Anastasi Anna (Anastasi A., b. 1908) - American psychologist, professor, head of the psychology department at Fordham University, president of the American Psychological Association (1971-1972). Interests: clinical psychology, educational psychology, statistics and evaluation and measurement methods, general psychology, industrial and organizational psychology. B.A., Barnard College (1928), PhD Columbia University (1930). President of the Eastern Psychological Association (1946). Professor of Psychology at Fordham University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (1947). Honorary Doctor of Letters from the University of Windsor, Canada (1967). Received the ARA Award for Outstanding Scientist (1971). Honorary Doctor of Pedagogy, Villanova University, 1971; President of the ARA (1971). Distinguished Doctor of Science, Sadre-Cross College (1971). Received the Testing Service in Education Award (1977). Honorary Doctorate of Science from Fordham University. Awarded the APF Gold Medal (1984). She dealt with the problem of the formation of abilities long before the models of these processes became widespread. She made a significant contribution to the problem of the genesis of characteristic features, to understanding the relationship between life history, education and differences at the family level, to the problem of creativity, to the analysis of drawings of the mentally ill. The most important of her achievements was her attention to the psychological content of psychometric measurements, to the connection between psychometric tests and other areas of psychology, to the social implications of testing. She made a significant contribution to the development of fundamental issues of differential psychology and psychodiagnostics: she was engaged in the design of tests, the development of the theory of psychological measurements, factor analysis, and diagnostics of the mental development of children. Main works: "Psychological Testing" (1954), "Differential Psychology" (1937), etc. Dr. Anna Anastasi, whose influence is felt by every student of psychology, as well as those who fill out answers to standard tests designed to measure achievement, intelligence, ability, personality and creativity, died May 4 at her home in Manhattan. She was 92. Dr. Anastasi, a former professor at Fordham University, remained professionally active until her death. She was known as the test guru. Her book "Psychological Testing" is still a reference book for students and graduates of psychology courses. “Every psychologist has heard of Anastasi,” said Dr. Maria Procidano, Chair of the Department of Psychology at Fordham.

was born in 1908 in New York. In 1924, she entered Barnard College, where she received her bachelor's degree four years later. Since 1928 - Doctor of Philosophy (Columbia University). She worked at Barnard College, then in New York. Professor of Psychology at Fordham University Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. President of the American Psychological Association (1971). For several generations of psychologists, the name Anastasi is a kind of synonym for psychological testing. Her books are known to all students studying psychodiagnostics. The repeatedly republished "Psychological Testing" has been translated into many languages ​​of the world, including Russian.

From the point of view of phrenology, the development of different parts of the brain affects the shape of the skull, respectively, the study of its surface is a way of understanding individual characteristics. "Bumps" were found on the skull, the size of which was considered associated with the development of the mind, characterological properties. Something similar, but on a different "theoretical" basis and by other "methods", existed in physiognomy and graphology. These studies, embodying a person’s long-standing dream of a means of diagnosing individual characteristics, quickly lost their “scientific” status, but left behind a number of ideas that were implemented later, and also stimulated search in other directions.

According to the testimony Anna Anastasi(1982), the first studies of mental retardation, also beginning in the 19th century, the separation of mental retardation from mental illness, played a role in the development of psychological testing.

In this regard, it is impossible not to recall the studies of the French doctors Jean Esquirol (1772-1840) and Edouard Seguin (1812-1880). Interested in differentiating mental retardation from mental illness, Eskirol is one of the first to introduce criteria for their clear distinction, and also proposes a classification of levels of mental retardation. Initially, he tried to use physical criteria, in particular the size and structure of the skull, but these attempts were not successful. Later, Esquirol was able to correctly establish the fact that the characteristics of the speech development of an individual could be psychological criteria for differentiating the levels of mental retardation (which was used half a century later when developing the Binet-Simon scale). Esquirol never tried to work with sick children; he considered teaching people with mental retardation a waste of time.

Eduard Seguin, having studied the works of Esquirol, and also relying on the experience of teaching mentally retarded children already available at that time, comes to the opposite conclusion. He believes that mentally retarded individuals can achieve certain results in their development, and establishes a school in Paris for their education (which soon became famous). Psychologists and educators from all over the world came to this school to pay tribute to the admiration of the results achieved by the children who were taught under Seguin. For us, the most interesting thing is that among the teaching methods he used was the so-called Séguin board, which required the student to insert with a maximum

12 Chapter 1. History of psychodiagnostics. Introduction

various figures of arbitrary shape at a slow speed into the slots corresponding to them in shape on the board. This and other methods proposed by Seguin were subsequently developed as non-verbal intelligence tests, and some of them continue to be used today.

