conversation, in addition to the subject-semantic content of speech, there is a whole range of expressive means at the disposal of the interlocutors, with the help of which what is not said in the content of the speech itself is conveyed.

In a written speech addressed to an absent or generally impersonal, unknown reader, one cannot count on the fact that the content of the speech will be supplemented by general experiences gleaned from direct contact, generated by the situation in which the writer was. Therefore, in written speech, something different is required than in oral speech - a more detailed construction of speech, a different disclosure of the content of thought. In written speech, all essential connections of thought must be disclosed and reflected. Written speech requires a more systematic, logically coherent presentation. In written speech, everything should be clear only from its own semantic content, from its context; written speech is contextual speech.

Contextual construction acquires real significance in written speech also because the expressive means (voice modulation, intonation, voice underlining, etc.), which are so rich in oral speech, especially for some people, are very limited in written speech.

Written speech requires special thoughtfulness, planning, consciousness. In conditions of oral communication, the interlocutor and, to some extent, even the silent listener help to regulate speech. Direct contact with the interlocutor in a conversation quickly reveals misunderstanding; The reaction of the listener, involuntarily for the speaker, directs his speech in the right direction, makes him dwell on one thing in more detail, explain another, and so on. In written speech, this direct regulation of the speaker's speech on the part of the interlocutor or listener is absent. The writer must independently determine the construction of his speech so that it is understandable to the reader.

There are various types of both oral and written speech. Oral speech can be:
- colloquial speech (conversation),
- public speaking (report, lecture).

The genres of speech are monologue and dialogue.

Epistolary style is a special style that is much closer to the style and general character of oral speech. On the other hand, a speech, a public speech, a lecture, a report, in some respects, are in some respects much closer to written speech.

In a speech designed for the listener, the structural and logical pattern of the phrase often changes, incomplete sentences are very appropriate (saving the energy and time of the speaker and listener), passing additional thoughts, evaluative phrases are allowed (enriching the text and well separated from the main text by means of intonation).

One of the most significant shortcomings of oral speech is its discontinuity (logical, grammatical and intonational), which consists in an unjustified stop of speech, in the break of phrases, thoughts, and sometimes in the unjustified repetition of the same words. The reasons for this are different: ignorance of what needs to be said, inability to formulate a subsequent thought, the desire to correct what was said, sperrung (stream of thoughts).

The second of the most common shortcomings of oral speech is its inseparability (intonational and grammatical): phrases follow one after another without pauses, logical stresses, without a clear grammatical formulation of sentences. Grammar-intonational inconsistency, of course, affects the logic of speech: thoughts merge, their order becomes fuzzy, the content of the text becomes vague, indefinite.

The use of the written form allows you to think about your speech longer, build it gradually, correcting and supplementing, which ultimately contributes to the development and application of more complex syntactic structures than is typical of oral speech. Such features of oral speech as repetitions, unfinished constructions in a written text would be stylistic errors.

If in oral speech, intonation is used as a means of semantic highlighting parts of a statement, then punctuation marks are used in writing, as well as various means of graphic highlighting of words, combinations and parts of text: using a different type of font, bold, italics, underlining, framing, placing text on page. These means ensure the selection of logically important parts of the text and the expressiveness of written speech.

Thus, if colloquial speech is very different from the written speech of a scientific treatise, then the distance separating the oral lecture-speech, report from written speech, on the one hand, and the style of colloquial speech from the epistolary style, on the other, is much less. This means, firstly, that oral and written speech are not opposites, they influence each other; forms developed in one of them and specific to one speech pass to another.

Secondly, the fundamental differences between the main types of oral colloquial speech and written scientific speech are associated not only with the technique of writing and the sound of oral speech, but also with the difference in the functions that they perform (oral colloquial speech serves to communicate with the interlocutor in conditions of direct contact and for communicative communication, and written speech performs other functions.

Parameter name	Meaning
Article subject:	Written speech
Rubric (thematic category)	Psychology

Written speech is a generally accepted, universal form of communication of literate people. It gives them the opportunity to express their thoughts and feelings by means of any written language, as well as to understand what is written by others. The need for communication through written language in modern society arises every day, in a wide variety of life situations. Possession of written language is very important for the social adaptation of a person.

