June 28, 1919. Treaty of Versailles

(extract)

After the defeat of the German coalition in World War I, a conference of powers that were at war with Germany met in Paris on January 18, 1919. Among them the main ones were the USA, England, France, Italy and Japan. During the discussion of the terms of the peace treaty with Germany, many disagreements and contradictions were revealed among the members of the conference. On May 7, 1919, a draft peace treaty was worked out, which was presented by the chairman of the conference, French Premier Clemenceau, to the German delegation that arrived in Paris, headed by the German Foreign Minister Brockdorff-Rantzau. The treaty begins with the Charter of the League of Nations. The German delegation wanted to enter into negotiations with the Entente powers on the content of the peace treaty, but this was refused. The delegations were allowed only to make written statements on certain articles of the treaty. She made extensive use of this, but could not change the essence of the treaty. Then Brockdorff-Rantzau refused to sign the contract and resigned. The German delegation returned home, after which a heated discussion took place in Germany between opponents and supporters of the signing of the treaty. In the end, the supporters of the signing won, and a new German delegation was sent to Paris, headed by the Social Democratic Foreign Minister Hermann Müller, who on June 28, 1919 signed a peace treaty in the Hall of Mirrors of the Palace of Versailles (hence the name of its "Treaty of Versailles" ). Lenin assessed this treaty as "an unworthy forced peace in the interests of robbery and profit" ( V. I. Lenin, Soch., vol. 29, p. 431).

Article 1. ... All states, dominions or colonies ... may become members of the League if two-thirds of the Assembly vote in favor of their admission, since they will give effective guarantees of their sincere intention to comply with international obligations and since they will accept the provisions established by the League regarding their military, naval and air forces and armaments.

Any member of the League may, after two years' prior warning, withdraw from the League, provided that by that time he has fulfilled all his international obligations, including those under this Statute.

Article 2. The activities of the League, as defined in this Statute, are carried out by the Assembly and the Council, which has a permanent Secretariat.

Article 3. The Assembly consists of representatives of the members of the League.

It meets at the appointed time and at any other time, if circumstances so require, at the seat of the League or such other place as may be appointed.

The Assembly is in charge of all matters which fall within the scope of the League or which affect the peace of the world.

Each member of the League may have no more than three representatives in the Assembly and has only one vote.

Article 4. The Council shall consist of representatives of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers, and of the four other members of the League. These four members of the League shall be appointed at the discretion of the Assembly, and at such times as it may wish to elect...

With the approval of the majority of the Assembly, the Council may appoint other members of the League, whose representation on the Council will henceforth be permanent. He may, with the same approval, increase the number of members of the League to be chosen by the Assembly to be represented in the Council.

The Council meets when circumstances so require, and at least once a year, at the seat of the League or such other place as may be appointed.

The Council is in charge of all matters within the scope of the League or affecting the peace of the world.

Any member of the League not represented on the Council is invited to send a representative to attend when a question is brought before the Council that particularly affects its interests.

Each member of the League represented in the Council has only one vote and has only one representative.

Article 5. Insofar as there are no specifically contrary provisions of this Statute or provisions of this Treaty, the decisions of the Assembly or the Council shall be taken unanimously by the members of the League represented in the assembly ...

Article 7 Geneva shall be the seat of the League...

Article 8 The members of the League recognize that the maintenance of peace requires the limitation of national armaments to the minimum compatible with national security and with the fulfillment of international obligations imposed by a common action.

The Council, taking into account the geographical position and special conditions of each state, prepares plans for this restriction for the consideration and decision of the various governments.

These plans should be subject to a new review and, if necessary, revision at least every ten years.

After they have been adopted by the various governments, the limit of armaments thus fixed may not be exceeded without the consent of the Council...

Article 10. The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve, against any external attack, the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the League. In the event of an attack, threat or danger of attack, the Council shall indicate the measures to ensure the fulfillment of this obligation.

Article 11. It is expressly declared that every war or threat of war, whether directly or not affecting any of the members of the League, is of interest to the League as a whole, and that the latter must take measures capable of effectively protecting the peace of nations. In such a case, the General Secretary shall immediately convene the Council at the request of any member of the League.

In addition, it is declared that every member of the League has the right to draw the attention of the Assembly or Council in a friendly manner to any circumstance capable of affecting international relations and, therefore, threatening to shake the peace or good harmony between nations, on which the world depends.

Article 12. All members of the League agree that if a dispute arises between them, which may lead to a rupture, they will submit it either to arbitration or to the consideration of the Council. They also agree that they must in no case resort to war before the expiration of a period of three months after the decision of the arbitrators or the report of the Council ...

