In the XII century, Kievan Rus broke up into independent principalities. The era of the XII-XVI centuries is usually called the specific period or feudal fragmentation. 1132, the year of the death of the last powerful prince of Kyiv, Mstislav the Great, is considered to be the turn of the collapse. The result of the collapse was the emergence of new political formations on the site of the Old Russian state, a distant consequence - the formation of modern peoples: Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.

Reasons for the collapse

Kievan Rus was not a centralized state. Like most early medieval powers, its collapse was natural. The period of disintegration is usually interpreted not simply as strife from the overgrown offspring of Rurik, but as an objective and even progressive process associated with an increase in boyar land ownership. In the principalities, their own nobility arose, which was more profitable to have their own prince protecting their rights than to support the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

Crisis brewing

The first threat to the integrity of the country arose immediately after the death of Vladimir I Svyatoslavich. Vladimir ruled the country, seating his 12 sons in the main cities. The eldest son Yaroslav, planted in Novgorod, already during the life of his father refused to send tribute to Kyiv. When Vladimir died (1015), a fratricidal massacre began, ending in the death of all children except Yaroslav and Mstislav of Tmutarakan. The two brothers divided the "Russian Land", which was the core of the Rurikovich's possessions, along the Dnieper. Only in 1036, after the death of Mstislav, Yaroslav began to rule single-handedly over the entire territory of Russia, except for the isolated principality of Polotsk, where, from the end of the 10th century, the descendants of another son of Vladimir, Izyaslav, established themselves.

After the death of Yaroslav in 1054, Russia was divided in accordance with his will among five sons. The elder Izyaslav was given Kyiv and Novgorod, Svyatoslav - Chernigov, Ryazan, Murom and Tmutarakan, Vsevolod - Pereyaslavl and Rostov, the younger ones, Vyacheslav and Igor - Smolensk and Volyn. The established procedure for replacing princely tables has received the name "ladder" in modern historiography. The princes moved in turn from table to table in accordance with their seniority. With the death of one of the princes, the lower ones moved up a step. But, if one of the sons died before his parent and did not have time to visit his table, then his descendants were deprived of the rights to this table and became “outcasts”. On the one hand, such an order prevented the isolation of the lands, since the princes constantly moved from one table to another, but on the other hand, it gave rise to constant conflicts between uncles and nephews. In 1097, at the initiative of Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, the next generation of princes gathered for a congress in Lyubech, where a decision was made to end the strife and a new principle was proclaimed: “everyone keeps his fatherland.” Thus, the process of creating regional dynasties was opened.

Kyiv, by decision of the Lyubech Congress, was recognized as the fatherland of Svyatopolk Izyaslavich (1093-1113), which meant the preservation of the tradition of inheriting the capital by the genealogical senior prince. The reign of Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125) and his son Mstislav (1125-1132) became a period of political stabilization, and almost all parts of Russia, including the Principality of Polotsk, again found themselves in the orbit of Kyiv.

Mstislav transferred the reign of Kiev to his brother Yaropolk. The intention of the latter to fulfill the plan of Vladimir Monomakh and make his son Mstislav, Vsevolod, his successor, bypassing the younger Monomashichs - the Rostov prince Yuri Dolgoruky and the Volyn prince Andrei, led to a general internecine war, characterizing which the Novgorod chronicler wrote in 1134: "And the whole Russian land was torn apart."

Rise of sovereign principalities

By the middle of the XII century, Kievan Rus was actually divided into 13 principalities (according to chronicle terminology "lands"), each of which pursued an independent policy. The principalities differed both in terms of the size of the territory and the degree of consolidation, and in the balance of power between the prince, the boyars, the emerging service nobility and the ordinary population.

The nine principalities were ruled by their own dynasties. Their structure reproduced in miniature the system that previously existed on the scale of the whole of Russia: local tables were distributed among the members of the dynasty according to the ladder principle, the main table went to the eldest in the family. The princes did not seek to occupy tables in foreign lands, and the external borders of this group of principalities were distinguished by stability.

At the end of the 11th century, the sons of the eldest grandson of Yaroslav the Wise, Rostislav Vladimirovich, were assigned to the Przemysl and Tereboval volosts, later united into the Galician principality (which flourished during the reign of Yaroslav Osmomysl). From 1127, the sons of Davyd and Oleg Svyatoslavich ruled in the Chernigov principality (later only the Olgovichi). In the Principality of Murom that separated from him, their uncle Yaroslav Svyatoslavich ruled. Later, the Principality of Ryazan separated from the Murom Principality. The descendants of the son of Vladimir Monomakh, Yuri Dolgoruky, settled in the Rostov-Suzdal land. Since the 1120s, the principality of Smolensk has been assigned to the line of the grandson of Vladimir Monomakh, Rostislav Mstislavich. In the Volyn principality, the descendants of another grandson of Monomakh, Izyaslav Mstislavich, began to rule. In the second half of the 12th century, the Turov-Pinsk principality was assigned to the descendants of Prince Svyatopolk Izyaslavich. From the 2nd third of the 12th century, the Gorodensky principality was assigned to the descendants of Vsevolodk (his patronymic is not given in the annals, presumably he was the grandson of Yaropolk Izyaslavich). The enclaved Principality of Tmutarakan and the city of Belaya Vezha ceased to exist at the beginning of the 12th century, having fallen under the blows of the Polovtsians.

The three principalities were not attached to any one dynasty. The Principality of Pereyaslav did not become a fatherland, which during the XII century - XIII centuries was owned by younger representatives of different branches of the Monomakhovichi, who came from other lands.

Kyiv remained a constant bone of contention. In the second half of the 12th century, the struggle for it was mainly between the Monomakhoviches and the Olgoviches. At the same time, the area around Kyiv - the so-called "Russian land" in the narrow sense of the word - continued to be considered as a common domain of the entire princely family, and representatives of several dynasties could occupy tables in it at once. For example, in 1181-1194 Kyiv was in the hands of Svyatoslav Vsevolodovich of Chernigov, and the rest of the principality was ruled by Rurik Rostislavich Smolensky.

Novgorod also remained the all-Russian table. An extremely strong boyar class developed here, which did not allow a single princely branch to gain a foothold in the city. In 1136, Monomakhovich Vsevolod Mstislavich was expelled, and power passed to the veche. Novgorod became an aristocratic republic. The boyars themselves invited the princes. Their role was limited to the performance of some executive functions, and the strengthening of the Novgorod militia by princely combatants. A similar order was established in Pskov, which by the middle of the 13th century had become autonomous from Novgorod.

