Communication presupposes the presence of another component, another component that manifests itself throughout the communication, is its integral part. And at the same time, the norm of use and the very form of the term have not been finally established, cause controversy, and are a sore spot in Russian speech etiquette. The main function of the appeal is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This is - vocative a function, in addition to which the appeal indicates the corresponding attribute. Finally, appeals can be expressive and emotionally colored, contain an assessment.
A distinctive feature of officially adopted appeals in Russia was the reflection of the social stratification of society, such a characteristic feature of it as veneration of rank. Words such as: official, bureaucracy, dean, decorously, submission, etc. The social stratification of society, the inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries, was reflected in the system of official appeals.
Firstly, there was the document "Table of Ranks", published in 1717-1721, which was then republished in a slightly modified form. It listed the military (army and navy), civil and court ranks.
Secondly, the monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century preserved the division of people into estates. Classes were distinguished: nobles, clergy, commoners, merchants, petty bourgeois, peasants. Hence the appeal mister, mistress in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, sir- for the middle class or barin, lady for both, and the absence of a single appeal to representatives of the lower class.
After the October Revolution, all the old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree. Instead of all the appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917-1918, the appeals citizen and comrade are spreading.
Word citizen recorded in the monuments of the 11th century. It came to the Old Russian language from the Old Slavonic language and served as a phonetic version of the word city dweller. In the 18th century, this word acquires the meaning of "a full member of society, the state." Under the pen of A.N. Radishchev, the semantic scope of the word citizen is expanding. It has a meaning: "a person who is devoted to the Motherland, serves her and the people, cares about the public good, subordinates personal interests to the public." Why didn't such a socially significant word as a citizen become a common address of people to each other in the 20th century? In the 20-30s, a custom appeared, and then it became the norm when addressing arrested, imprisoned, convicted employees of law enforcement agencies and vice versa not to speak comrade, only citizen.
With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 19th century, the word comrade as the word once citizen, acquires a new socio-political meaning: "a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people."
In circulation comrade correlates not only with the surname, but also with the profession, title: Comrade Commissar, Comrade Professor, with first name and patronymic: comrade Dunya Fominishna. There is a clear distinction: the comrades are the Bolsheviks, they are those who believe in the revolution. The rest are not comrades means enemies.
After the Patriotic War, the word comrade gradually began to emerge from the everyday informal appeal of people to each other.
Philologists, writers and public figures propose to revive the conversion sir, madam, lord, madam. Since the end of the 80s. so they began to do so. Recently, the address "sir" is perceived as the norm at meetings of the Duma, on television, among businessmen, entrepreneurs, teachers, etc.
Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer words colleagues, friends. And the words female Male, which have recently become widespread in the role of an appeal, violate the norm of speech etiquette, testify to the insufficient culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without appeals, using etiquette formulas: kindly..., kindly..., sorry...
Thus, the problem of commonly used address in an informal setting remains open. It will be solved only when every citizen of Russia learns to respect himself and treats others with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes personality when it will not matter what position he occupies, what his status is. Only then, none of the Russians will feel awkward and embarrassed if they call him or he calls someone sir, madam.
Communication presupposes the presence of another term, another component that manifests itself throughout the entire duration of communication, is its integral part, serves as a bridge from one replica to another. And at the same time, the norm of use and the form of address itself have not been finally established, cause controversy, and are a sore spot in Russian speech etiquette.
The author of the letter in an emotional form, quite sharply, using the data of the language, raises the question of the position of a person in our state. Thus, the syntactic unit - appeal - becomes a socially significant category.
To understand this, it is necessary to comprehend what is the peculiarity of the address in the Russian language, what is its history.
From time immemorial, conversion has performed several functions. The main one is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. This is a vocative function.
Since both proper names are used as addresses (Anna Sergeevna, Igor, Sasha), and the names of people by degree of kinship (father, uncle, grandfather), by position in society, by profession, position (president, general, minister, director, accountant); by age and gender (old man, boy, girl), the appeal, in addition to the vocative function, indicates the corresponding sign.
Finally, appeals can be expressive and emotionally colored, contain an assessment? Lyubochka, Marinusya, Lyubka, blockhead, dumbass, klutz, varmint, clever, beautiful. The peculiarity of such appeals lies in the fact that they characterize both the addressee and the addressee himself, the degree of his upbringing, attitude towards the interlocutor, emotional state.
The given address words are used in an informal situation; only some of them, for example, proper names (in their basic form), names of professions, positions, serve as appeals in official speech.
A distinctive feature of officially adopted appeals in Russia was the reflection of the social stratification of society, such a characteristic feature of it as veneration of rank.
Isn’t that why in the Russian language the root rank turned out to be fruitful, giving life
- words: official, bureaucracy, dean, deanery, chinolyubie, veneration of rank, clerk, clerkship, disorderly, outrageous, rank-destroyer, destroyer, rank-religious, rank-stealer, decorously, chivalry, obey, submission;
- phrases: not according to rank, distribute according to rank, rank by rank, big rank, without disassembling ranks, without rank, rank by rank;
- to proverbs: Honor the rank of rank, and sit on the edge of the smaller one; Bullet ranks do not parse; To a fool, that to a great rank, space is everywhere; As many as two ranks: a fool and a fool; And he would have been in the ranks, but it's a pity, his pockets are empty.
The social stratification of society, the inequality that existed in Russia for several centuries, was reflected in the system of official appeals.
First, there was the document "Table of Ranks", published in 1717-1721, which was then republished in a slightly modified form. It listed the military (army and navy), civil and court ranks. Each category of ranks was divided into 14 classes. So, the 3rd class included a lieutenant general, lieutenant general, vice admiral, privy councilor, chamber marshal, master of the horse, master of the hunt, chamberlain, chief ceremonial master; by the 6th grade - colonel, captain of the 1st rank, collegiate adviser, camera-fourier; by the 12th grade - cornet, cornet, midshipman, provincial secretary.