Article 16. If a member of the League resorts to war contrary to the obligations assumed in Articles 12, 13 or 15, he is ipso facto considered to have committed an act of war against all other members of the League. The latter undertake to immediately break off with him all commercial or financial relations, to prohibit all communications between their own citizens and the citizens of the state that has violated the Statute, and to stop all financial, commercial or personal communications between the citizens of this state and the citizens of any other state, whether it is a member of the League or not.

In this case, the Council is bound to propose to the various governments concerned that strength of military, sea or air force by which the members of the League will, according to their affiliation, participate in the armed forces intended to maintain respect for the obligations of the League.

The Members of the League further agree to give each other mutual support in the application of the economic and financial measures to be taken by virtue of this article, in order to reduce to a minimum the losses and inconveniences which may result therefrom. They likewise provide mutual support to counter any special measure directed against one of them by a State in violation of the Statute. They shall make the necessary arrangements to facilitate the passage through their territory of the forces of any member of the League participating in the general action to maintain respect for the obligations of the League.

Any member found guilty of violating one of the obligations arising from the Statute may be expelled from the League. The exception is made by the votes of all other members of the League represented in the Council.

Article 17 In the event of a dispute between two states, of which only one is a member of the League or of which neither is a member of it, the state or states outside the League are invited to submit to the obligations incumbent on its members for the purpose of settling the dispute, on conditions recognized by the Council as just...

If the invited State, refusing to assume the duties of a member of the League for the purpose of settling a dispute, resorts to war against a member of the League, the provisions of Article 16 shall apply to it...

The best way to put this principle into practice is to entrust the guardianship of these peoples to the advanced nations who, by virtue of their resources, their experience or their geographical position, are best able to assume this responsibility and who are willing to accept it: they would exercise this guardianship. as Mandatory and on behalf of the League...

Article 32. Germany recognizes the full sovereignty of Belgium over the entire disputed territory of Morenay (called Neutral Morenay).

Article 34. Germany furthermore renounces in favor of Belgium all rights and titles in the territories comprising the entire counties (Kreise) of Eupen and Malmedy.

Within six months following the entry into force of this Treaty, records will be opened at Eupen and Malmedy by the Belgian authorities, and the inhabitants of the said territories will have the right to express in writing their desire to see these territories, in whole or in part, left under German sovereignty.

The Belgian Government will have to bring the result of this popular inquiry to the attention of the League of Nations, whose decision Belgium undertakes to accept.

Article 40 ... Germany recognizes that the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg ceased to be a member of the German Customs Union on January 1, 1919, renounces all rights to operate railways, joins in the abolition of the regime of neutrality of the Grand Duchy and accepts in advance any international agreements concluded By the Allied and Associated Powers regarding the Grand Duchy.

Article 42. Germany is prohibited from maintaining or building fortifications either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the right bank of the Rhine to the west of the line drawn 50 kilometers east of this river.

Article 43. Likewise prohibited in the zone defined in Article 42 is the maintenance or concentration of armed forces, either permanent or temporary, as well as all military maneuvers, of whatever kind, and the preservation of any materiel for mobilization.

Article 44. Should Germany in any way violate the provisions of Articles 42 and 43, she would be regarded as having committed an act of hostility towards the signatory Powers of the present Treaty, and as seeking to shake the peace of the world.

Article 45. In compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in the north of France, and on account of the amount of reparations for war losses due from Germany, the latter cedes to France full and unrestricted ownership, free and clear from all debts or duties and with the exclusive right to exploit, coal mines located in the Saar basin ...

Article 49. Germany renounces in favor of the League of Nations, here considered as a Fideicommissar, the administration of the territory defined above.

At the end of fifteen years from the coming into force of this Treaty, the people of the said Territory shall be called upon to express themselves as to the sovereignty under which they wish to be placed.