After the suppression of the dynasty of the Galician Rostislavichs (1199), Galich temporarily turned out to be among the "no man's" tables. Roman Mstislavich of Volyn took possession of it, and as a result of the unification of two neighboring lands, the Galicia-Volyn principality arose. However, after the death of Roman (1205), the Galician boyars refused to recognize the power of his young children, and for the Galician land a struggle broke out between all the main princely branches, the winner of which was Roman's son Daniel.

Decline of Kyiv

For the Kyiv land, which turned from a metropolis into a "simple" principality, a steady decrease in its political role was characteristic. The territory of the land itself, which remained under the control of the Kyiv prince, was also constantly decreasing. One of the economic factors that undermined the power of the city was the change in international trade communications. "The path from the Varangians to the Greeks", which was the core of the Old Russian state, lost its relevance after the Crusades. Europe and the East were now connected bypassing Kyiv (through the Mediterranean Sea and through the Volga trade route).

In 1169, as a result of a campaign of a coalition of 10 princes, acting on the initiative of the Vladimir-Suzdal prince Andrei Bogolyubsky, Kyiv for the first time in the practice of princely strife was taken by storm and plundered, and for the first time the prince who took possession of the city did not remain to reign in it, putting his protege to reign . Andrei was recognized as the oldest and bore the title of Grand Duke, but did not attempt to sit down in Kyiv. Thus, the traditional connection between the reign of Kyiv and the recognition of seniority in the princely family became optional. In 1203, Kyiv suffered a second defeat, this time at the hands of the Smolensk Rurik Rostislavich, who had already reigned in the city three times before.

A terrible blow was dealt to Kyiv during the Mongol invasion in 1240. At that moment, the city was ruled only by the princely governor, since the beginning of the invasion, 5 princes have changed in it. According to Plano Carpini, who visited the city six years later, the capital of Russia turned into a town with no more than 200 houses. There is an opinion that a significant part of the population of the Kiev region went to the western and northern regions. In the 2nd floor. In the 13th century, Kyiv was ruled by the governors of Vladimir, and later by the Horde Baskaks and local provincial princes, the names of most of whom are unknown. In 1299 Kyiv lost its last attribute of the capital - the residence of the metropolitan. In 1321, in the battle on the Irpen River, the Kyiv prince Sudislav, a descendant of the Olgoviches, was defeated by the Lithuanians and recognized himself as a vassal of the Lithuanian prince Gediminas, while remaining dependent on the Horde. In 1362 the city was finally annexed to Lithuania.

Unity Factors

Despite the political disintegration, the idea of ​​the unity of the Russian land was preserved. The most important unifying factors that testified to the commonality of Russian lands and at the same time distinguished Russia from other Orthodox countries were:

• Kyiv and the title of the Kyiv prince as the eldest. The city of Kyiv, even after 1169, formally remained the capital, that is, the oldest table of Russia. It was called the "aging city" and the "mother of cities". It was perceived as the sacred center of the Orthodox land. It is to the Kyiv rulers (regardless of their dynastic affiliation) that the title is used in the sources of the pre-Mongolian time "princes of all Russia". As for the title "Grand Duke", then in the same period it was applied to both the Kievan and Vladimir princes. And with respect to the second more consistently. But in the South Russian annals, its use was necessarily accompanied by a restrictive clarification, the Grand Duke of Suzdal.
• princely family. Before the conquest of the South Russian lands by Lithuania, absolutely all local thrones were occupied only by the descendants of Rurik. Russia was in the collective possession of the clan. Active princes during their lives constantly moved from table to table. A visible echo of the tradition of common clan ownership was the conviction that the defense of the "Russian land" (in the narrow sense), that is, the principality of Kyiv, is a common Russian affair. The princes of almost all Russian lands took part in major campaigns against the Polovtsy in 1183 and the Mongols in 1223.
• Church. The entire Old Russian territory constituted a single metropolis, ruled by the Kyiv metropolitan. From the 1160s he began to bear the title of "All Russia". Cases of violation of church unity under the influence of political struggle periodically arose, but were of a short-term nature. Their services include the establishment of a titular metropolis in Chernigov and Pereyaslavl during the triumvirate of the Yaroslavichs of the 11th century, the project of Andrei Bogolyubsky to create a separate metropolis for the Vladimir-Suzdal land, the existence of the Galician metropolis (in 1303-1347, with interruptions, etc.). In 1299 the residence of the metropolitan was transferred from Kyiv to Vladimir, and from 1325 to Moscow. The final division of the metropolis into Moscow and Kyiv took place only in the 15th century.
• Unified historical memory. The countdown of history in all Russian chronicles always began with the Primary Chronicle of the Kyiv cycle and the activities of the first Kyiv princes.
• Awareness of ethnic community. The question of the existence of a single ancient Russian people in the era of the formation of Kievan Rus is debatable. However, the folding of such a period of fragmentation raises no serious doubts. Tribal identification among the Eastern Slavs gave way to territorial. The inhabitants of all the principalities called themselves Russians and their language Russian. A vivid embodiment of the idea of ​​“great Russia” from the Arctic Ocean to the Carpathians is the “Word about the destruction of the Russian land”, written in the first years after the invasion, and the “List of Russian cities far and near” (end of the 14th century)

Consequences of the breakup

Being a natural phenomenon, fragmentation contributed to the dynamic economic development of Russian lands: the growth of cities, the flourishing of culture. On the other hand, fragmentation led to a decrease in the defense potential, which coincided in time with the unfavorable foreign policy situation. By the beginning of the 13th century, in addition to the Polovtsian danger (which was decreasing, since after 1185 the Polovtsians did not undertake invasions of Russia outside the framework of Russian civil strife), Russia was faced with aggression from two other directions. Enemies appeared in the northwest: Catholic German Orders and Lithuanian tribes, which entered the stage of decomposition of the tribal system, threatened Polotsk, Pskov, Novgorod and Smolensk. In 1237-1240 there was a Mongol-Tatar invasion from the southeast, after which the Russian lands fell under the rule of the Golden Horde.