In addition to the named ranks, which determined the system of appeals, there were appeals your excellency, your excellency, your excellency, your highness, your majesty, the most merciful (merciful) sovereign, sovereign, etc.
Secondly, the monarchical system in Russia until the 20th century. preserved the division of people into classes. Class-organized society was characterized by a hierarchy of rights and duties, class inequality and privileges. Estates were distinguished: nobles, clergy, raznochintsy, merchants, philistines, peasants. Hence the appeals lord, madam in relation to people of privileged social groups; sir, madam - for the middle class or master, mistress for both and the absence of a single appeal to representatives of the lower class.
In the languages of other civilized countries, unlike Russian, there were appeals that were used both in relation to a person occupying a high position in society and to an ordinary citizen: Mr., Mrs., Miss (England, USA); senor, senora, senorita (Spain); signor, signora, signorina (Italy); pan, pani (Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia).
After the October Revolution, all the old ranks and titles were abolished by a special decree, and universal equality was proclaimed. Appeals lord - madam, master - mistress, sir - madam, gracious sovereign (empress) are gradually disappearing. Only diplomatic language preserves the formulas of international courtesy. So, the heads of monarchical states are addressed: Your Majesty, Your Excellency; foreign diplomats continue to be called mister - madam. Instead of all the appeals that existed in Russia, starting from 1917-1918. Citizen and comrade receive circulation. The history of these words is remarkable and instructive,
The word citizen is recorded in the monuments of the XI century. It came to the Old Russian language from Old Slavonic and served as a phonetic version of the word city dweller. Both of them meant "resident of the city (city)". In this sense, the citizen is also found in texts dating back to the 19th century. So, A. S. Pushkin has the lines:
Not a demon - not even a gypsy,
But just a citizen of the capital.
In the XVIII century. this word acquires the meaning of "a full member of society, the state."
Why, then, such a socially significant word as a citizen did not become popular in the 20th century? commonly used way of addressing people to each other?
In the 20-30s. a custom appeared, and then it became the norm when addressing arrested, imprisoned, convicted employees of law enforcement agencies and vice versa, not to say comrade, only citizen: citizen under investigation, citizen judge, citizen prosecutor.
As a result, the word citizen for many has become associated with detention, arrest, the police, and the prosecutor's office. The negative association gradually “grown” to the word so much that it became its
an integral part; so rooted in the minds of people that it became impossible to use the word citizen as a common address.
The fate of the word comrade was somewhat different. It is recorded in the monuments of the XV century. Known in Slovene, Czech, Slovak, Polish, Upper Lusatian and Lower Lusatian. In the Slavic languages, this word came from the Turkic, in which the root tavar meant "property, livestock, goods." Probably, originally the word comrade meant "companion in trade". Then the meaning of this word is expanded: a comrade is not only a “companion”, but also a “friend”. Proverbs testify to this: On the road, the son is a friend to his father; A smart comrade is half way; To fall behind a comrade - to become without a comrade; The poor man is not a friend to the rich; The servant of the master is not a friend.
With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the XIX century. the word comrade, like the word citizen in its time, acquires a new socio-political meaning: "a like-minded person fighting for the interests of the people."
From the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. Marxist circles are being created in Russia, and their members call each other comrades. In the first years after the revolution, this word becomes the main reference in the new Russia. Naturally, the nobles, the clergy, officials, especially of high rank, do not all immediately accept the appeal of a comrade.
Playwright K. Trenev skillfully showed the attitude towards conversion in the play “Love Yarovaya”. The action takes place during the Civil War. In the speech of the clergy, officers of the tsarist army, and the raznochintsy intelligentsia, appeals continue to be used: your excellency, your excellency, your honor, gentlemen officers, mister lieutenant, gentlemen.
Soviet poets in subsequent years tried to emphasize the universality and significance of the appeal, comrade, creating combinations: comrade life, comrade sun, comrade harvest (V. Mayakovsky); comrade victorious class (N. Aseev); comrade rye (A. Zharov).
There is a clear distinction: the comrades are the Bolsheviks, they are those who believe in the resolution. The rest are not comrades, which means they are enemies.
In the following years of Soviet power, the word comrade was especially popular, A. M. Gorky in the fairy tale "Comrade" writes that it has become "a bright, cheerful star, a guiding light for the future." In the novel by N. Ostrovsky “How the Steel Was Tempered” we read: “The word“ comrade ”, for which yesterday they paid with their lives, sounded now at every step. An indescribably exciting word from a comrade. One of the songs popular in Soviet times also glorified him: “Our word is a proud comrade to us more than all beautiful words.”
So even the appeal acquired an ideological meaning, became socially significant. Here is what journalist N. Andreev writes about this:
After the Great Patriotic War, the word comrade gradually began to emerge from the everyday informal appeal of people to each other.
The problem arises: how to contact a stranger? The issue is being discussed on the pages of the press, in radio broadcasts. Philologists, writers, public figures express their opinion. They propose to revive the treatment, sir, madam.
On the street, in the store, in public transport, the appeals of a man, a woman, grandfather, father, granny, boyfriend, aunt, uncle are increasingly heard.
Such appeals are not neutral. They can be perceived by the addressee as a lack of respect for him, even an insult, unacceptable familiarity. Hence, rudeness in response, an expression of resentment, a quarrel are possible.
Since the end of the 80s. in an official setting, the appeals sir, madam, sir, madam began to revive.