VERSAILLES PEACE TREATY of 1919 - an agreement that officially ended the First World War of 1914-1918. Signed in Versailles (France) on June 28, 1919 by Germany, which was defeated in the war, on the one hand, and by the "allied and united powers" that won the war, on the other hand: the USA, the British Empire, France, Italy, Japan, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil , Cuba, Ecuador, Greece, Guatemala, Haiti, Hijaz, Honduras, Liberia, Nicaragua, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbo-Croat-Slovenian State, Siam, Czechoslovakia and Uruguay. The treaty was signed on behalf of the USA by W. Wilson, R. Lansing, Mr. White and others, on behalf of the British Empire by Lloyd George, E. B. Low, A. J. Balfour and others, on behalf of France by J. Clemenceau, S. Pichon, A. Tardieu, J. Cambon and others, from Italy - S. Sonnino, J. Imperiali, S. Crespi, from Japan - Saionji, Makino, Sinda, Matsui and others, from Germany - Mr. Muller, Dr. Belle . The Treaty of Versailles was intended to consolidate the redistribution of the capitalist world in favor of the victorious powers to the detriment of Germany. The Versailles Peace Treaty was to a large extent directed against the world's first Soviet state, as well as against the international revolutionary movement of the working class, which had grown stronger under the influence of the hardships of the war and the Great October Socialist Revolution. The Treaty of Versailles, V. I. Lenin pointed out, is "... an agreement of predators and robbers", "this is an unheard of, predatory peace, which puts tens of millions of people, including the most civilized, into the position of slaves" (Soch., 31, p. 301).

Of the states that signed the Versailles Peace Treaty, the United States, Hejaz and Ecuador refused to ratify it. The American Senate, under the influence of isolationists, refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles because of the unwillingness of the United States to bind itself with participation in the League of Nations (where the influence of England and France prevailed), the charter of which was an inextricable part of the Treaty of Versailles. Instead of the Treaty of Versailles, the United States concluded a special treaty with Germany in August 1921, almost identical to the Treaty of Versailles, but without articles on the League of Nations. Due to the fact that the Versailles Peace Treaty contained resolutions on the transfer of the Chinese province of Shandong to Japan, China refused to sign the Versailles Peace Treaty.

The Treaty of Versailles entered into force on January 10, 1920, after it was ratified by Germany and the four major allied powers - England, France, Italy and Japan. The conclusion of the Versailles Peace Treaty was preceded by lengthy secret negotiations, which became especially intense after the conclusion of the 1918 Armistice of Compiègne between Germany and the main Allied Powers. The terms of the treaty were worked out at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920.

The Treaty of Versailles consisted of 440 articles and one protocol. It was divided into 15 parts, which, in turn, were divided into departments. Part 1 (v. 1-26) set out the charter of the League of Nations. Parts 2 (Articles 27-30) and 3rd (Articles 31-117) were devoted to describing and delineating Germany's borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, France, Switzerland, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Denmark, and also dealt with the political European devices. In accordance with these articles of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany transferred to Belgium the districts of Malmedy and Eupen, as well as the so-called neutral and Prussian parts of Morena, Poland - Poznan, parts of Pomerania (Pomerania) and West Prussia, returned Alsace-Lorraine to France (within the borders that existed before the beginning of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871), recognized Luxembourg as withdrawn from the German Customs Association; the city of Danzig (Gdansk) was declared a free city, the city of Memel (Klaipeda) was transferred to the jurisdiction of the victorious powers (in February 1923 it was annexed to Lithuania); a small part of Silesia ceded to Czechoslovakia from Germany. The original Polish lands - on the right bank of the Oder, Lower Silesia, most of Upper Silesia, etc. - remained with Germany. Question about Mrs. ownership of Schleswig, torn away from Denmark in 1864 (see Danish War of 1864), the southern part of East Prussia and Upper Silesia had to be decided by a plebiscite (as a result, part of Schleswig passed in 1920 to Denmark, part of Upper Silesia in 1921 - to Poland , the southern part of East Prussia remained with Germany). Based on Art. 45 "as compensation for the destruction of coal mines in northern France," Germany transferred to France "in full and unlimited ownership ... coal mines located in the Saar basin," which passed for 15 years under the control of a special commission of the League of Nations. After this period, the plebiscite of the population of the Saar was to decide the future fate of this area (in 1935 it was ceded to Germany). Articles 80-93, concerning Austria, Czechoslovakia and Poland, the German government recognized and pledged to strictly observe the independence of these states. The entire German part of the left bank of the Rhine and a strip of the right bank 50 km wide were subject to demilitarization. According to Art. 116, Germany recognized "the independence of all territories that were part of the former Russian Empire by 1. VIII. 1914", as well as the abolition of both the Brest Peace of 1918 and all other agreements concluded by it with the Soviet government. Art. 117 disclosed the plans of the authors of the Versailles Peace Treaty, designed to defeat Soviet power and dismember the territory of the former Russian Empire, and obligated Germany to recognize all treaties and agreements that the Allied and Associated Powers would conclude with states "that were formed and are being formed on the territory of the former Russian Empire." This article had a special anti-Soviet orientation.