As you can clearly see, life more and more insistently demanded the creation of objective tools for determining mental retardation. The education system also needed such tools in connection with the problem of selecting children who could not study in general education schools. Then attempts were made to create sets of sensorimotor tests, the results of which would differ at different levels of development of mental abilities.

It is quite clear that in order to measure individual differences, it is necessary to have appropriate mathematical and statistical procedures. The foundations of psychological statistics were laid in the works of the Belgian mathematician Lambert Cutel. He was the first to use statistical procedures in relation to various kinds of social phenomena, such as, for example, people's births, suicides, marriages, etc. This new area was called moral statistics by its author. True, Kyutel in the book he published in 1835 5mg L "Homme with He wrote with a certain skepticism about the possibility of applying the statistical apparatus to psychological variables.

1.2. The origins of psychodiagnostics as a science. Psychological testing 1

The formation of scientific psychodiagnostics is associated primarily with the penetration into the psychological science of the experiment, the idea of ​​measurement. The idea of ​​quantifying psychological observations was born quite a long time ago, in the 1930s. XIX century. For the first time, the German researcher Wolf spoke about this, who believed that it was possible to measure the amount of attention by the duration of the argument, which we are able to follow. The same scientist introduced the concept of psychometry. However, the psychological ideas of philosophers, naturalists and mathematicians of those years began to take on blood and flesh only a century later. The implementation of the idea of ​​measuring mental phenomena, beginning with the works on psychophysics by E. Weber and G. Fechner (mid-19th century), determined the most important direction of research in experimental psychology of that time. Very soon, psychology will try, and not without success, to speak in "mathematical language" not only in the field of sensations, its gaze will turn to the measurement of more complex mental functions.

In connection with what has been said, it is interesting to note that the incentives for the study of individual differences also came from scientists who were very far from psychology, physiology and medicine. In 1816, Friedrich Bessel, an astronomer from Königsberg, read in

1.2. The origins of psychodiagnostics as a science. Psychological testing 13

The Astronomical Journal that the assistant to the Royal Astronomer was fired from the Greenwich Observatory due to professional unsuitability. The reason for his dismissal was that he repeatedly noted the time of the "fall" of the stars almost a second later than his boss. Intrigued by this story, Bessel conducted a study and found a noticeable difference between the reaction time to the "fall" of a star in different people. He proposed to calculate a kind of "observer's equation" that exists for each of those who observe the stars. Thus, in a sense, astronomy has led physiologists and psychologists to study individual differences in reaction times.

The most significant contribution to the direction, called "mental chronometry", was made by the Dutch physiologist F. Donders (1818-1889). He suggested that the time spent on a reaction above the speed of passage of a nerve impulse determined by Helmholtz (determined by stimulating sections of the nerve located at different distances from the muscle) should be attributed to mental processes. He identified several types of reactions. Reaction BUT - the subject knows which stimulus will be affected and what reaction should be responded to. Reaction AT - The subject responds to different stimuli with different movements. Reaction WITH - when several stimuli were presented, it was necessary to respond to only one of them. subtracting BUT from AT(a simple mental reaction), Donders received, as he assumed, the speed of such mental processes as choice and representation. In the event that from With subtracted BUT, the difference time was obtained, and when subtracting With from AT - choice time. The main thing in these studies is that the mental has become a special area of ​​experimental research, different from physiology.

M. G. Yaroshevsky (1976) expresses the opinion that the differential psychological study of a person is not a simple logical development of experimental psychology, it is formed under the influence of the demands of practice, first of all medical and pedagogical, then industrial. To some extent, we should agree with this, but we must also remember that experimental psychology cannot be opposed to the psychology of individual differences. The process of development of experimental psychology, and today it is very clearly visible, inexorably leads it to the problem of personality, and thus to individual differences.