History repeats itself. Like in the 20s and 30s. appeals master and comrade had a social connotation, and in the 90s. they again confront each other. An illustrative example: Deputy N. Petrushenko, when discussing the law on property at the Supreme Council in 1991, said:
A remarkable parallel. Long before perestroika, the film "Deputy of the Baltic" about the first post-revolutionary years was shown. The protagonist of the picture is a deputy of the Petrograd Soviet from the Baltic sailors, Professor Polezhaev, delivering a speech to the people. He begins it like this: "Gentlemen!" The audience is unpleasantly surprised: such an appeal can only be directed to people of the privileged classes. Probably the speaker misspoke. The professor understands the audience's reaction: “I didn't make a reservation. I tell you - workers and workers, peasants and peasant women, soldiers and sailors ... You are masters and true gentlemen in a sixth of the world ... "
Recently, the appeal, sir, madam, has been perceived as the norm at meetings of the Duma, in television programs, at various symposiums and conferences. In parallel with this, at meetings of government officials, political figures with the people, as well as at rallies, Russians, fellow citizens, compatriots began to use speeches. , job title, title. Difficulties arise if the director or professor is a woman. How to address in this case: Mr. Professor or Mrs. Professor?
The appeal comrade continues to be used by the military and members of communist parties. Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer the words of colleagues and friends. Appeal respected - respected is found in the speech of the older generation.
The words woman, man, which have recently become widespread in the role of addresses, violate the norm of speech etiquette, testify to the insufficient culture of the speaker. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without appeals, using etiquette formulas: be kind ..., be kind ..., sorry ..., sorry ....
Thus, the problem of commonly used address in an informal setting remains open.
It will be resolved only when every citizen of Russia learns to respect himself and treat others with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes a person, when it doesn’t matter what position he holds, what his status is. It is important that he is a citizen of the Russian Federation. Only then, none of the Russians will feel awkward and embarrassed if they call him or he calls someone Mr., Mrs.
Vvedenskaya L.A. Culture of speech - Rostov n / D., 2001.
Introduction
Chapter 1
1.1 The main functions of addressing in oral speech
1.2 Variety of forms of common addresses of the beginning of the 20th century
Chapter 2. Types of speech cultures
Conclusion
In the last decade, linguistics has slowly but surely turned “face to life”, exploring language “as an instrument of social interaction” of people. The social aspect of studying the relationship between a person and his language makes it possible to get an idea of a linguistic personality. As an indicator of the social status of the speaker, his linguistic personality, one can single out such a linguistic unit as the appeal of people to each other. Often the appeal indicates the social characteristics of the speaker: it can indicate the type of his occupation, degree of education, age, gender. An essential component of the social role is expectation: what others expect from the behavior of an individual in a particular social situation, what they have the right to demand from him; he is obliged in his behavior to meet these expectations. Roles can be determined both by the constant social characteristics of a person: his social position, profession, age, position in the family, gender, and by variables that are determined by the properties of the situation: such, for example, are the roles of a passenger, buyer, patient.
Addressing the interlocutor is the most common language unit associated with etiquette signs. The address is fraught with an abyss of speech possibilities and abilities, since it not only names the interlocutor, but also characterizes him according to certain signs, that is, it has an evaluative and characterizing property. It is this feature of the address that has become most interesting for observations and studies of the use of addresses in oral speech.
The relevance of the chosen topic lies in the fact that the establishment of speech contact, the regulation of social relationships is very necessary for future specialists, since these skills can play a crucial role in the future.
The purpose of this essay is to teach competently and expressively to speak Russian.
The main tasks of the abstract:
1. To study the forms of conversion of past centuries;
2. Reveal the problems of modern circulation;
3. Explore the main functions of circulation;
4. Consider the types of speech cultures.
1.1 The main functions of addressing in oral speech
An appeal is a word or a combination of words that names the person to whom (what) the speech is addressed. It can be the name of a person, animal, inanimate object or phenomenon. The appeal has the form of a nominative case and is pronounced with a special, vocative intonation.: And now you, Kotik, play something ... (A. Chekhov); Who, the waves, stopped you? (A. Pushkin).
In fiction, inanimate common nouns are widely used as an appeal, which is unusual for an appeal: these nouns take part in the creation of an artistic image.
Appeal can be expressed not by a word, but by a combination of words. Such an appeal is called widespread, and its distributors can be definitions, applications. For example: Sweet lily of the valley, tender lily of the valley, white lily of the valley, snow lily of the valley, our flower! You stood between the green doors, so that you, who are only vigilant, could see.
Determinant words, when addressed, enhance its additional function - to express the attitude of the speaker to the addressee of the speech. Therefore, common appeals are more often used in emotional styles - in journalism, in fiction.
Addressing the interlocutor is the most common language unit associated with etiquette signs. The establishment of speech contact, the regulation of social relationships are important social functions of the address, so its use is the subject of care and attention of people. "In human society, great importance is attached to establishing contact and orientation in the interlocutor and the situation. All types of greetings, addresses, titles are intended to establish contact and demonstrate social relations within which communicants intend to communicate."
So, the essence of the appeal is the language forms of establishing contact with the interlocutor while demonstrating mutual social and personal relationships. Appeals arise on the basis of words-names, which indicate different signs:
1) the presence or absence of acquaintance (kinship) of the addressee with the speaker;
2) the age of the addressee in relation to the age of the speaker;
3) the social position of the addressee in relation to the speaker;
4) profession, occupation of the addressee;
5) on the function of the addressee in a given everyday situation;
6) on the personal qualities of the addressee, manifested in his behavior in a given situation or known to the speaker from previous experience;
7) on the properties of the addressee as an object of emotional impact and evaluation by the speaker.
Appeals arise on the basis of words, but they themselves are not words. These are no longer words-names, but an appeal to the addressee, i.e. a kind of speech action (speech act), consisting of calling and naming at the same time.
The main function of the appeal - to attract attention, to call the interlocutor - gave it a certain formality, a specific vocative form that exists in a number of Slavic languages and was available in the Old Russian language. Thus, the main formal means of indicating the address in the Russian language is considered to be a special vocative intonation, by the way, very similar to that supplied with other expressions of speech etiquette. This, generally speaking, is the intonation of the call of the interlocutor. And according to it, we unmistakably single out the appeal in the flow of speech.