In order to use written language, it is extremely important to acquire a number of skills and abilities. The initial stage of mastering written language is the acquisition of writing and reading skills, ᴛ.ᴇ. letters. A significant number of hours are devoted to it in the general system of work of a special school. VIII kind. Literacy education promotes the advancement of students in speech and general development. The mastery of written speech stimulates the development of complex mental processes, while a fundamental change occurs in the spiritual appearance of the child, just as in the acquisition of speech during the transition from infancy to early childhood.

The initial stage of mastering reading is the reconstruction of the word form on the basis of its graphic representation. Reading is based on complex forms of analysis and synthesis of the sound-letter composition and requires a certain level of general speech development, especially the development of phonemic hearing, as well as the ability to master the letters of the alphabet. The latter involves a subtle interaction of auditory, visual and kinesthetic (speech-motor) perceptions and ideas.

Difficulties in mastering reading skills in oligophrenic children are due to a number of reasons, among which, first of all, are the general underdevelopment of speech and the unformed phonemic perception that arises on this basis. Unable to carry out sound analysis of the word, mixing acoustically similar sounds, the student cannot recreate the exact sound form of the word based on the visual perception of graphic signs.

A certain difficulty is caused by the assimilation of letters by students, the optical images of which are not accurately associated with strictly defined phonemes. As a result, the same letter becomes for the child a symbol of two or more basic sounds, or one sound is associated with several letters. Memorizing the optical image of letters is a particularly difficult task for those children who are characterized by severe visual impairment. Οʜᴎ do not remember letters for a long time - a year or more. There are students who find it difficult to observe the direction of gaze movement from left to right, necessary for the process of reading in Russian, and, accordingly, the sequence of letters in a word when writing.

Many schoolchildren generally cannot understand for a long time what it means to read words. Letters for a long time remain for them something that they must remember, but - regardless of the words.

A particular difficulty for oligophrenics is the fusion of sounds. Having memorized the letters and naming them correctly, children often cannot read even the simplest words. It is difficult for mentally retarded schoolchildren to assimilate the variability in the pronunciation of a sound, depending on its position in the word. A significant step in mastering reading occurs when students understand that the main thing in reading is not the naming of letters, but the reading of words.

Mentally retarded schoolchildren master the technique of reading slowly. When reading, they make many mistakes: they do not read the endings, skip and rearrange the letters, thus distorting the sound composition of the word, replace some words with others, to some extent similar in letter composition, do not stop at punctuation marks, etc.

At the same time, the shortcomings in reading comprehension observed in children are determined not only by the imperfection of the reading technique, but also to a large extent by the low level of general development of mentally retarded children, poverty and low generalization of life experience, indivisibility, simplification, sharply hampered updating of ideas. Primary school students most often learn only separate fragments from what they read, important parts that carry the main semantic load are often omitted or changed. Children's attention is attracted by words or expressions that do not have much meaning, which are then reproduced by them without regard to the content of the text.

Reading the text, schoolchildren find it difficult to establish even the simplest connections; therefore, the main content often remains unclear to them. Let us note that among mentally retarded students one can occasionally meet children who, having mastered correct fluent reading, do not understand the content of what they have read. This is a special case that requires special, individual work with the child.

The most accessible for students of a special school of the VIII type throughout all the years of study are small texts of a narrative nature, in which the plot is revealed clearly and consistently, the number of characters is small, and the situation is simple and close to their life experience. The presence in the texts of descriptions of the experiences of the characters that serve as motives for their actions, intermittent events, the second plan, and author's digressions complicate the understanding of the story.

Descriptive texts prove challenging for students of all ages. This is due to the fact that mental reconstruction of visual images is extremely important for their correct comprehension. Their actualization causes difficulties for mentally retarded schoolchildren. Little students understand stories with hidden meanings. Texts of this kind require the establishment of rather complex causal or temporal relationships, which turns out to be unbearable for children.

Articles with a traceable storyline and influencing children with the power of artistic images are easier to assimilate. The understanding of plot texts is facilitated by the organization of dramatizations of the read text͵ the use of various visual aids, both static and dynamic.

Schoolchildren experience great difficulties when reading articles of a scientific and educational nature. Acquaintance with the material of a historical, geographical nature can be facilitated by the involvement of schoolchildren's knowledge of objects, phenomena of the surrounding reality, as well as the use of visual aids.