(12/19/1908, New York, - 05/04/2001, ibid) - American psychologist, specialist in the field of general, clinical and educational psychology, statistics and methods of assessment and measurement, industrial and organizational psychology. Developer of many psychometric tests. Distinguished Doctor of Education (Villanova University, 1971), Distinguished Doctor of Science from Sadre-Crest College (1971), Honorary Doctor of Science from La Salle University (1979). President of the APA (American Psychological Association) (1971). Awarded the ARA Prize: "Outstanding Scientist" (1971); received the Testing and Educational Service Award (1977). In addition, she was awarded the Thorndike Medal (APA, 1983) and the APF (American Psychological Foundation) Gold Medal (1984). She was educated at Barnard College (1924-1928, B.A.) and Columbia University (Ph.D., 1930). She began her professional career as a teacher at Columbia University (1930). Later she taught at a number of other universities, including the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Fordham University (1947). Initially she intended to study mathematics, but she was attracted to psychology, partly because of the works by Ch. Spearman on correlation coefficients. The standard psychometric tests she developed originated from courses she taught during her university career (Differential Psychology, 1937). Anastasi's interpretation of developing psychological characteristics was based on models developed in animal experiments, in the study of child behavior and in the psychology of learning ("Psychological testing", 1954). In the book "Fields of Applied Psychology" (1964), she considered the widest range of applications of the developed psychological principles. Dealing with the problem of the formation of abilities long before the models of these processes began to be widely disseminated, she made a significant contribution to the problem of the genesis of characteristic features, to understanding the relationship between life history, education and differences at the family level, to the problem of creativity, to the analysis of drawings of mentally ill people. This generalized approach had a number of advantages. In addition, the most important of Anastasi's merits was her attention to the psychological content of psychometric measurements, to the connection between psychometric tests and other areas of psychology, to the social subtext of testing ("The gap between experimental and psychometric orientations". Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences, 1991). Anastasi showed how thoughtful, carefully calibrated and well-founded mental tests can be valuable both in theoretical and applied terms, providing a complete understanding of socio-cultural and cognitive processes. The name Anastasi has become synonymous with psychometrics for generations of students and professional psychologists. In Russian translation, the two-volume Anastasi "Psychological Testing" (1982, 2001) and the fundamental work of 1937 - "Differential Psychology", co-authored, 2001, were published.

I. R. Hayrapetyan, S. V. Ilyina

Name: Psychological testing.

Anna Anastasi's classic work, `Psychological Testing`, is rightfully considered an `encyclopedia of Western testology`. In preparation for the 7th edition, released in the US in 1997, the text of the book was thoroughly revised. Several new chapters appeared, written by the co-author of A. Anastasi - S. Urbina. Substantial changes reflect the latest trends in the development of psychological testing, in particular, the growing influence of computerization as a factor in the integration of psychological science in general and testing methods in particular. This new edition focuses on computerized adaptive testing, meta-analysis, structural equation modeling, the use of confidence intervals, cross-cultural testing, the use of factor analysis in the development of personality and ability tests, and other widely used and rapidly evolving concepts and procedures that will influence psychometric practice in the 21st century.

In 1982, the publishing house "Pedagogy" published a Russian translation of Anna Anastasi's book "Psychological Testing", which the editors of the translation - K. M. Gurevich and V. I. Lubovsky - rightfully called the "encyclopedia of Western testology." The release of a book of this magnitude is always an event, and given the time and place, it is, as it is fashionable to say now, a landmark event, since its appearance was then perceived as the removal of an unspoken taboo on the widespread use of tests in the practical work of psychologists, speech pathologists, teachers and other specialists. Although more than 45 years have passed since the adoption of the infamous resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks on pedological perversions in the system of the People's Commissariat of Education, in the early 1980s. its consequences were still very palpable in Soviet psychology and pedagogy. One way or another, Anastasi's book became for many of us not only a source of knowledge, but also that long-awaited breath of freedom that the party and government prudently allowed the Soviet intelligentsia to do so that it would not degrade in isolation from the rest of the world.