The second important property of calls is the designation of the addressee.
So, appeal is the most striking etiquette sign. After all, the French word etiquette originally meant "label", "label". Naming the interlocutor, we, as it were, choose for him the most appropriate "label" for the occasion. In the Russian language there are a great many addresses, they serve a variety of situations of communication, are used by people who carry different social characteristics.
In the pre-revolutionary era, the use of generally accepted addresses was strictly regulated, corresponding to the real social rank of people.
So, nobility indicated nobility. And here nobility was the title of a staff officer, major, colonel and all equivalent ranks.
Your Excellency- the title of the so-called full generals, as well as actual privy councilors, persons of the 1st and 2nd class. BUT Excellency- this is the title of either a general, or civil dignitaries of the 4th and 3rd class.
nobleness titled state councilors, officials of the 5th class.
Finally, lordship (or lordship) is the title of princes and counts, as well as their wives and children.
Tsars, royalty were addressed with the word majesty, highness. Church ranks were addressed (in accordance with the degree) reverend, reverend, priesthood, eminence and holiness. Many have been preserved in modern church use.
At the household level your grace- was a common polite appeal of a commoner to someone on a "bottom-up" basis.
Barin- every master for those who serve him, the female form of the lady. It is clear that the young lady was a girl of primordially noble origin.
girl called a maid, a maid; the title of a yard girl close to the mistress is known - a gentleman's young lady.
But words like madam and madam, have traditionally been a respectful address to upper-class married and elderly women.
The words are in historical relationship sir and sovereign, sir. The expression gracious sovereign was the most polite appeal to anyone.
The modern young generation is not sufficiently aware of the generally accepted appeals of the beginning of the last century, probably because they read little works of fiction that tell about that not too distant time, watch films inattentively, and have poor historical knowledge.
Older people show deeper knowledge, which indicates their competence in this matter, their deeper knowledge of the history of their country.
In the field of address, the modern Russian language experiences a certain deficit, the existing addresses are clearly not enough, so there is a desire to diversify them, which reflects the opinion of the respondents. Of course, it is difficult to imagine that someday we will call each other gracious sirs and madams, but today it is already clear that the addresses sir and gentlemen are firmly included in everyday speech.
One of the most essential characteristics of a linguistic personality should be recognized as belonging to a particular linguistic (national) and speech (intranational) culture. Within the national speech culture in the scope of the literary language, various types of speech cultures are distinguished.
elite type speech culture is characterized by the following parameters:
Higher education of a native speaker, usually liberal arts;
Reflective intelligence;
Logical thinking;
Dissatisfaction with one's intellectual baggage, the presence of a constant need to expand one's knowledge and verify it;
Compliance with ethical standards of communication, respect for the interlocutor and for people in general;
Possession of speech etiquette and compliance with its norms in all standard communicative situations;
Compliance with the norms of literary speech;
Lack of self-confidence in general, lack of linguistic self-confidence in particular (that is, lack of confidence that he already knows the language to the extent necessary from his point of view, his linguistic knowledge is quite sufficient and does not require correction);
Possession of functional styles of the native language associated with the use of both oral and written speech;
“not transferring” what is typical of oral speech into written speech, and what is characteristic of written speech into oral speech;
Uncomplicated use of the functional style and genre of speech that corresponds to the situation and the goals of communication;
The ability to control one's speech in its process (thematic and stylistic self-control is present);
Knowledge and observance of rhetorical rules of communication;
The habit of checking one's language knowledge, replenishing it with authoritative texts and dictionaries;
Lack of automatic imitation of what is heard on the radio or television, read in the newspapers;
Lack of imitation of one's immediate speech environment, independence in the formation of one's own speech culture;
A wealth of both active and passive vocabulary;
At least passive possession of the main achievements of world and national culture;
Knowledge of precedent texts of general cultural significance, understanding them in the text and using them in communication;
Ability to logical and consistent speech;
Possession of the epistolary genre, the ability to write a competent letter on any topic in accordance with the requirements of the genre;
The ability for a language game, the ability and appropriateness of its use, enjoying the language game of others and one's own language game;
The ability to use reduced vocabulary and phraseology for expressive, artistic and visual purposes;
Understanding of speech humor, the ability to perceive the subtext in a joke, anecdote, proverb, saying;
Predominant use of the form You-Communication, careful observance of the norm of using you and you,
The absence of commonly used cliches in speech;
The ability to independently perceive the subtext in a literary text;
The ability to evaluate both the form and the content of the perceived text;
Getting pleasure from the perception of complex texts and theoretical discussions, dislike for primitive dialogues in verbally and visually perceived texts;
Fixation of speech errors in the oral and written speech of others, in written and media texts, in advertising;
Discussion with colleagues and relatives of the state of the modern language, commenting on changes in the language.
For literary type speech culture is characterized by incomplete observance of language norms. The increase in the violation of the norms of the codified literary language is due to the penetration of colloquial types of address into speech. But this is purely individual and does not line up in a system. The factor of officiality in conditions of spontaneity forces speakers to use only those means of language that are, as it were, on the surface of linguistic consciousness. The carriers of this type of speech culture are the majority of people with higher education. This type is characterized by communication, a formula for attracting attention, for example: Are you leaving on the next one? Can you tell me where the bus stop is? Frequent are appeals for situational roles, for example: Brothers and sisters in literature; Colleague, I will be glad to see you; Citizen passengers. A small group consists of appeals with the name of gender and age, this type of appeal is rare, for example: Dear friend, Dear interlocutor, Young man, Dear young man, My young friend.