Merging trends

At the beginning of the 13th century, the total number of principalities (including specific ones) reached 50. At the same time, several potential centers of unification were maturing. The most powerful Russian principalities in the northeast were Vladimir-Suzdal and Smolensk. To the beginning In the 13th century, the nominal supremacy of the Grand Duke of Vladimir Vsevolod Yuryevich the Big Nest was recognized by all Russian lands, except for Chernigov and Polotsk, and he acted as an arbiter in the dispute between the southern princes over Kyiv. In the 1st third of the 13th century, the leading position was occupied by the house of the Smolensk Rostislavichs, who, unlike other princes, did not split their principality into destinies, but sought to occupy tables outside it. With the arrival in Galich of the representative of the Monomakhoviches, Roman Mstislavich, Galicia-Volyn became the most powerful principality in the southwest. In the latter case, a multi-ethnic center was formed, open to contacts with Central Europe.

However, the natural course of centralization was crossed out by the Mongol invasion. Further gathering of Russian lands took place in difficult foreign policy conditions and was dictated primarily by political prerequisites. The principalities of northeastern Russia during the XIV-XV centuries consolidated around Moscow. The southern and western Russian lands became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania.

Editor L.I. Rubanova

National history

Materials for lectures

for full-time and part-time students

Irkutsk 2005

Dyatlova N.I. Domestic history: materials for lectures. - Irkutsk: IrGUPS, 2005-

The materials were prepared by the author for first and second year students of all specialties of full-time and distance learning studying the discipline "National History" as additional material that they can use in self-preparation for lectures, seminars and exams.

Reviewers: Dr. ist. sciences, prof. V.G. Tretyakov (IRGUPS)

Candidate of History, Assoc. T.A.Stepanova (ISU)

© Dyatlova N.I., 2005

Signed for printing Format 60 x 84 / 16

Offset paper. Offset printing. Print Service

Uch.-ed.l. Circulation Zak.

ID No. 06506 dated 12/26/2001

Irkutsk State Technical University

664074, Irkutsk, st. Lermontova, 83

Questions:

1. The origin of the Slavic ethnic group.

2. Formation of the Old Russian state - Kievan Rus.

3. Socio - political system of Kievan Rus.

4. The collapse of Kievan Rus.

Ethnos- a type of stable social grouping of people that has historically emerged, represented by a tribe, nationality, nation. The Slavic ethnos included several peoples. The ancestors of the Slavs - the Proto-Slavs lived to the east of the Germans, occupied territories from the Elbe and Oder to the Donets, Oka and Upper Volga, from the Baltic Pomerania to the Middle and Lower reaches of the Danube and the Black Sea.

The lecture will discuss in detail the issue of migration and autochthonous theories of the origin of the Slavic ethnos. In the VI century, the Eastern Slavs stand out from a single Slavic community. The group of Eastern Slavs included tribal unions: glades, drevlyans, krivichi, etc.

Until the 6th century, Russia was not yet a state, but a union of tribes. The Slavs lived in tribal communities, then there was a transition to a territorial (neighboring) community. Gradually, communities develop into cities, to IX century is formed state - Kievan Rus, which lasted until the early 30s of the XII century. There are different points of view on the question of the origin of the state among the Slavs. The authors Norman theory I. Bayer, G. Miller, A. Schlozer, formulated in the 18th century, argued that the state among the Slavs was created by the Scandinavian peoples-Normans or Varangians. (The Russians until the 18th century called the Baltic Sea Varangian).

Modern historians no longer adhere to such extreme views and recognize that the Varangians were indeed the first all-Russian princes, but the state in Russia began to take shape before the calling of the Varangians.

It is necessary to highlight background of education the ancient Russian state: economic - the transition to arable farming, the separation of craft from agriculture, the concentration of craft in cities, the development of trade; political - the formation of Slavic tribal unions, the need for the tribal nobility in an apparatus to protect their privileges, a sufficient level of military organization, the threat of attack from outside; social - the change of the tribal community of the neighbor, the emergence of inequality, the similarity of customs, rituals, psychology, beliefs of the Slavic tribes.

The territory of the state included lands from the Baltic to the Black Sea and lands from the Carpathians to the Volga and Oka.

It is possible to single out the main stages in the history of Kievan Rus: IX - the end of the X centuries. (from Oleg to Svyatoslav) the formation of the state; end of the 10th – first half of the 11th centuries heyday (Vladimir the Holy, Yaroslav the Wise); second half of the 11th - early 12th centuries sunset (Mstislav).

The lecture will examine in detail the issues of the political and social structure of Kievan Rus.

Political system Kievan Rus was characterized by most historians as an early feudal monarchy. At the head of the state was the great prince of Kyiv. Rurik (862-879) became the founder of the dynasty of Kievan princes. The princes had a squad. The prince ruled with the help of the advice of other princes and senior combatants (boyars). This council was called the Boyar Duma. Junior combatants (lads, gridi, children) performed the duties of officials.

The princes of individual lands and other feudal lords were in vassal dependence on the Grand Duke. They were obliged to supply soldiers to the Grand Duke, to appear at his request with a squad. Unlike Europe, the boyars and princes in Russia lived in cities, and not in separate castles.

Modern historians believe that Russia cannot be called either a monarchy or a republic in the modern sense of these concepts. The power of the prince was really great. The princes were the richest people in Russia, they had huge fortunes. The princes were respected by the population; when meeting with them, it was customary to bow to the ground. The princes possessed sufficient military force, subordinate only to them, which in some cases made it possible to use direct violence against citizens.

However, it is impossible to call the Grand Duke of Kyiv a real monarch. His power was limited to other representatives of the princely family. The Kyiv prince, in relation to other representatives of the princely family, was not a monarch, but the eldest in the family. The power of the prince was limited to the townspeople. The townspeople, gathering at the veche, sometimes quite decisively and sharply intervened in inter-princely disputes and relations. Unwanted princes were expelled by the townspeople, the necessary ones, which they liked, were invited to reign. Gradually, the princes concentrated in their hands the legislative, administrative, judicial and military power.

By the XIII century, a set of laws "Russian Truth" took shape.

The social structure of society. To upper strata The population includedprinces, boyars. To inferior- related to the free population, paying taxes to the state - people, smerds. This category also included personally dependent groups of the population - serfs (servants), purchases, ryadovichi, etc.

An important role in the creation of the state - Kievan Rus played Christianity. The lecture will highlight the reasons and conditions for the adoption of Christianity. Before the adoption of Christianity, the Slavs were pagans. Each tribe had its own gods, patrons. In Russia, new social relations were formed, social stratification took place. All this required a new ideology. Paganism, with its equality of people before the forces of nature, could not explain and justify the origin and growth of inequality. The religious reform of the great Kyiv prince Vladimir took place in 2 stages. At the first stage, an attempt was made to unite on the basis of one pagan god - Perun. At the second stage in 988 Christianity was introduced in the Orthodox version. This religion most corresponded to the needs of the state.