Part 4 of the Treaty of Versailles (Articles 118-158), which dealt with German rights and interests outside Germany, deprived her of all colonies, which were later divided among the main victorious powers on the basis of the League of Nations mandate system: England and France were divided among themselves on parts of Togo and Cameroon (Africa); Japan received a mandate for the German-owned Pacific Islands north of the equator. In addition, all German rights in relation to Jiaozhou and the entire Shandong Prov. were transferred to Japan. China; thus, the treaty provided for the plunder of China in favor of imperialist Japan. The Ruanda-Urundi region (Africa) passed to Belgium as a mandated territory, South West Africa became a mandated territory of the Union of South Africa, part of New Guinea belonging to Germany was transferred to the Commonwealth of Australia, Samoa - New Zealand, "Kionga Triangle" (Southeast Africa) was transferred to Portugal. Germany abandoned the advantages in Liberia, Siam, China, recognized the protectorate of England over Egypt and France over Morocco.

Parts 5-8 of the Versailles Peace Treaty (Articles 159-247) were devoted to issues related to limiting the size of the German armed forces, the punishment of war criminals and the situation of German prisoners of war, as well as reparations. The German army was not supposed to exceed 100 thousand people and, according to the plans of the authors of the Versailles Peace Treaty, was intended solely to fight against the revolutionary movement within the country, compulsory military service was canceled, the main part of the surviving German navy was to be transferred to the winners. Germany undertook to compensate the Allies for the losses incurred by the governments and individual citizens of the Entente countries as a result of hostilities.

Parts 9-10 (Articles 248-312) dealt with financial and economic issues and provided for Germany's obligation to transfer to the allies gold and other valuables received during the war from Turkey, Austria-Hungary (as collateral for loans), as well as from Russia (according to the Brest Peace of 1918) and Romania (according to the Bucharest Peace Treaty of 1918). Germany was to annul all treaties and agreements of an economic nature that she had concluded with Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey, as well as with Romania and Russia.

Parts 11-12 (Articles 313-386) regulated the issues of aeronautics over German territory and the procedure for the Allies to use German ports, railways and waterways.

Part 13 of the V. M. D. (Articles 387-427) was devoted to the creation of the International Labor Office.

The final 14th-15th parts of the Versailles Peace Treaty (Articles 428-440) established guarantees for the fulfillment of the treaty by Germany and obligated the latter "to recognize the full force of peace treaties and additional conventions to be concluded by the Allied and Associated Powers with the Powers fighting on the side Germany".

The Treaty of Versailles, dictated to Germany by the victorious powers, reflected deep, insurmountable imperialist contradictions, which not only did not weaken, but, on the contrary, became even more acute after the end of World War I. In an effort to resolve these contradictions at the expense of the Soviet state, the victorious powers preserved in Germany the dominance of reactionary imperialist groups, called upon to become a striking force in the struggle against the young socialist country and the revolutionary movement in Europe. In this regard, Germany's violation of the military and reparation clauses of the Versailles Peace Treaty was actually condoned by the governments of the victorious countries. In pursuit of the goal of restoring the military-industrial potential of Germany (see the Dawes plan, the Young plan), the United States, Britain and France repeatedly reviewed the amount and terms of reparation payments. This revision ended with the fact that since 1931 Germany, in accordance with the moratorium granted by the US government, stopped paying reparations altogether. The USSR was an opponent of the Versailles Peace Treaty, invariably exposed its imperialist, predatory nature, but at the same time resolutely opposed the policy of unleashing the Second World War, 1939-1945, carried out by the Nazis under the guise of fighting the Versailles Peace Treaty. In March 1935, Hitler's Germany, having introduced universal military service, violated the military articles of the Versailles Peace Treaty by a unilateral act, and the Anglo-German Naval Agreement of June 18, 1935 was already a bilateral violation of the Versailles Peace Treaty. The capture by Germany of Austria (1938), Czechoslovakia (1938-1939) and its attack on Poland (September 1, 1939) meant the final liquidation of the Versailles Peace Treaty.