The average literary type is characterized by the following parameters:
Higher and secondary education of a native speaker;
Reflexive-sensomotor type of intelligence;
Low interest in expanding general knowledge;
Professional activity requires individual and intermittent, or permanent, but standard intellectual efforts;
Satisfaction with their intellectual baggage, lack of need to expand their knowledge, and even more so in their verification;
Lack of a constant habit of checking your knowledge;
Possession mainly of two functional styles: usually the style of everyday communication (colloquial speech) and your professional style;
Frequent mixing of styles in speech, inability to differentiate them in communication;
Frequent violation of language norms;
Inability to deploy a monologue, even prepared;
Predominantly dialogic nature of communication;
A low level of self-control in the process of speech, the inferiority of one's own speech is not realized;
"forgivable" attitude towards one's own speech errors;
Absence of the habit of doubting the correctness of one's speech;
Aggression in defending one's own word usage: arguments like “everyone says so” or “on radio, television they said so, I heard” are usually given as a standard;
Defending the point of view “the main thing is WHAT to say, not HOW to say”;
Literary-colloquial type speech culture appears in the speech of its speakers in their direct and unconstrained, informal communication with each other. Conversational elements are presented much more widely than book ones. Mass media have a great influence on the speech of carriers of this type of speech culture. Gradual habituation to colloquial elements through the media and their inclusion in speech by other carriers of non-elitist speech culture can lead to an undesirable deformation of the stylistic system of the language, to society's rejection of cultural and speech norms. A large group consists of appeals based on gender and age, for example: Woman, Man, Girl; Young man, did you complete the task? Young people, make way. A small group is made up of collective appeals, for example: Hello, youth; Well, friends, let's be healthy; The names of kinship also belong to this type: Mom, Dad, Sister.
The literary type is characterized by the following parameters:
Higher or secondary, secondary specialized education of a native speaker;
Predominantly reflective type of intelligence;
Dissatisfaction with their intellectual baggage, the need to expand their knowledge and verify it;
Performing work that constantly requires certain intellectual efforts;
Compliance with basic ethical standards;
Compliance with the basic norms of speech etiquette;
Compliance with the basic norms of literary speech learned at school;
Possession of the main styles of oral speech;
Approximately the same knowledge of the culture of oral and written speech;
The ability to easily change the style and genre of speech with a change in the communicative situation;
The ability to control and change your speech in its process;
Lack of linguistic self-confidence;
“not transferring” what is typical of oral speech into written speech and, on the contrary, what is characteristic of written speech into oral speech;
Familiar-colloquial the type of speech culture is characterized by a general stylistic reduction and coarseness. A large group here is made up of descriptive constructions, for example: Lady in a hat, are you going out? Man in coat, take change; Beautiful girl, can I meet you? Less frequent are evaluative-emotional constructions, for example: Lost soul, what, walked up? Beauty, are you upset? Get off, you bastard! Beauty, can I meet you? Hey pussy come with us! Here you can note such appeals as: My dear, Golden, Dear, My Joy, My Sun, Dear, Beloved, My Smiling. Appeals on situational grounds, for example: Neighbor, help yourself; Neighbor, will you change? Master, don't worry; Passenger, get out; Partner, go count; Hey, robber citizens! Frequency of appeals indicating gender, age and kinship, for example: Boys, we'll meet tomorrow; Old man, I'm a lucky man; Pour, friend; Boy, give me a lift, please; Friend, can't you smoke? Or: Baby, Baby, Friend, Friend, Mother, Brother-in-law, Kuma, Auntie, Granddaughter, Granny, Father, Husband, Wife, Bratva, Brother, Brothers, Brothers, Brother, Girls, Girly, Girls.
The familiar-colloquial type is characterized by the following parameters:
Secondary, vocational secondary, secondary technical, sometimes higher technical education;
Primarily sensorimotor intelligence
Low desire to expand general knowledge;
The sensorimotor type of intelligence dominates;
Possession of only a conversational communication system, which is used in any setting, including official ones;
Non-distinguishing between the norms of oral and written forms of speech;
Failure to comply with ethical and communication standards in professional situations and interpersonal communication;
Lack of desire to expand language knowledge, satisfaction with their language knowledge, lack of habit of learning the meanings of words or the rules for their use, linguistic self-confidence;
The dominance of the point of view "the main thing is WHAT to say, not HOW to say";
A small group is job postings and collective appeals: Military, Sailor, Soldier, Commander, Chief; People, People, Guys.
Of particular note is familiar-rough constructions, For example:
Hey friend; Hey hard worker, finish your work; Hey man; Girls, listen; Salaga, you still have to work and work; Old fool, don't sleep; Listen, fool; Hear, young, rise; You huckster, give me my money.
The features of the vernacular type of speech culture are the use of reduced language means, for example:
Boy, give me sneakers; Hey, little one, wait a minute; Hey man, what are you kicking? Head, are you all right? Tail, can you hear me? Zink! Sansanych! Grey! Shirt!
The vernacular-slang type is characterized by the following parameters:
Low level of general education;
The work does not require systematic intellectual effort;
sensorimotor intelligence,
Orientation in communication and culture exclusively on their communication group;
Self-confidence, peremptory communication;
The absolute dominance of the point of view "the main thing is WHAT to say, and not HOW to say";
Unwillingness and inability to monitor their speech, control it;
Possession only colloquial style of oral communication;
Lack of written forms of speech: carriers of this type of texts can write mainly from dictation, the need for written speech confuses them, official documents can only write according to the model, filling in empty columns, while, as a rule, they require a sample already filled in by others;
Lack of ideas about language norms and language taboos, lack of understanding of what is forbidden vocabulary;
Habitual, "connective" use of vulgarisms, jargon, slang;
Habitual use of the mat in expressive and connective function;
Only you dominate - communication;
Inability to read more or less long texts of any genre, inability to synthesize the meaning of the text, the requirement to explain the meaning to them orally;
Inability to use dictionaries;
Misunderstanding of the subtext in a literary text, in proverbs and sayings;
Preference is given to situational humor or related to the bodily bottom, humorous overtones are not perceived if there are no rude or obscene words in rhyme;
Vocabulary and phraseology, new words are acquired exclusively from direct communication with the immediate environment;
The pursuit of language fashion, craving for fashionable expressive word usage;
Inability to synonymous variation of speech, which leads to stampedness and lack of individuality in speech;
Speech expression is achieved solely by the use of categorical peremptory assessments, rude and obscene vocabulary, an increase in volume or intonational tension of articulation.