With the adoption of Christianity, the Julian calendar is introduced with the Roman names of the months, the seven-day week and the Byzantine designation of the era: from the creation of the world. Prior to this, the calculation of time in Russia was carried out according to the lunar-solar calendar, which was reflected in the names of the months, and the year began on March 1.

The adoption of Christianity was of great importance for Russia: the state power and territorial unity of the Old Russian state were strengthened; Kievan Rus became equal to European Christian countries; the new religion had a positive impact on the economy - foreign trade is growing, agricultural production is developing; the new religion changed the way of life and customs of people; culture developed further. It is necessary to highlight the negative aspects in the adoption of Christianity - a cult of power was formed, the church became the ideological instrument of the state.

The last great prince of Kyiv was Mstislav (1125-1132).

In the XII century, after the death of Prince Mstislav, Kievan Rus broke up into separate lands and principalities. The lecture will cover factors of feudal fragmentation: economic - the development of a subsistence economy, the economic independence of estates, the isolation of estates and communities, the growth and strengthening of cities; political - tribal and territorial conflicts, strengthening the political power of local princes and boyars; foreign economic - elimination for a while of the danger of an attack from outside.

For almost the entire 12th century, Russian princes fought for the throne of Kyiv. In just 30 years since 1146, 28 people have changed on it. This was due to the fact that all Russian princes were relatives, at the end of the 12th century there were about 50 of them. All of them came from St. Vladimir. In Europe there was no state where all the feudal nobility belonged to one family. This was due to a different principle than in Kievan Rus, the principle of inheritance. In Kievan Rus, the "ladder" principle of succession to the throne of the prince dominated, which included two contradictory principles: the Kievan throne was passed from brother to brother, and the oldest brother had the right to occupy it. But, on the other hand, even the eldest in the family could claim it. This contradiction has repeatedly led to conflict situations.

Period of feudal fragmentation covers in general XII - XV centuries. During this period, 3 main political centers were determined: the Vladimir-Suzdal principality, the Galicia-Volyn principality and the Novgorod feudal republic. These lands in their development had their own distinctive features, which will be clarified in detail at the seminar.

During this period, representatives of the Rurik clan ruled the lands and principalities. A single religion and a single church organization were preserved.

Modern historical science believes that feudal fragmentation in Russia was a natural result of the development of early feudal society

Historians consider the fragmentation of Russia into independent principalities from two sides. On the one hand, this became a tragedy, weakened Russia in front of its enemies. But at the same time, during the period of feudal fragmentation, the economic and cultural upsurge of the Russian lands takes place.

In the 30-40s of the XIII century, Russian lands were invaded by the Mongol-Tatars. The first clash between Russian and Mongolian soldiers took place in 1223 on the river. Kalka. In 1237 -1238. The Mongol army led by Batu began the seizure of Russian scattered lands.

C 1243-1246 the Mongol-Tatar yoke (an oppressive, enslaving force) was established on the Russian lands. The term "Tatar yoke" was introduced into circulation by Russian historians in the 18th and early 19th centuries. This term traditionally refers to the system of exploitation of Russian lands by Mongol-Tatar feudal lords. There was no stable system of “yoke” relations. The attitude of the Horde towards the Russian principalities was constantly changing. In the initial period, the collection of tribute from the Russian lands was carried out by Mongolian Baskak officials. Later, the Russian princes themselves began to carry out this activity.

The Mongol yoke was undermined as a result of the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380 and finally liquidated in 1480 after a confrontation on the Ugra River.

It is necessary to pay attention to the negative political, economic and social consequences of the Mongol invasion.

The first major state association in Russia was Kievan Rus, formed from 15 tribal unions. After the death of the Kyiv prince Mstislav the Great, the united state broke up. Phenomena of future fragmentation appeared even in the reign of the Yaroslavichs, princely civil strife grew, especially in connection with the imperfection of the system of “ladder ascension” to the throne of Kyiv.

In 1097, a congress of princes was held in Lyubech. At the suggestion of V. Monomakh, a new political system was established. It was decided to create a federation of separate princely possessions: "let everyone keep his fatherland." The Russian land was no longer considered a single possession of the entire princely house, but became the hereditary inheritance of the Rurikovichs. This is how the division of Russia into separate principalities took shape legally, and although later V. Monomakh and his son Mstislav managed to restore the unity of the state, Russia nevertheless broke up into 14 principalities and the Novgorod Feudal Republic.

Feudal fragmentation became a new form of state-political organization of society. The dependence of the principalities and lands on Kyiv was formal. However, the political disintegration of Russia was never complete; the influence of the Russian Orthodox Church, which was led by the Metropolitan of Kyiv, was preserved.

The reasons for the collapse were political and socio-economic in nature. Since the end of the 11th century in Russia, there has been a rapid economic upsurge associated with the development of agriculture, crafts and trade. This contributed to the growth of incomes of all feudal lords and the strengthening of the power of local princely dynasties, which began the creation of regional military forces and administrative apparatuses. The interests of the appanage princes were also supported by the local boyars, who sought to free themselves from the grand duke's power and stop paying polyudya to Kyiv. It is worth noting that at that time cities began to play a significant role in the economic and political life of Russia, the number of which exceeded 300. They became administrative and military centers for the surrounding lands, had their own administrative apparatus and no longer needed power from Kyiv.

The cradle of the Russian people is northeast Russia. The North-Eastern lands were originally called the Rostov-Suzdal land. This territory separated from Kyiv in the first half of the 12th century. The public organization was similar to other lands: the veche, the traditions of communal democracy, the significant role of the boyars, symbolizing the autonomy of society from the power of the princes. The princes of North-Eastern Russia sought to expand their influence. Repeatedly undertaken trips to Novgorod, Kyiv, Volga Bulgaria. Yuri Dolgoruky (1155-1157) and Andrei Bogolyubsky (1157-1174) became famous for their active politics. Yuri Dolgoruky is credited with laying the foundation stone (Kremlin) in Moscow in 1152. It was under him that the last threads of dependence on Kyiv were cut off: the traditional tribute to the Zalessky (that is, Rostov-Suzdal) land to the Kyiv Grand Duke was canceled.