Mentally retarded students switch to reading ʼʼto themselvesʼʼ very late and practically do not use it. Even when trying not to pronounce what they read, they articulate noticeably all the time, and in case of difficulty they pronounce the read word or phrase in a whisper. There is reason to believe that reading "to oneself" is not available to all students of a special school of the VIII type.

Writing is a more difficult process than reading. Writing involves the implementation of an accurate, strictly consistent phonemic analysis of the word and the correlation of the selected sounds with the corresponding phonemes, ᴛ.ᴇ. performing phonemic generalization. Further, phonemes should be indicated by strictly defined letters. Writing requires a clear delimitation of similar phonemes from each other, a strong memorization of the graphics of letters and their reproduction in the desired sequence.

For mentally retarded children beginning to learn, writing by ear causes great difficulties, due to the imperfection of their language analysis and synthesis. Phonemic analysis is carried out by them not clearly enough, which prevents the division of the word into its constituent sounds. Students, especially those with pronunciation defects, when analyzing a word, skip some sounds (usually vowels), others mix sounds based on acoustic similarity, and also often change their order, thereby violating the structure of the word. Schoolchildren do not always cope with the correlation of sounds with the corresponding letters. The task of mastering the images of letters, especially those that are graphically similar, turns out to be difficult for children. At the beginning of training, the inscription of letters is often simplified by them, the graphic image loses its specificity, the letters become mutually similar. This is often observed in schoolchildren suffering from disorders of optical perception and spatial orientation, who are also characterized by a fairly persistent mirror image of writing.

Mentally retarded students often have motor disorders, deficiencies in the coordination of small muscle movements, underdevelopment of the muscles of the fingers, instability of the hand, which makes writing difficult. Many schoolchildren write letters with great tension, and not only the fingers, but also the shoulder, head, and tongue come into motion. This leads to rapid fatigue.

In the conditions of special education, the majority of students successfully master the initial skills of writing. True, if they are required to work too fast, then insufficiently consolidated skills fall apart, and numerous errors appear in writing. .

It can be difficult for mentally retarded children to understand the essence of the process of writing. Οʜᴎ do not realize the relationship between letters and words for a long time, do not imagine that letters are needed to write words, which can then be read by any literate person.

The easiest type of writing is copying, but it also presents a certain difficulty for mentally retarded children. Schoolchildren are slowly moving from imperfect methods of copying by letters, by syllables, when the meaning of what is being written off is lost, to more perfect ones - by words, phrases and sentences. Students write off in a more productive way only well-known simple material, and when it becomes more complicated, they use less productive ways to complete the task. It is far from always that cheating is preceded by reading the material.

In the works of students there are a large number of errors, the nature of which changes with the years of training. From junior to senior grades, the number of graphic errors sharply decreases and the number of spelling errors increases, which is due to the lack of self-control skills, the imperfection of the reading process, and the insufficient ability of schoolchildren to correlate the pronunciation of a word with a record.

Significantly more difficult than copying should be considered independent writing and writing from dictation. In such works, there are various types of distortions of the literal composition of words, even the simplest ones for writing. Such errors are especially common (up to 70%) among first-graders. As students move from class to class, the number of such errors is significantly reduced.

The appearance of errors that violate the structure of the word in words whose spelling does not differ from the pronunciation is caused by a number of reasons. Among them, the most important are the sharp underdevelopment of phonemic hearing, pronounced pronunciation defects, performance disorders and specific deviations in motor skills. There is an urgent need for teaching mentally retarded students to read and write to implement a differentiated approach, providing for the development in the child of such skills that will provide him with the possibility of error-free writing in the simplest cases.

In Russian, the spelling of many words differs from their pronunciation, and in order to avoid mistakes, spelling rules must be applied. The transition to writing according to the rules requires the student to change the habitual way of thinking and perform a new activity in its nature, reworking the existing stereotype, which turns out to be not an easy task. Each rule must be understood and mastered. This takes a long time. Great difficulties are caused in mentally retarded students by the independent use of even those rules, the formulations of which have been memorized. It is not easy for children to find words in which the written rule should be applied, since they do not see the features in them. In other cases, students do not accurately reproduce the rule, miss important links in it, and, guided by such a distorted formulation, come to erroneous results. Sometimes two rules become mutually similar in the child's mind and lose their specificity. The more complex the passed rule, the higher the degree of generalization contained in it, the less successfully students with mental deficiencies use it.