Part 1. FUNCTIONS AND ORIGINS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING 15
1. The nature and purpose of psychological tests 16
Applications and types of tests 16
What is a psychological test? eighteen
Why is it necessary to control the use of psychological tests? 24
Testing 28
Tester Characteristics and Situational Variables 33
Testing through the eyes of test takers 35
The impact of hands-on learning on test performance 39
Sources of information about tests 44
2. Historical background of modern testing 48
The first attempts to classify and educate the mentally retarded 49
The first experimental psychologists. fifty
Contribution of Francis Galton 51
James Cattell and the first "mental tests" 52
A. Binet and the emergence of intelligence tests 53
Group testing 54
Ability testing 56
Standardized achievement tests 58
Personality score 60
Part 2. TECHNICAL AND METHODOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES 63
3. Norms and semantic meaning of test indicators 64
Statistical concepts 65
Age norms 71
Intragroup norms 75
Relativity of norms 84
Computers and interpretation of test scores 91
Interpreting domain-specific tests 93
Minimum qualification requirements and critical indicators 98
4. Reliability 103
Correlation coefficient 104
Reliability types 110
Reliability of speed tests 121
Dependence of reliability coefficients on the surveyed sample 124
Standard measurement error 127
Assessing Reliability in Subject Matter Testing and Critical Metrics 131
5. Validity: basic concepts 133
Development of the concept of test validity 133
Methods for describing content 135
Criterion prediction methods 139
Construct identification methods.. 147
General overview and integration of concepts 158
6. Validity: measurement and interpretation 162
Validity Coefficient and Estimation Error 163
Test Validity and Decision Theory 166
Combining data from different tests 179
Using Tests to Make Classification Decisions 183
Statistical analysis of test bias 188
7. Job analysis 196
Difficulty of tasks 197
Distinguishing ability of tasks 203
Task-response theory 211
Analyzing Speed ​​Test Jobs 217
Cross Validation 218
Differentiated Job Functioning 221
Exploratory research in task development 224
Part 3: ABILITY TESTING 227
8. Individual tests 228
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale 229
Wechsler scales 239
Kaufman scales 248
Differential Ability Bars 252
Das-Naglieri Cognitive Assessment System 260
9. Tests for specific populations 261
Infant and preschool testing 262
Comprehensive assessment of persons with mental retardation 274
Testing of persons with physical disabilities 281
Multicultural testing 289
10. Group testing 300
Group Tests Versus Individual Tests 301
Adaptive Testing and Computerized Testing 304
Multi-level batteries 307
Measuring multiple abilities 317
11. The nature of the intellect 324
IQ value 325
Heritability and variability 327
Motivation and Intelligence 330
Factor analysis of intelligence 333
Theories of Trait Organization 340
The nature and development of traits 348
12. Psychological problems of ability testing 353
Longitudinal Studies of Child Intelligence 353
Intelligence in early childhood 357
Problems of adult intelligence testing 361
Changes in intelligence test scores at the population level 368
Cultural Diversity 372
Part 4. PERSONALITY TESTING 379
13. Standardized self-reports as a method of studying personality 380
Techniques based on the selection of relevant content 381
Binding to empirical criterion 382
Applying Factor Analysis to Test Design 396
Personality Theory in Test Design 401
Test taker attitudes and bias in 409 responses
Traits, conditions, people and situations... 414
The current state of personality questionnaires 421
14. Measuring interests and attitudes 422
Inventories of interests: current state 423
Strong Interest Inventory™- SII 425
Inventory of interests: overview and some distinguishing features 433
Some Important Trends 440
Opinion polls and attitude scales.. 442
Locus of control 446
15. Projective methods 449
The nature of projective methods 449
Inkblot Techniques 450
Drawing techniques 458
Verbal techniques 465
Autobiographical memories 467
Methods of action 469
Evaluation of projective methods 473
16. Other methods of psychological assessment 484
Style and Type Definers 484
Situational tests 492
Self-concepts and personal constructs 496
Observer reports 505
Biographical information 512
Part 5. APPLICATIONS OF TESTING 515
17. The main areas of application of tests in our time 516
Testing in education 516
Types of educational tests 524
Testing in the field of professional activity 535
Use of tests in clinical psychology and psychological counseling 556
18. Ethical and social aspects of testing 583
Ethical Issues in Psychological Testing and Psychological Assessment 585
User qualification assessment and professional competence 586
Professional responsibility of test publishers 588
Protection of privacy 590
Privacy 592
Reporting test results 594
Testing Special Populations 595
APPENDIX A 602
Alphabetical list of tests and other assessment tools 602
APPENDIX B 607
Addresses of publishers, distributors and organizations related to the development and use of tests 607
LITERATURE 609
INDEX 674