In 1157 Vladimir became the capital of the principality. From the middle of the XII century. a tradition of local chronicle writing with the inclusion of news from other lands (Vladimir Chronicle Codes) has developed here. North-Eastern Russia sought to become a base for the unification of fragmented Russia. The princes of Vladimir were considered great, that is, the main ones in the northeast, as "the elders in the family" among the local princes were inclined to authoritarianism and sought to subjugate other lands, limiting their liberties. Andrey Bogolyubsky was especially distinguished by this. In an effort to become the "self-ruler" of the entire Suzdal land in church and secular affairs, he fought against the separatism of the boyars, wanted to establish a special metropolis in Vladimir and thereby raise the importance of the Vladimir land (the headquarters of the metropolitan, in conditions of fragmentation, was still in Kyiv, and speech was about leaving the jurisdiction of the Kyiv Metropolitan). Andrey Bogolyubsky paid for this desire with his life. In 1174 he was killed.

Brother Vsevolod the Big Nest (1176-1212), who replaced him after long strife, fearing a new outbreak of internal struggle, preserved the traditions of significant autonomy of boyars and communities from power, but continued the trend towards centralization of power. He expanded the possessions of the Vladimir principality, had a significant impact on the situation in other principalities (Kiev, Chernigov, Ryazan, etc.). Thanks to a smart policy, Vsevolod had great authority (his activities are sung in the Tale of Igor's Campaign) and was recognized as an elder of the Monomakhoviches (descendants of Vladimir Monomakh). However, at the end of his life, Vsevolod divided the principality into destinies between his six sons (this corresponded to the ancient Russian tradition), which after his death led to the weakening of the principality, to new long civil strife and the separation of the Rostov, Pereyaslav, Yuriev, Starodub, Suzdal, Yaroslavl principalities.

Tendencies to strengthen the Vladimir principality and strengthen its influence were continued by Alexander Nevsky (Grand Duke of Vladimir in 1252-1263). Under him, only Vladimir princes were invited to Novgorod. As you can see, at the origins of the history of the Russian people, significant features appeared in social organization and political culture.

Thus, in the conditions of fragmentation, the prerequisites for unity on a new economic, cultural, and political basis were ripening. Here, in the future, a national state could arise, a single people could be formed. However, this did not happen. The development of Russia went differently. The turning point in its history, as in Europe, was the 13th century, but if Europe since that time has been actively moving along the path of introducing a progressive type of development, then Russia faced another problem. In 1237, the Mongol-Tatars appeared within the Russian borders. However, the danger came not only from the East, but also from the West. Strengthening Lithuania, as well as the Swedes, Germans and Livonian knights, advanced on Russian lands. Fragmented Ancient Russia faced the most difficult problem: how to survive, how to survive. It was, as it were, between the millstones of the East and the West, and from the East, from the Tatars there was ruin, and the West demanded a change of faith, the adoption of Catholicism. In this regard, the Russian princes, in order to save the population, could bow to the Tatars, agreed to a heavy tribute and humiliation, but resisted the invasion from the West.

Large center of Russian Slavs - Novgorod, which arose in the 9th century, existed relatively independently and especially clearly demonstrated its closeness to the medieval European type of civilization during the period of the Novgorod Republic (end of the 11th-15th centuries). It developed at the same pace as Western Europe at that time and was an analogue of the city-republics of the Hanseatic League, the city-republics of Italy: Venice, Genoa, Florence. Novgorod already in the XII century. was a huge trading city, known throughout Europe, the permanent fair here, in its international significance, had no rivals not only in Russian lands, but also in many Western European countries. Novgorod goods were in circulation on a vast territory from London to the Ural Mountains. The city minted its own coins, issued its own laws, waged wars and made peace.

Novgorod experienced powerful pressure from the crisis of medieval European civilization, but managed to defend its independence. The Swedes, Germans, knights of the Livonian and Teutonic orders joined forces for a campaign against Novgorod. They ended in the defeat of the knights (the Battle of the Neva in 1240, the Battle of the Ice in 1242). But fate saved from danger from the east: Novgorod was not subjected to the Mongol-Tatar invasion. Under pressure from both the West and the East, the republic sought to preserve its independence and defend its own type of development. In the struggle for the independence of Novgorod, Prince Alexander Nevsky became especially famous. He pursued a flexible policy, making concessions to the Golden Horde and organizing resistance to the offensive of Catholicism from the west.

Novgorod had developed for its time forms of republican democracy. The principles of Novgorod democracy gave advantages to the owners: the nobility, owners of estates, city courtyards and estates, but the city plebs (black people) also had the opportunity to participate in the life of the republic. The supreme body of power was the people's assembly (veche). Veche had broad rights. The elected senior officials included: the posadnik, who was in charge of administration and the court; tysyatsky, who led the militia in case of war, and in peacetime performed police functions. The veche also elected a commercial court, which was of particular importance for Novgorod. It was also the supreme court of the republic. The administrative parts of Novgorod had self-government on the principle of a community.

The princes did not have power, they were invited to Novgorod to perform certain functions. Their tasks included defending Novgorod from enemies (but they could not start a war without the permission of the council), perform representative functions - the princes represented Novgorod in relations with other lands. In the name of the prince was a tribute. The change of princely power for 200 years from 1095 to 1304 occurred 58 times.

The church in Novgorod was also independent and differed in position from other Russian lands. At a time when Novgorod was part of the Kievan state, the Metropolitan of Kyiv sent a bishop to Novgorod, the head of the church. However, having strengthened themselves, the Novgorodians also separated themselves in church affairs. From 1156 they began to elect a spiritual pastor - the archbishop.

Never - neither before the Novgorod Republic, nor after - did the Orthodox Church know such a democratic order, in which the believers themselves chose their spiritual shepherd. This order was close to the Protestant tradition. The clergy enjoyed great influence, the monasteries had huge land holdings. The archbishop and abbots of large monasteries maintained their squads, which went to war under their banners ("banners").

In the Novgorod land, the process of forming a class of owners was actively going on. In the legal code of the republic - the Novgorod Judicial Charter - private property was legally fixed. The main population of the city are artisans of various specialties: blacksmiths, potters, gold and silver craftsmen, shield makers, archers, etc. Artisans were largely tied to the market. Novgorod actively acquired colonies, turning into a metropolis of the western type. Situated at the beginning of trade routes important for Eastern Europe, connecting the Baltic Sea with the Black and Caspian Seas, Novgorod played an intermediary role in trade. Militarily, the Novgorod Republic was weak. Military squads had princes, boyars, large monasteries, but there were no permanent troops in the republic. The main military force is a militia of peasants and artisans. However, the Novgorod Republic lasted almost until the end of the 15th century.