An extensive literature of various political trends is devoted to issues related to the preparation of the Versailles Peace Treaty, the assessment of its nature and significance in the post-Versailles structure of Europe and the new alignment of forces in the world. At the same time, the main tendency of bourgeois historiography in assessing the Versailles Peace Treaty is the desire to hide the predatory, imperialist nature of this treaty, an attempt to justify the position taken by the delegation of "their" country during the development and signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty. This trend is especially pronounced in such books in English. authors such as D. Lloyd George, The truth about the peace treaties, v. 1-2, 1938, Russian translation, vol. 1-2, 1957), How the World Was Made in 1919." G. Nicholson (N. Nicolson, Peacemaking 1919, 1933, Russian translation 1945), "Great Britain, France and the German problem in 1918-1939." W. M. Jordan (W. M. Jordan, Great Britain, France and the German problem 1918-1939, L.-N. Y., 1943, Russian translation 1945), in the works of J. M. Keynes (J. M. Keynes, The economic consequences of the peace, 1920, Russian translation: The Economic Consequences of the Versailles Peace Treaty, 1924), H. W. Temperley, A history of the Peace conference of Paris, v. 1-6, 1920-24) and etc. Despite the frank apologia for British imperialism, these books can serve as historical sources due to the huge factual and documentary material that they contain.

A characteristic feature of American historiography related to the Versailles Peace Treaty is an attempt to justify the foreign policy of the government of W. Wilson, to idealize his "Fourteen Points", which formed the basis of the "peacekeeping" activity of the head of the Amer. delegation at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920, to convince readers that American diplomacy, in developing the Versailles Peace Treaty and treaties with states allied with Kaiser Germany, was guided by the principles of "justice" and "self-determination of peoples" (E. M. House, The intimate papers of colonel House, v. 1-4, 1926-28, Russian translation: E. House, Colonel House Archive, vols. 1-4, The End of the War, June 1918-November 1919, 1944; R. S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson and world settlement, v. 1-3, 1923-27, Russian translation: S. Baker, Woodrow Wilson, World War, Treaty of Versailles, 1923; H. C. F. Bell, Woodrow Wilson and the people (1945); D Perkins, America and two wars (1944), Ch. Seymour, American diplomacy during the World war (1934), Th. Bailey, Woodrow Wilson and the lost peace (1945), etc.). However, American historiography is powerless to refute the assessment of Wilson's policy given by V. I. Lenin, who noted that "Wilson's idealized democratic republic turned out to be in fact a form of the most frenzied imperialism, the most shameless oppression and strangulation of weak and small peoples" (Soch., v. 28 , p. 169).

Extensive documentary and factual material about the Versailles Peace Treaty is contained in the book of the French statesman A. Tardieu "Peace" (A. Tardieu, La paix, 1921, Russian translation 1943). Being a participant in the Paris Conference and being at it the closest assistant of J. Clemenceau, Tardieu closely followed the discussion of German and other problems. This allowed him to cover in detail in his book the struggle around the territorial, reparations and other provisions of the Versailles Peace Treaty. At the same time, in his work Tardieu acts as a defender of French imperialism and its foreign policy in the German question.

Of particular interest to students of the history of the Versailles Peace Treaty are the books of the former Italian Prime Minister F. Nitti (F. Nitti, La decadenza dell "Europa, 1921, Russian translation: "Europe over the Abyss", 1923) and the Secretary General of the Italian delegation at the Paris Conference L. Aldrovandi-Marescotti (L. Aldrovandi-Marescotti, Guerra diplomatica..., 1937, Russian translation: Diplomatic War..., 1944) The works of these authors reflected the fact that Great Britain, France and the United States "deprived " Italy in solving territorial problems at the conference. Hence the sharp criticism to which they subjected the decisions of this conference.

A scientifically substantiated assessment of the Versailles Peace Treaty was given by Soviet historiography. Based on the characteristics of the Versailles Peace Treaty given by V. I. Lenin, on extensive documentary material, analyzing foreign policy. courses of state-in - the main initiators and leaders of the Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920 - Great Britain, France and the USA, Soviet historians (B.E. Stein ("The Russian Question" at the Paris Peace Conference (1919-20), 1949, I. I. Mints, A. M. Pankratova, V. M. Khvostov (authors of the chapters of the History of Diplomacy, vols. 2-3, Moscow, 1945) and others) convincingly showed the imperialist essence of the Versailles Peace Treaty, its fragility and devastating consequences for the peoples of the world.

B. E. Shtein, E. Yu. Bogush. Moscow.

Soviet historical encyclopedia. In 16 volumes. — M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. 1973-1982. Volume 3. WASHINGTON - VYACHKO. 1963.

Publications:

Treaty of Versailles, trans. from French, M., 1925; Traité de Versailles 1919, Nancy - R.-Stras., 1919.

On June 28, 1919, a peace treaty was signed in France at Versailles, officially ending the First World War.

In January 1919, an international conference met at the Palace of Versailles in France to finalize the results of the First World War. Its main task was to develop peace treaties with Germany and other defeated states.