Of certain importance is also what period of time separates the completion of a written exercise from the study of a particular rule. The skills developed by oligophrenics, incl. and orthographic, fragile and easily destroyed. For this reason, schoolchildren make many mistakes on those rules that they have long passed.

A difficult type of written work is dictation. It requires the student to make an independent phonemic analysis of perceived words, quickly find the letters corresponding to each selected phoneme, update and apply the rules.

Competent writing requires even more effort from the student. I independent works - essays, presentations, as well as letters and various notes. In this case, it is extremely important to monitor the spelling of words, the construction of the sentence and the correct presentation of the content. Children who perform dictations relatively competently, with the inability to distribute their attention, often make a lot of mistakes in independent work.

Mentally retarded schoolchildren master coherent written speech with great difficulty and at a low level. This form of speech activity implies a high degree of development of intentional mental processes, which oligophrenics do not achieve. In order to write an essay on a given topic, ᴛ.ᴇ. express your thoughts in writing, it is extremely important to organize your activities, think over the sequence of writing, select the necessary information, plan the order of its transmission. An important and difficult task is the selection of basic components that reflect events, the exclusion of unnecessary, superfluous, the proportionality of the selected parts, their consistent distribution, as well as the establishment of links between parts of the composition and their interpretation. All this requires preliminary planning of speech activity.

A peculiar type of written speech is the presentation of the text. In this case, the content and form of the work are largely determined by the model, but much depends on the general and speech development of the student. If this is a description of events, it is necessary to determine their sequence and establish a connection between them. A mentally retarded student only to some extent succeeds in preserving in his memory the sequence of unfolding actions, individual episodes, the names and characteristics of the characters. The reproduction of the verbal means used by the author turns out to be very approximate.

Middle school students are more successful in writing a presentation when they perceive the text from the teacher's voice, high school students - when they read the story on their own. For high school students, the process of reading is no longer difficult.

As they read, they see the structure of the text. The highlighted paragraphs make it possible to identify its main parts, ᴛ.ᴇ. mentally draw up a plan, which helps to better understand and more accurately remember what you read.

By their nature, written retellings of students resemble oral ones. Οʜᴎ are incomplete, often fragmentary, do not always accurately convey the sequence of events and semantic connections, contain additions that arise on the basis of random associations. There are multiple repetitions of the same words. Not all sentences are correctly constructed and complete, which is a consequence of the weakness of self-control and the usual carelessness shown in the construction of statements. But still, the presence of a sample to some extent organizes the written speech of students. The shortcomings encountered in the presentations are less pronounced than in essays on a given topic.

Certain difficulties are experienced by mentally retarded students when writing essays based on a picture. The plot picture, if it is clear to them, causes a lively reaction in children, a desire for statements. At the same time, the child must independently clarify for himself what and what exactly he wants to write about, highlight the links necessary for the narrative, determine their sequence, isolate the necessary semantic connections and use adequate verbal means. And this turns out to be no easy task.

It is somewhat easier for students to write an essay on a series of paintings, especially if the series is small and its content is simple. In this case, schoolchildren receive, as it were, a visual plan that determines the sequence of events. Their mental and speech activity is ordered and directed along a certain channel. Nevertheless, in order to complete the task, students need to show activity and independence, which in itself represents a significant difficulty for them. Being inert; prone to stereotypes, many mentally retarded students do not implement their knowledge and skills. The skills of independent activity necessary for the performance of written work are brought up only in the conditions of performing exercises that are variable in content, form and complexity, corresponding to the program provided for special schools of the VIII type.

As students move from class to class, their written language is gradually improved. Positive shifts are observed in all children, but they are expressed to a different extent, which depends on a number of reasons. These include the degree of intellectual decline, personality traits, qualitative characteristics of the defect, the level of verbal abilities, the development of motor skills, etc.

It is very difficult to predict the success of mentally retarded schoolchildren in mastering written language. Observations show that some students from among those who did poorly in their native language in the lower grades can later overtake their classmates and cope with writing essays better than others. At the same time, some schoolchildren who successfully mastered writing in the lower grades move more slowly and turn out to be average in the upper grades.

Written speech - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Written speech" 2017, 2018.