In accordance with the point of view widespread among Russian historians, with the collapse of the Kievan state, and then the loss of independence by many principalities under the conditions of the Mongol-Tatar invasion, history seemed to freeze here and moved to the northeast, where new centers of historical development arose. This is a pro-Moscow tradition, established in historiography. However, in reality, history in the Southwestern lands was not interrupted. She developed in her own direction. The main task of these territories is to protect the population from the Mongol-Tatar threat in any form, to provide conditions for self-preservation.

The Earths dealt with this problem in different ways. Prince Daniel of Galicia sought help from Europe, which welcomed the opportunity to advance Catholicism to Eastern European lands. In 1253, he took the title of king and was crowned by the ambassador of the pope. However, these plans were not destined to come true. Galich eventually ended up as part of Poland. Minsk, Gomel, and then Kyiv, other cities, to save themselves from the Mongol-Tatar ruin, to preserve their type of development, were drawn under the rule of pagan Lithuania.

In the 40s. 13th century the Principality of Lithuania appeared and quickly increased in size. Little information has been preserved about him, but it is known that already in the XIV century. it united three elements in its name: Lithuania, Zhmud, Russian lands - Rus. In its heyday, this principality stretched from the Baltic to the Black Sea (the mouth of the Dnieper and the mouth of the Dniester), from the borders of Poland and Hungary to the Moscow region (Mozhaisk). Ancient Russian lands made up 9/10 of the territory of Lithuania. In many cases, the accession of these lands took place on the basis of an agreement - a "row", which stipulated the conditions for joining Lithuania. The Russian population of Lithuania considered it the successor of the Old Russian state and called their state "Rus". Within the framework of Lithuania, the Russian principalities developed in accordance with their traditions (the veche ideal can be traced here until the second half of the 15th century).

The political and material position of Russia within Lithuania was favorable. It is interesting that the inhabitants of the border territories, who lived in the "risk" zone under the threat of invasion by the Mongol-Tatars or Muscovites, received additional privileges (for example, residents of the Bila Tserkva, who were raided by the Tatars, were exempted from taxes for 9 years). Russian aristocrats enjoyed significant rights and had great influence at the court of the Lithuanian prince. For a long time, Old Russian laws and the Old Russian language dominated in Lithuania.

The Grand Duchy of Lithuania was formed as a federation of separate lands and principalities. To a greater or lesser extent, but the lands were provided with significant autonomy, the inviolability of socio-economic and political structures. The Lithuanian principality was built on the principles of vassalage, the corporate structure of society was being destroyed.

Thus, in the West, under the auspices of the first pagan, and then from the end of the XIV century. In Catholic Lithuania, the development of Russian lands continued in accordance with progressive tendencies. In the ancient Russian lands that were part of Lithuania, the formation of the Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples unfolded.

The first division of the lands took place under Vladimir Svyatoslavich, during his reign princely feuds begin to flare up, the peak of which falls on 1015-1024, when only three of Vladimir's twelve sons survived. V. O. Klyuchevsky determined the beginning of the “specific period”, that is, the period of independence of the Russian principalities, from 1054, when, according to the will of Yaroslav the Wise, Russia was divided among his children. The beginning of the period of fragmentation (both political and feudal) should be considered 1132, when the princes ceased to reckon with the Grand Duke of Kyiv as the head of Russia.

Political fragmentation is a new form of organization of Russian statehood.

Causes of feudal fragmentation

1) The economic basis and the main cause of feudal fragmentation is often considered subsistence farming, the result of which was the absence of economic ties.

2) Improvement of farming techniques and tools, which contributed to the development of the economy of individual principalities and cities.

3) The growth and strengthening of cities as new political, economic and cultural centers. The local boyars and the prince relied on the cities in the struggle against the great Kievan prince. The growing role of the boyars and local princes led to the revival of city veche assemblies. Often the veche was used as an instrument of pressure not only on the great, but also on the local prince, forcing him to act in the interests of the local nobility. Thus, cities, as local political and economic centers, gravitating towards their lands, were the stronghold of the decentralization aspirations of local princes and nobility.

4) The need for strong local princely power to suppress the social movements that inevitably arose as feudalism developed. Therefore, the local boyars were forced to invite the prince with his retinue to their lands, the prince received a permanent reign, his own land fiefdom, and a stable rent-tax. At the same time, the prince sought to concentrate all power in his hands, limiting the rights and privileges of the boyars. This inevitably led to a struggle between the prince and the boyars.

5) The growth of boyar estates and the number of dependent smerds in them. In the XII - early XIII centuries. many boyars had feudal immunity (the right not to interfere in the affairs of the patrimony). The contradictions between the local boyars and the great prince of Kyiv led to the strengthening of the desire of the former for political independence.

6) The weakening of the external danger from the side of the Polovtsy, defeated by Vladimir Monomakh. This made it possible to direct the main resources to solving the economic problems of individual principalities and also contributed to the development of centrifugal forces in the country.

7) The weakening of the trade route "from the Varangians to the Greeks", the movement of trade routes from Europe to the East. All this led to the loss of Kyiv's historical role, the decline of the power of the great Kievan prince, whose land estates in the XII century were significantly reduced.

8) The absence of a single rule of princely succession to the throne. The following methods are distinguished: hereditary succession (by will and ladder law); usurpation, or forceful seizure of power; transfer of power to the most influential person and election.

Fragmentation is a natural stage in the development of Ancient Russia. Each dynasty no longer considered its principality as an object of military booty, economic calculation came out on top. This allowed the local authorities to more effectively respond to the discontent of the peasants, external intrusion. Political fragmentation did not mean a rupture of ties between the Russian lands, did not lead to their complete disunity. The existence of a single religion and church organization, a single language, and the single laws of Russkaya Pravda served as a rallying point for all East Slavic lands.

Formation of new state centers

The principalities and lands of Russia of the specific period were fully established states, comparable in territory to European ones. The most important at the turn of the XII-XIII centuries. acquire the Vladimir-Suzdal and Galicia-Volyn principalities, as well as the Novgorod land, which became the political centers of North-Eastern, South-Western and North-Western Russia, respectively. In each of them, a peculiar political system is formed: a princely monarchy in the Vladimir-Suzdal land, a princely-boyar monarchy in Galicia-Volyn and a boyar (aristocratic) republic in Novgorod.