Types of appeals characterizing folk-speech type of culture, are currently perceived as obsolete and are used quite rarely, for example: Well, my dear; Milk, help me; Dear comrade, who are you to?
Concerning professional limited type speech culture, we managed to analyze only the speech of the military. In an official setting, they are characterized by official types of appeals, for example: Comrade conscripts! Comrade "first"! Citizen Captain. In an informal setting, the military uses the types of addresses adopted in colloquial types of speech cultures, for example: Comrades; Soldier; Friends, let's not despair; Look, lieutenant colonel and many others.
In connection with the increasing and frequent non-distinction between you- and you- communication, there is a vagueness of the boundaries between the types of speech cultures and a noticeable predominance of colloquial elements in the literary type of speech culture.
In the relationship between people, conversions often play a paramount role. Addressing the interlocutor when establishing contact, establishing interpersonal relationships dooms him to the original emotionality and evaluation, expressed either directly or hidden, in the shadow meaning of the statement. In the spectrum of evaluative shades, the sphere of expression of social interaction stands out. The ratio of extralinguistic factors and linguistic (evaluative properties of the word) make the appeal a kind of indicator of the difficulties that arise in the process of people's relationships.
Any appeal that we use can be colored by different feelings, moods, relationships with the interlocutor. And if these feelings are good, then we feel a reciprocal benevolence and desire for cooperation.
Mastering the art of communication is necessary for every person, regardless of what type of activity he is engaged in or will be engaged in, since success in personal, industrial and social spheres of life depends on the level and quality of his communication.
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2. Goldin, V. E. Appeal: theoretical problems: a textbook for universities / V. E. Goldin. - Saratov: Book House "Librocom", 1987. - 125 p.
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6. Skvortsov, L. I. Culture of Russian speech / reference dictionary / L. I. Skvortsov. - M.: Knowledge, 1995. - 255 p.
7. Russian language and culture of speech: a textbook for universities / ed. V. I. Maksimova. - M. : Gardariki, 2002. - 411 p.
8. Culture of oral and written speech of a business person: manual, textbook / ed. N. S. Vodina. - 9th ed., Rev. - M. : Flinta: Nauka, 2002. - 314 p.
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SOUTH URAL STATE UNIVERSITY
Discipline: Ethics
On the topic: History of conversion in Russian culture
Chelyabinsk
- Introduction
- 1. Appeal in Russian, functions, forms
- 2.1 Changes in forms of address throughout the history of Russia
- 2.2 Address in modern language
- Conclusion
Introduction
Appeal as a syntactic figure and as a unit of speech etiquette has always attracted the attention of researchers of Russian culture, historians, and linguists.
"The appeal is one of the main means of a universal nature developed in the language for human communication, for establishing a connection between the subject of communication and the statement, for integrating different sides and components of the communication situation into a single communicative act."
Interestingly, the evolution of the address system in the Russian language has been observed for seven centuries.
For the first time, the term "conversion" appeared in the "Concise Guide to Eloquence" by M.V. Lomonosov: "There is an appeal when a word is addressed to another person, real or fictitious, from the one whom the real word itself requires"
Lomonosov attributed the appeal to a means that adorns our speech.
In Soviet times, the works of A.A. Shakhmatov deserve special attention. He wrote: "An appeal is a word or phrase corresponding to the name of the 2nd person to whom the speaker's speech is addressed"
However, Shakhmatov, like many others, believed that "the appeal stands outside the sentence and is therefore not a member of the sentence" (ibid.).
The position of B.P. Ardentov, who singled out appeals as a separate part of speech, is also interesting. He wrote that "a name, a name in the role of an address differs sharply from a name, a name, acting as a message about any facts. After all, if we consider the address as a noun, as is still done in grammar, then this creates an extreme inconsistency of syntactic functions of a noun: then the noun (as an object, subject) is a member of the sentence, serves as a means of expressing the objective material of thought and performs the function of presentation in Russian; then it (as an address) is no longer a member of the sentence, serves as a means of expressing the subjective side of thought and unable to perform the functions of presentation. ".
In grammar, the nominative case of a noun (or other parts of speech derived from it) is traditionally considered a means of expressing appeal. In the Old Russian language, the appeal was expressed in the vocative case, which was lost by the 15th-17th century. The vocative case, despite the fact that it has lost its form in modern Russian, has retained the function of denoting the object or person addressed by the speaker, and "this function of the vocative case has not only been preserved, but has also been further developed, only expressed in the nominative case" .
The appeal performs the following functions in the Russian language: appellative (conscription) and expressive (evaluative and characterizing),
Appeals are selected depending on the relationship between the speaker and his interlocutor, as well as the situation of the appeal: marital status, civil (social, legal) status, gender, and others.
Sufficiently well studied at the present stage of the development of the Russian language, the appeal is practically not studied in the historical aspect. And the few works on the study of circulation in Russian culture (Starovoitova - 1994, Naumova - 1999, Ananiev - 1958, and others) do not give a complete picture of the development of circulation throughout the history of the Russian language.
The appeal has gone through a very complex and interesting path of development, over the centuries the ways of expressing appeals, their lexical composition have changed, the functions of the appeal have changed depending on time.
1. Appeal in Russian yke, functions, forms
One of the most significant and great assets of mankind and the most pleasant pleasures is the opportunity to communicate with their own kind. It seems that there is nothing more common and easier than talking to someone. But still, in everyday life there are many examples of the fact that not everyone can communicate in accordance with the rules of speech culture.