At the conference, which was attended by 27 states, the tone was set by the so-called "Big Three" - British Prime Minister D. Lloyd George, French Prime Minister J. Clemenceau, US President W. Wilson. The defeated countries and Soviet Russia were not invited to the conference.

Until March 1919, all negotiations and the development of the terms of the peace treaty took place at regular meetings of the "Council of Ten", which included the heads of government and foreign ministers of the five main victorious countries: Great Britain, France, the USA, Italy and Japan. Later it turned out that the creation of this coalition turned out to be too cumbersome and formal for effective decision-making. Therefore, the representatives of Japan and the foreign ministers of most other countries participating in the conference stopped participating in the main meetings. Thus, during the negotiations within the framework of the Paris Peace Conference, only representatives of Italy, Great Britain, France and the United States remained.

On June 28, 1919, at the Palace of Versailles near Paris, they signed a peace treaty with Germany that officially ended the First World War and became one of the most important international treaties of the entire 20th century.

Under the agreement, the Germans lost all their colonial possessions. This also applied to the recent conquests in Europe - Alsace and Lorraine went to France. In addition, Germany was also deprived of part of its ancestral lands: Northern Schleswig went to Denmark, Belgium received the Eupen and Malmedy districts, as well as the Morena region. The newly formed Polish state included the main part of the provinces of Posen and West Prussia, as well as small territories in Pomerania, East Prussia and Upper Silesia.

In the region of the mouth of the Vistula River, the so-called "Polish Corridor" was created, which separated East Prussia from the rest of Germany. German Danzig was declared a "free city" under the supreme control of the League of Nations, and the coal mines of the Saarland were temporarily transferred to France. The left bank of the Rhine was occupied by the Entente troops, and a demilitarized zone 50 kilometers wide was created on the right bank. The rivers Rhine, Elbe and Oder were declared free for the passage of foreign ships.

In addition, Germany was forbidden to have aircraft, airships, tanks, submarines and ships with a displacement of more than 10 thousand tons. Her fleet could include 6 light battleships, 6 light cruisers, and 12 destroyers and torpedo boats each. Such a tiny army was no longer suitable for the defense of the country.

It was the conditions of the Versailles Peace - unbearably difficult and humiliating for Germany that eventually led Europe to the Second World War. The Germans quite rightly considered the humiliating treaty to be the dictates of the victors. Particularly revanchist sentiments were strong among the former military, who were perplexed about surrender, despite the fact that the German army had not been defeated at all. In the end, it was from this environment that the figure of Hitler eventually emerged.

The majority of the population perceived democracy as an alien order imposed by the victorious countries. The idea of revenge became a consolidating factor for German society - the struggle against Versailles began. Politicians who called for restraint and compromise in foreign policy were accused of weakness and betrayal. This prepared the ground on which the totalitarian and aggressive Nazi regime subsequently grew.

On June 28, two events took place: one that opened the way to the First World War and one that ended it. The first - - happened in 1914, the second - the Treaty of Versailles, which ended the First World War, in 1919. Europe (and not only it, but the world as a whole) disentangles the consequences of both to this day.

"This is not peace, this is a truce for 20 years." "This is not peace, but conditions dictated by robbers with a knife in the hands of a defenseless victim." These phrases, alas, turned out to be prophetic.

The author of the phrase about the truce is the commander-in-chief of the Entente troops, Marshal Ferdinand Foch. The author of the phrase about the robbers - Vladimir Lenin. These two, to put it mildly, disliked each other. Foch cherished plans for the conquest of Soviet Russia. And even was the organizer of military intervention in our region during the Civil War. Lenin, on the other hand, dreamed that "the revolutionary fire would spread to Europe."

Both of these political opponents agreed on one thing: the Treaty of Versailles is an extremely unstable construction. And even dangerous. Foch, being a military theorist and shrewd strategist, guessed almost exactly. World War II really began exactly 20 years after Versailles. Or rather, two months later - September 1, 1939.

And what a glorious start it all started... US President Woodrow Wilson, one of the initiators of the Paris Conference, during which the treaty was signed, repeatedly stated that "this document will become a guarantee of world peace." However, serious problems began in Europe after Versailles.

Before the war, it was more or less unified. Or rather divided between large empires - Germany, Russia, France, Austria-Hungary, Italy. In any case, the basic principles of the modern European Union - a single legal space, free movement of people and capital - were impeccably ensured. Unless the Russian Empire humiliated itself by maintaining the system of passports and visas. In 1919, the rulers of the "new world", the winners who signed the Treaty of Versailles, cut European borders, guided by the principle "let every nation finally have its own national state." The principle is good. But what did it result in?