Vladimiro (Rostovo) - Suzdal land

The main factors influenced the formation of a rich and powerful principality: remoteness from the steppe nomads in the south; landscape obstacles for easy penetration of the Varangians from the north; possession of the upper reaches of the water arteries (Volga, Oka), through which wealthy Novgorod merchant caravans passed; good opportunities for economic development; significant emigration from the south (population influx); developed since the 11th century. a network of cities (Rostov, Suzdal, Murom, Ryazan, Yaroslavl, etc.); very energetic and ambitious princes who headed the principality.

The lands were regarded as the property of the prince, and the population, including the boyars, as his servants. Vassal-druzhina relations, characteristic of the period of Kievan Rus, were replaced by princely-subject relations. As a result, a patrimonial system of power developed in North-Eastern Russia.

The names of Vladimir Monomakh and his son are connected with the formation and development of the Vladimir-Suzdal Principality Yuri Dolgoruky(1125-1157), who was distinguished by his desire to expand his territory and subjugate Kyiv. He captured Kyiv and became the Grand Duke of Kyiv, actively influenced the policy of Novgorod the Great. In 1125 he moved the capital from Rostov to Suzdal, led the extensive construction of fortified cities on the borders of his principality, fought for the throne of Kyiv and occupied it from 1149 to 1151 and from 1155 to 1157; he is considered the founder of Moscow (1147).

Yuri's son and successor - Andrey Bogolyubsky(1157-1174) developed the idea of ​​God's chosen principality of Vladimir-Suzdal, strove for ecclesiastical independence from Kyiv, fought for the subjugation of Novgorod, fought with the Volga Bulgars. In Vladimir-on-Klyazma, impregnable white-stone gates were built, the Assumption Cathedral was erected. The policy of Andrei Bogolyubsky, his desire to rule alone came into conflict with the veche and boyar traditions, and in 1174 Andrei was killed as a result of a conspiracy of the boyars.

The policy of unification of all Russian lands under the rule of one prince was continued by Andrei's half-brother - Vsevolod Big Nest(1176-1212), so called for his large family. Under him, the Vladimir-Suzdal principality reached its peak. He subjugated Kyiv, Chernigov, Ryazan, Novgorod; successfully fought with the Volga Bulgaria and the Polovtsians; under him, the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir was established. By this time, the nobility was increasingly becoming the backbone of princely power. The economic rise of the Vladimir-Suzdal principality continued for some time under the sons of Vsevolod. However, at the beginning of the XIII century. there is its disintegration into destinies: Vladimir, Yaroslavl, Uglich, Pereyaslav, Yuryevsky, Murom. Principalities of North-Eastern Russia in the XIV-XV centuries. became the basis for the formation of the Moscow state.

Galicia-Volyn principality

Features and development conditions: fertile lands for agriculture and vast forests for fishing activities; significant deposits of rock salt, which was exported to neighboring countries; convenient geographical position (neighborhood with Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic), which allowed for active foreign trade; relative safety from nomad attacks; the presence of an influential local boyars, who fought for power not only among themselves, but also with the princes.

The Galician principality was significantly strengthened during the reign Yaroslav Osmomysl(1153-1187). His successor (Volyn prince Roman Mstislavovich) in 1199 managed to unite the Volyn and Galician principalities. After the death of Roman Mstislavovich in 1205, an internecine war broke out in the principality with the participation of Hungarians and Poles. Roman's son Daniel Galitsky(1221-1264), broke the boyar resistance and in 1240, having occupied Kyiv, managed to unite the southwestern and Kyiv lands. However, in the same year, the Galicia-Volyn principality was ravaged by the Mongols-Tatars, and 100 years later these lands became part of Lithuania (Volyn) and Poland (Galych).

Novgorod land

At the end of the XI - beginning of the XII century. a kind of political formation took shape here - a feudal aristocratic (boyar) republic. Novgorodians themselves called their state "Lord Veliky Novgorod".

Development features Novgorod land: the leading branches of the economy are trade and craft; poor development of agriculture due to the low fertility of the land and harsh climatic conditions; wide development of crafts (salting, fishing, hunting, iron production, beekeeping); an exceptionally favorable geographical position (at the crossroads of trade routes linking Western Europe with Russia, and through it with the East and Byzantium); was not subjected to strong Mongol-Tatar plunder, although it paid tribute.

The Novgorod Republic was close to the European type of development (similar to the city-republics of the Hanseatic League) and the city-republics of Italy (Venice, Genoa, Florence). As a rule, Novgorod was ruled by that of the princes who held the throne of Kyiv. This allowed the eldest among the Rurik princes to control the Great Way and dominate Russia. Using the dissatisfaction of the Novgorodians (the uprising of 1136), the boyars, which possessed significant economic power, managed to finally defeat the prince in the struggle for power, Novgorod became a boyar republic. In fact, the power belonged to the boyars, the higher clergy and eminent merchants. All the highest executive bodies - posadniks (heads of government), thousand (heads of the city militia and judges in commercial affairs), bishop (head of the church, manager of the treasury, controlled the foreign policy of Veliky Novgorod), etc. - were replenished from the boyar nobility. Senior officials were elected. In the second half of the XII century. Novgorodians began to choose their spiritual pastor - Vladyka (Archbishop of Novgorod).

The prince did not have full state power, did not inherit Novgorod land, but was invited only to perform representative and military functions. Any attempt by a prince to intervene in internal affairs inevitably ended in his expulsion (58 princes visited in over 200 years).

The supreme body of power was the people's assembly - veche, which had broad powers: consideration of the most important issues of domestic and foreign policy; the invitation of the prince and the conclusion of an agreement with him; the election of an important trade policy for Novgorod, as well as a posadnik, a judge for commercial affairs, etc. The actual owners of the veche were 300 "golden belts" - the largest boyars of Novgorod - by the 15th century. they actually usurped the rights of the people's council.

Kiev principality

The Kiev principality, endangered by the nomads, lost its former importance due to the outflow of the population and the decline in the importance of the route "from the Varangians to the Greeks." On the eve of the Mongol invasion, the power of the Galician-Volyn prince Daniel Romanovich was established in it. In 1299, the Russian metropolitan moved his residence to Vladimir-on-Klyazma, thus establishing a new alignment of forces in Russia.

Consequences of political fragmentation

Positive: the flourishing of cities in specific lands, the formation of new trade routes, the development of the economy and culture of individual principalities and lands.