Appeal is a word or combination of words that names the person (or object) to whom the speech is addressed. The appeal propagates the offer, but is not a member of the offer. The role of appeals is most often played by proper names, names of persons by kinship, by social status, by profession, much less often this function is performed by the names of animals or the name of an inanimate object.
The main function of addressing people to each other is to attract the attention of the interlocutor. The reaction of a person to an appeal to him largely determines the intonation of his answer and his perception of the speaker. The appeal can be emotional, expressive, and also contain some kind of assessment.
Speech etiquette captures what expresses a benevolent attitude towards the interlocutor, which can create a suitable communication climate. An abundant set of linguistic means makes it possible to choose a form of communication that is appropriate in a particular situation, favorable for the addressee "you" or "you", to establish a friendly, relaxed or, on the contrary, official tone of the conversation, to set up the necessary emotional atmosphere.
Appeals of people to each other depend on family relations, on the social status of the interlocutors, on the type of relationship between two people (friendly, hostile, neutral)
Addressing a stranger is not a simple form of starting a conversation. In order to choose the right word for a stranger to engage him in a conversation, you must certainly take into account the age and gender of the person. For example, addressing "girl" to an unfamiliar elderly lady will look rather silly, and addressing "woman" to a very young person can even cause offense to a person, and from the very beginning will set up your conversation with him not in the best direction for you.
2. History of conversion in Russian culture
2.1 Changes in forms of address throughout the history of Russia
The history of conversion in Russian culture is very rich and diverse. Appeal is very closely related to the rules of conduct adopted in society. By the nature of people's treatment to each other, one can determine the level of upbringing of a particular person, as well as the level of culture adopted in this society.
Throughout the history of Russia, many forms of behavior in society have been adopted, depending on the political situation in the country, on the number of traditions observed and, of course, on the level of education of each person. Despite the diversity and numerous rules of etiquette, there are very few written sources of information about these rules.
The first such officially known source was "Teaching Vladimir Vsevolodovich", written by Prince Vladimir Monomakh in the 12th century. The great Russian prince writes "..when going to war, do not be lazy, beware of lies, give drink and feed the one who asks ... Do not forget the poor, give the orphan and the widow judge for yourself, and do not let the strong destroy a person. Honor the old like a father, and the young like brothers. Most of all, honor the guest. Do not miss a person without welcoming him, and say a good word to him. " The prince urges to kindly address even a stranger, to protect the weak, not to be lazy, to honor the elderly.
The history of Russia provides exceptionally curious material for studying the influence of power and social change on the conversion of people to each other.
In 1717-1721, the "Table of Ranks" was published, in which court, civil and military ranks were listed. Thus, the form of address in those days depended directly on the rank.
The monarchy that existed in Russia until the 20th century preserved the division of people into estates. There were such estates as merchants, peasants, petty bourgeois, nobles, clergy. Hence the appeal "master" ("lady"), used in relation to privileged social groups.
There was no universal appeal to man in Russia before the revolution that took place in 1917. After the revolution, all ranks and ranks are abolished by a special law. The appeals "sir", "sir", "madame" disappear - all of them were recognized as humiliating the dignity of a person. The appeal "citizen" and "comrade" is gaining great popularity. "Citizen" - was a public appeal, but "comrade" - an official appeal to a Soviet person.
Pre-revolutionary appeals distinguished the gender of the addressee, implied a certain and rather high social status of the addressee, and were usually used in conjunction with the surname, position, etc. "Comrade" calls a person, regardless of his gender; used with or without a surname. The address "comrade" was especially insulting for former persons of high social status. Although from an ideological point of view, this appeal was used to emphasize the equality of all people among themselves.
The word "citizen" must be said separately. It was recorded in the annals of the 11th century. The word came into the Russian language from the Old Slavonic language, came from the word "city dweller".
In the 18th century, this word deserves the meaning of "a full member of society, the state." Later, another, additional meaning arises: "a person who is devoted to the Motherland, serves her and his people, cares about the public good, subordinates personal interests to the public." Why didn't such a socially significant word as "citizen" become a universal address of people to each other in the 20th century? The reason for this is the fact that in the 20-30s. it becomes the norm when talking between arrested people and employees of the internal affairs bodies not to use "comrade", but to call each other "citizen".
With the growth of the revolutionary movement in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, the word "comrade", like the word "citizen" in its time, acquires a new socio-political meaning: a like-minded person fighting for the interests of his people.
"After the complete displacement of pre-revolutionary addresses, the noted class opposition developed into a contrast between people who used and did not use the address "comrade". Its use, as it were, emphasized the inclusion of the speaker in the Soviet system."
So, the address comrade in Soviet speech practice was not neutral, since it carried the color of loyalty to the authorities.
After the collapse of the USSR and Soviet culture, the etiquette system and culture found itself again in a very unstable position. Since the end of the 80s. in an official setting, such appeals as "sir", "madame", "mister", "madam" began to revive.
Recently, the address "mister" is perceived as the norm at Duma meetings, on television, among businessmen, colleagues, office managers, entrepreneurs, teachers, etc.
Scientists, teachers, doctors, lawyers prefer the words "colleague", "friend".
And the words "man", "woman", which have recently become widespread as an address, violate the norm of speech etiquette, testify to the speaker's insufficient culture and speech politeness. In this case, it is preferable to start a conversation without appeals, using impersonal forms: "sorry", "please" and others.
The address "comrade" gradually began to emerge from the everyday appeal of people to each other, it continues to be used by the military, members of parties of the communist direction.
2. 2 Appeal in modern language
In the modern language there are no definite rules for the use of address, the culture of address is at a crossroads. Due to the fact that there are no established rules, everyone addresses whom and how he wants, sometimes not thinking about the tact and relevance of what was said.
According to the results of a social survey of Moscow residents, conducted by the Ostankino radio company in 1999, the following data were obtained.