As a result, the “titular nations”, having freed themselves from the “terrible oppression of empires”, arranged something indecent on their new lands. They prefer to remain silent about it. But what to do with the Russian genocide in Finland? The oppression of the Germans in Alsace, Lorraine and the Ruhr? Bullying of Ukrainians, Belarusians and the same Germans in Poland? A complete mess in a hastily created Yugoslavia, consisting of Serbs, Croats, Bosnians and Albanians who hate each other?

Peace treaty between the allied countries, the united states and Germany in 1919 Photo: wikipedia.org

One gets the impression that the Treaty of Versailles legalized one, but ardent desire of many European peoples: they were tired of making up a “united Europe” and again wanted to split into tribes - to become Hungarians, Poles, Letts, Estonians, Finns, Romanians, French ... And ruthlessly crush everyone, who does not fit into these tribes. And suddenly Europe was shrouded in a network of states with nationalist, and even openly fascist regimes - from Portugal with dictator Salazar in the west to Latvia with dictator Ulmanis in the east (see infographic). Paradox: only Hitler came to power democratically. All the rest - by coup. And all these regimes began to prepare a new world meat grinder.

Germany was then forced to pay for the pan-European massacre. The price was impressive - 269 billion gold marks (approximately equal to 100 thousand tons of pure gold). Although the Austro-Hungarian Empire was the first to officially declare war, bribes were smooth from it - such a state, under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, was forever erased from history. But the Germans paid the last tranche of reparations a hundred years ago only 4 years ago. 70 million euros. United Europe is strict. And collects debts without any discounts.

The echoes of that hasty treaty are still quite loud today. In the newly independent states - Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia - Nazi marches are held. Nationalist sentiment is strong in France, Hungary and Romania.

National separatists appeared in Spain, England and Italy.

What, are you tired of "united Europe" again? Ready to split into tribes? Looking for enemies in the East? Don't you think we've been through all this before?

Art. 1 ... All states, dominions or colonies ..., may become members of the League if two-thirds of the Assembly speak in favor of their admission ..., and insofar as they accept the provisions established by the League regarding their military, naval and air forces and weapons .

Any member of the League can ... leave the League, provided that he has fulfilled all his international obligations by this moment ...

Art.2. The activities of the League, as defined in this Statute, are carried out by the Assembly and the Council, which has a permanent Secretariat.

Art.3. The assembly consists of representatives of the members of the League...

Art.4. The Council is composed of representatives of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers, as well as representatives of four other members of the League. ... The Council meets when circumstances so require, and at least once a year ... The Council is in charge of all matters affecting the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. Every member of the League not represented on the Council is invited to send a representative to attend when a question is brought before the Council that particularly affects his interests...

Article 7. The seat of the League is Geneva...

Art.8. The members of the League recognize that the maintenance of peace requires the limitation of national armaments to the minimum compatible with national security and with the fulfillment of international obligations...

Art.10. The members of the League undertake to respect and preserve, against any external attack, the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all members of the League. In the event of an attack, threat or danger of attack. The Council indicates measures to ensure the fulfillment of this obligation.

Art. 11 It is expressly declared that every war or threat of war, whether it directly or not affects any of the members of the League, is of interest to the League as a whole and that the latter must take measures capable of effectively protecting the peace of nations ...

Art.12. All members of the League agree that if a dispute arises between them, which may lead to a rupture, they will submit it either to arbitration or to consideration by the Council ...

Art.16. If a member of the League resorts to war... then he is ipso facto regarded as having committed an act of war against all other members of the League. The latter undertake to immediately break off all commercial or financial relations with it ... In this case, the Council is obliged to propose to the various interested governments that numerical strength of the military, sea or air force, through which the members of the League will, according to their affiliation, participate in the armed forces intended to maintain respect for the obligations of the League ... any member found guilty of violating one of the obligations arising from the Statute ... may be expelled from the League ...

Article 17. In the event of a dispute between two States, of which only one is a member of the League, or of which neither is a member of it, the State or States outside the League are invited to submit to the obligations incumbent on its members for the purpose of settling the dispute...

Article 22. The following principles apply to colonies and territories which, as a result of the war, have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the states that previously ruled them, and which are inhabited by peoples who are not yet capable of self-governing themselves in the especially difficult conditions of the modern world. The welfare and development of these peoples is the sacred mission of civilization, and it is fitting that guarantees for the fulfillment of that mission be included in the insistence of the Statute. The best way to put this principle into practice is to entrust the guardianship of these peoples to the advanced nations which, by virtue of their resources, their experience, or their geographical position, are best able to assume this responsibility and who are willing to accept it...