Negative: fragmentation of principalities between heirs; constant princely strife, which exhausted the strength of the Russian lands; weakening the country's defense capability in the face of external danger. By 1132, there were about 15 isolated territories, at the beginning of the 13th century. There were already 50 independent principalities and destinies, and at the end of the 13th century. - 250.

The process of the onset of feudal fragmentation made it possible for the developing system of feudal relations to be firmly established in Russia. From this position, we can talk about the historical progressiveness of this stage of Russian history in the framework of the development of the economy and culture. In addition, this period was an important prerequisite for the formation of a single and integral state.

The collapse of the Old Russian state is one of the most important and significant processes of the early Middle Ages. The destruction of Kievan Rus left a huge imprint on the history of the Eastern Slavs and all of Europe. It is rather difficult to name the exact date of the beginning and end of the fragmentation. The largest state in the world was decomposing for almost 2 centuries, drowning in the blood of internecine wars and foreign invasions.

The book "The Disintegration of the Old Russian State: Briefly" is a must-read for all historical faculties of the post-Soviet space.

The first signs of a crisis

Similar to the reasons for the fall of all the powerful states of the Ancient World. The acquisition of independence from the center by local rulers was an integral part of the progress and development of feudalism. The starting point can be considered the death of Yaroslav the Wise. Prior to that, Russia was ruled by the descendants of Rurik, the Varangian invited to reign. Over time, the rule of this dynasty covered all the lands of the state. In every major city sat one or another descendant of the prince. All of them were obliged to pay tribute to the center and supply a squad in case of war or raids on foreign lands. The central government met in Kyiv, which was not only the political, but also the cultural center of Russia.

Weakening of Kyiv

The collapse of the Old Russian state was not least the result of the weakening of Kyiv. New trade routes appeared (for example, "from the Varangians to the Greeks"), which bypassed the capital. Also on the ground, some princes undertook independent raids on nomads and left the looted wealth for themselves, which allowed them to develop autonomously from the center. After the death of Yaroslav, it turned out that it was huge, and everyone wants to get power.

The younger sons of the Grand Duke died, a protracted internecine war began. The sons of Yaroslav tried to divide Russia among themselves, finally abandoning the central government.

A number of principalities are devastated as a result of wars. This is used by the Polovtsy - a nomadic people from the southern steppes. They attack and ravage the border lands, each time going further and further. Several princes attempted to beat off the raids, but to no avail.

Peace in Lubech

Vladimir Monomakh convenes a congress of all the princes in the city of Lyubech. The main purpose of the gathering was an attempt to prevent endless hostility and unite under one banner in order to repulse the nomads. All present agree. But at the same time, a decision was made to change the internal policy of Russia.

From now on, each prince received full power over his possessions. He had to participate in general campaigns and coordinate his actions with other principalities. But the tribute and other taxes to the center were abolished.

Such an agreement made it possible to stop the bloody civil war, but catalyzed the beginning of the collapse of the Old Russian state. In fact, Kyiv lost its power. But at the same time it remained the cultural center of Russia. The rest of the territory was divided into approximately 15 "lands" states (various sources indicate the presence of 12 to 17 such entities). Almost until the middle of the 12th century, peace reigned in 9 principalities. Each throne began to be inherited, which influenced the emergence of dynasties in these lands. There were mostly friendly relations between the neighbors, and the Kyiv prince was still considered "first among equals".

Therefore, a real struggle unfolded for Kyiv. Several princes could simultaneously rule in the capital and counties. The constant change of various dynasties led the city and its surroundings to decline. One of the world's first examples of a republic was Here, privileged boyars (descendants of warriors who received land) firmly established power, significantly limiting the influence of the prince. All basic decisions were made by the people's veche, and the "leader" was assigned the functions of a manager.

Invasion

The final collapse of the Old Russian state occurred after the invasion of the Mongols. contributed to the development of individual provinces. Each city was directly controlled by the prince, who, being in place, could competently allocate resources. This contributed to the improvement of the economic situation and the significant development of culture. But at the same time, the defensive capacity of Russia fell significantly. Despite the peace of Lubec, they repeatedly fought for one or another principality. The Polovtsian tribes were actively attracted to them.

By the middle of the 13th century, a terrible threat loomed over Russia - the invasion of the Mongols from the east. Nomads have been preparing for this invasion for several decades. In 1223 there was a raid. Its purpose was intelligence and familiarization with Russian troops and culture. After that, he planned to attack and enslave Russia entirely. The Ryazan lands were the first to be hit. The Mongols ravaged them in a few weeks.

ruin

The Mongols successfully used the internal situation in Russia. The principalities, although they were not at enmity with each other, pursued an absolutely independent policy and were in no hurry to help each other. Everyone was waiting for the defeat of a neighbor in order to have their own benefit from this. But everything changed after the complete destruction of several cities in the Ryazan region. The Mongols used state-wide raiding tactics. In total, from 300 to 500 thousand people took part in the raid (including detachments recruited from conquered peoples). While Russia could put up no more than 100 thousand people from all the principalities. Slavic troops had superiority in weapons and tactics. However, the Mongols tried to avoid pitched battles and preferred quick surprise attacks. Superiority in numbers made it possible to bypass large cities from different directions.

Resistance

Despite the ratio of forces of 5 to 1, the Rus gave a fierce rebuff to the invaders. The losses of the Mongols were much higher, but were quickly replenished at the expense of prisoners. The collapse of the Old Russian state was halted due to the consolidation of the princes in the face of the threat of complete annihilation. But it was too late. The Mongols were rapidly moving deep into Russia, ruining one lot after another. After 3 years, the 200,000-strong army of Batu stood at the gates of Kyiv.

The brave Rus defended the cultural center to the last, but there were many more Mongols. After the capture of the city, it was burned and almost completely destroyed. Thus, the last uniting facts of the Russian lands - Kyiv - ceased to play the role of a cultural center. At the same time, the raids of the Lithuanian tribes and the campaigns of the Catholic German orders began. Russia ceased to exist.

Consequences of the collapse of the Old Russian state

By the end of the 13th century, almost all the lands of Russia were under the rule of other peoples. The Golden Horde ruled in the east, Lithuania and Poland - in the west. The reasons for the collapse of the Old Russian state lie in the fragmentation and lack of coordination between the princes, as well as the unfavorable foreign policy situation.

The destruction of statehood and being under foreign oppression catalyzed the desire to restore unity to all Russian lands. This led to the formation of the mighty Moscow kingdom, and then the Russian Empire.