"Comrade" - 22% of respondents, mostly people of middle and older age, mostly with secondary and incomplete secondary education, more often men. This treatment of the surname or title of the position, profession sounds very official, unacceptable for the immediate situation.
"Citizen, citizen" - is chosen by 21% of respondents, approximately the same social composition. Indeed, when we hear: "Citizen!", then this is, as a rule, an imperious appeal of a police officer. It is very typical for a formal setting. For some, it offends; for others, this treatment, although strict, is polite. Better than the impersonal: "Let's go!".
"Man", "Woman" - preferred by 19% of respondents, mostly service workers. In these words, only the belonging of a person to any gender is used.
A beautiful, old "ma'am" has appeared - it is used by only 17% of the respondents, highly educated people, more often than women.
Later, sociologists conducted the same survey already in 2001. During these two years, little has changed, only now "comrades" and "citizens" have faded into the background. The appeals "girl", "woman" became more often used. They are used by 85% of respondents when addressing strangers.
The appeal "girl" has already gone beyond age limits and has become especially common. It is an analogue of a compliment: every woman is pleased to hear about her youth or youthfulness. This is precisely why many find this appeal most suitable for the fair sex, but, you see, how incongruous it still sounds when applied to a woman of 50 and older.
The word "woman" is a dialect form that came from the southern regions of Russia. Generally speaking, the word "woman" is relatively new, it appeared only in the 16th century, at first it was the designation of a woman of the lower class. The rethinking of the meaning of the word takes place already in the second half of the 19th century, but not without the influence of the literary artistic language. “In the Russian folk lexicon,” N.V. Shchelggunov noted, “there is no word for a woman, but there is a woman or a girl. All of Russia, from top to bottom, did not know another woman, except for a woman.” But no matter how the attitude towards this word changed, during the entire 19th century such words as: vulgar, grumpy, shameless, empty-headed were associated with it. Today, such expressive expressions are more often associated with the word "woman".
Thus, social and cultural changes in society are certainly reflected in the language, as well as in the way people turn to each other.
3. The role of address in Russian speech etiquette
appeal Russian speech etiquette
Appeal is perhaps the most massive and richest speech etiquette feature.
There are few personal pronouns in Russian, but their weight in speech etiquette is quite significant. The choice between "you" and "you" is especially significant. "You" instead of "you" in addressing one in Russian appeared relatively recently, in the 18th century. Such a "you" was entrenched primarily among the educated nobles. Prior to this, "you" in itself had no etiquette content. But in comparison with "you", it has gained the meaning of closeness, and in the communication of people who are not close, it began to express social inequality, communication from top to bottom. You spoke to the commoners, the servants. Gradually capturing more and more layers of the townspeople, the use of "you" and "you", respectively, received various shades in accordance with the attitude typical of each social group.
The presence in the Russian language of the form of address to "you" and "you" gives us an effective means of being polite. Personal pronouns are directly related to speech etiquette. They are connected with self-naming and naming of the interlocutor, with the feeling that "decent" and "indecent" in such naming. For example, when a person corrects an interlocutor: “Tell me “you”; “Don’t poke, please,” he expresses indignation at the “disrespectful” pronoun directed at him. This means that “you” is not always empty, and “you” is not always Kind-hearted? Usually "you" is used when referring to a loved one, in an informal setting, and when the treatment is rudely familiar; "you" - in a polite manner, in an official setting, when referring to a stranger, unfamiliar. Although there are a lot of nuances.
It is not customary for the Russian people to refer to the third person present during the conversation with the pronoun he (she). Russian speech etiquette provides for naming a third person present during a conversation by name (and patronymic), if it happens to speak with him and for him. Apparently, the Russians clearly feel that "I" and "you", "we" and "you" are, as it were, containing pronouns, that is, those that distinguish interlocutors from all the others. Meanwhile, the etiquette of many countries does not prohibit such a speech action - the "exclusion" of the present.
The ability to use the language correctly, to use the correct words-addresses in conversation, includes, respectively, knowledge and compliance with speech etiquette.
The appeal implies the presence of another term, another component that manifests itself throughout the communication, is its integral part, serves as a bridge from one spoken remark to another. And at the same time, the norm of use and the form of address itself have not been finally established, cause controversy, and are also a sore spot in Russian speech etiquette.
Conclusion
Thus, based on all of the above, it is clear that the problem of common address in an informal setting remains open.
Apparently, it will be resolved only when every citizen of Russia learns to respect himself and treat other people with respect, when he learns to defend his honor and dignity, when he becomes a full-fledged highly developed personality from all points of view, when it doesn’t matter what position he occupies, what is his status, financial situation. Only then, none of the Russians will feel embarrassed and embarrassed if they call him or he calls someone "master" ("mistress") or when these words again change their meaning and become acceptable to each individual.
I believe that each person, of course, has the right to decide for himself whom to contact, and also has the right to choose the ways and intonation of transmitting information to the interlocutor, but still it is necessary to constantly study your Russian culture, the rules of behavior in society that have been developing over several tens of centuries. Compliance with the norms and culture of speech etiquette is a kind of respect for one's ancestors, pride in the heroic past of one's people. For centuries, traditions of communication in the family, at work, on the street with strangers have evolved. In order to understand and clearly define for yourself acceptable forms of conversion, you need to know the history of conversion in Russian culture, the history of the origin of certain species.
Bibliography
1.Kazartseva O.M. The culture of verbal communication: theory and practice of teaching: Textbook - 4th ed. M .: - training: Flint: Science, 2001. - 496 p.
2. Romanenko A.P. The image of the speaker as a category of Soviet rhetoric / A.P. Romanenko, Z.S. Sanji-Garyaeva // Questions of style.- Saratov.- 1993.- No. 25
3. Shulgin V.S. History of Russian culture of the 9th-20th centuries: a manual for universities / V.S. Shulgin, L.V. Koshman, E.K. Sysoeva, R.M. Zezina. - M., 2002
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