Art.32. Germany recognizes the full sovereignty of Belgium over the entire disputed territory of Moraine...

Article 34. Germany renounces, moreover, in favor of Belgium, all rights and titles to the territories comprising the entire counties (Kreise) of Eupen and Malmedy.

The Belgian Government will have to bring the result of this popular inquiry to the attention of the League of Nations, whose decision Belgium undertakes to accept.

Art.40. ... Germany recognizes that the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg ceased to be part of the German Customs Union on January 1, 1919, renounces all rights to operate railways, joins the abolition of the Grand Duchy's regime of neutrality and accepts in advance all international agreements concluded by the Allied and Associated powers in relation to the Grand Duchy.

Art.42. Germany is forbidden to maintain or build fortifications either on the left bank of the Rhine or on the right bank of the Rhine to the west of the line drawn 50 kilometers east of this river.

Art.43. Likewise, it is prohibited in the zone defined in Article 42 to maintain or concentrate armed forces...

Art.44. In the event that Germany should in any way violate the provisions of Articles 42 and 43, she would be considered as having committed an act of hostility towards the Powers that signed the insistence of the Treaty, and as striving to shake the peace of the world.

Art.45. In compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in the north of France, and in reparations for the war losses due from Germany, the latter cedes to France full and unrestricted ownership ... of the coal mines located in the Saar basin ...

Art.49. At the expiration of a period of fifteen years from the coming into force of this Treaty, the people of the said Territory shall be called upon to express themselves as to the sovereignty under which they wish to be placed.

Alsace - Lorraine.

The High Contracting Parties, recognizing as a moral obligation to remedy the injustice caused by Germany in 1871 to both the law of France and the will of the population of Alsace-Lorraine, cut off from their fatherland, despite the solemn protest of its representatives at the Assembly in Bordeaux, have agreed on the following articles:

Art.51. The territories ceded to Germany by virtue of the Preliminary Peace signed at Versailles on February 26, 1871, and the Frankfurt Treaty of May 10, 1871, return to French sovereignty from the day of the armistice of November 11, 1918 ...

Art.80. Germany recognizes and will strictly respect the independence of Austria...

Art.81. Germany recognizes ... the complete independence of the Czechoslovak state ...

Art.83. Germany renounces in favor of the Czechoslovak state all its rights and titles to a part of the Silesian territory ...

Art.87. Germany recognizes ... the complete independence of Poland and renounces in favor of Poland from all rights and titles in the territories limited by the Baltic Sea, the eastern border of Germany ...

Art.102. The Principal Allied and Associated Powers undertake to form from the city of Danzig... a Free City. He will be placed under the protection of the League of Nations.

Art.104. ... Include the Free City of Danzig within the customs border of Poland and take measures to establish a free zone in the port ...

Art.116. Germany recognizes and undertakes to respect, as permanent and inalienable, the independence of all territories that were part of the former Russian Empire by August 1, 1914...

The Allied and Associated Powers formally stipulate Russia's rights to receive from Germany all restitutions and reparations based on the principles of this Treaty.

Art.119. Germany renounces in favor of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers all her rights and titles to her overseas possessions.

Art.160. At the latest, from March 31, 1920, the German army should not have more than seven divisions of infantry and three divisions of cavalry. From this moment on, the total strength of the army of the states that form Germany should not exceed one hundred thousand people ...

The total number of officers... shall not exceed four thousand...

The German Grand General Staff and all other similar formations will be disbanded and cannot be re-established in any form.

Art.173. All kinds of universal compulsory military service will be abolished in Germany. The German army can be built and manned only by voluntary recruitment.

Art. 180. All land fortifications, fortresses and fortified places located on German territory to the west of the line drawn fifty kilometers east of the Rhine will be disarmed and demolished ...

The system of fortifications of the southern and eastern borders of Germany will be preserved in its present state.

Art.181. At the expiration of a period of two months from the date of entry into force of this Treaty, the strength of the German navy shall not exceed in armed courts:

6 battleships of the "Deutschland" or "Lothringen" type,

6 light cruisers,

12 counter - destroyers,

12 destroyers...

They must not contain any submarines.

Art.183. ... the total number of persons involved in the German navy ... including officers and personnel of every rank and every kind, should not exceed fifteen thousand people ...

Art.198. The military forces of Germany must not include any military or naval aviation...

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