Conditioned reflexes differ from unconditioned reflexes in diversity and inconstancy. Therefore, there is no clear division of conditioned reflexes and their definite classification. Based on the needs of the theory and practice of dog training, the main types and varieties of conditioned reflexes are distinguished.
Natural conditioned reflexes are formed on the constant natural properties and qualities of the unconditioned stimulus.

For example, in a dog, natural conditioned reflexes are formed to the sight, smell, and taste of food. They can be formed on the appearance, voice, smell, certain actions of the trainer and his assistant, on the training suit, raincoat, fetching object, rod, whip, stick and other items used in dog training, as well as on the environment and conditions in which which the dog is trained.

These reflexes are easily and quickly formed and persist for a long time in the absence of subsequent reinforcements. If the dog is 1-2 times painful irritation with a leash, and he will be afraid of only one type of leash. Most of the natural conditioned reflexes in dogs are used as the basis for developing other conditioned reflexes needed in the service.

Artificial conditioned reflexes.

Unlike natural ones, they are formed on extraneous stimuli that do not have the natural signs of an unconditioned stimulus, but coincide in time with its action. So, when training for sound signals - commands, a bell, a whistle, a buzzer, visual gestures, lighting a light bulb, as well as for smell and other stimuli in dogs, artificial conditioned reflexes are continuously and in large numbers formed.

They have an important signal-preemptive and adaptive value to continuously changing environmental conditions. A distinctive feature of all artificial conditioned reflexes is slow formation with a large number of combinations. In addition, they are easily slowed down and quickly fade away when not reinforced. More difficult is the formation of a stable and reliable skill from an artificial conditioned reflex.
Conditioned reflexes of the first, second and higher orders.

Types of conditioned reflexes

Responses formed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes are called conditioned reflexes of the first order, and reflexes developed on the basis of previously acquired conditioned reflexes (skills) are called conditioned reflexes of the second, third and higher order.

The mechanism of formation of a second-order conditioned reflex can be explained by the example of teaching a dog to work by gestures to control its behavior at a distance. First, first-order conditioned reflexes to the corresponding commands are developed by reinforcing them with unconditional influences. After these conditioned reflexes have been consolidated into skills, second-order conditioned reflexes can be developed on their basis to gestures or other signals without reinforcement by unconditioned stimuli.

Conditioned reflexes of searching the area, searching for a scent trail, sampling things by smell are developed according to the principle of the formation of conditioned reflexes of the second, and sometimes third order.
The significance of higher-order conditioned reflexes in training lies in the fact that they not only ensure the formation of complex skills in response to various signals of the trainer, but also contribute to the manifestation of extrapolative reflexes in a difficult environment.

Positive conditioned reflexes

Conditioned reflexes, the basis of the formation and manifestation of which are the processes of excitation and the vigorous activity of the animal, are called positive reflexes. They are mainly related to the dog's motor reactions. The majority of general disciplinary and special skills also constitute positive conditioned reflexes. For example, overcoming obstacles, crawling, moving a dog along a trail, finding and carrying things, detaining an assistant, and other complex actions of a dog include processes of strong and prolonged excitation of the nerve centers of the cerebral cortex. Some positive conditioned reflexes are replaced by others or end with inhibition in order to stop the active actions of the dog.

Negative conditioned reflexes.

Conditioned reflexes developed on the basis of the process of inhibition are called negative. Inhibitory conditioned reflexes for the body are as important as positive ones. In combination with each other, they make up the majority of complex skills that balance the behavior of the dog, make it disciplined, free the body from unnecessary excitations and positive conditioned reflexes that have lost their meaning. Negative conditioned reflexes include the cessation of undesirable actions by the dog, endurance during landing, laying and standing, differentiation of smells when working by instinct, etc.

Conditioned reflexes for time.

The expedient rhythm in the behavior of a trained dog is explained by conditioned reflexes to time, which are formed for time intervals in the mode of care, feeding, training, work and rest during the day, week, month and even year. As a result, biorhythms of active and passive, working and non-working states, periods of effective and ineffective training are formed in the dog's behavior.

When training dogs for various combinations of conditioned stimuli with unconditioned stimuli, coinciding, delayed, delayed and trace conditioned reflexes are formed in time.

Coinciding conditioned reflex is formed when a signal - a command is applied simultaneously or 0.5–2 seconds earlier than the unconditioned stimulus. The response occurs immediately after a command or gesture is given. When training dogs, as a rule, coinciding conditioned reflexes should be developed. In these cases, the dog's responses to commands and gestures are clear, energetic, and the developed conditioned reflex lasts longer and is resistant to inhibition.

Delayed conditioned reflex is formed when the action of a signal - a command, a gesture is reinforced by an unconditioned stimulus with a delay of 3-30 seconds. The response of such a reflex to a conditioned signal manifests itself for a delayed time of reinforcement with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if the trainer reinforces the “Lie down” command by influencing the dog after 5 seconds, then the resulting conditioned reflex does not appear immediately, that is, the dog lies down 5 seconds after the command is given.

Such reflexes in dogs are the result of a violation of the methods and techniques of training.
Delayed conditioned reflexes are more common in dogs assigned to slow trainers.

delayed conditioned reflex It is formed during prolonged action of a conditioned stimulus and its late reinforcement with an unconditioned stimulus. In the practice of training, delayed conditioned reflexes are formed in a dog when the trainer reinforces with an unconditioned stimulus not the first command, but its multiple repetitions. Similar mistakes can be observed when controlling a dog at a distance and without a leash. In this case, the trainer cannot quickly influence the dog, and is forced to re-issue commands to make it perform the desired action. The resulting conditioned reflex manifests itself with a great delay, i.e., after repeated repetition of a command or gesture.

trace conditioned reflex is produced on the basis of a trace of excitation in the central nervous system caused by a conditioned stimulus, when reinforced by the action of an unconditioned stimulus after some time. Between the fading focus of excitation from the conditioned stimulus and the focus of excitation from the action of the unconditioned stimulus, a temporary connection is formed in the cortex, called the trace conditioned reflex. The development of such conditioned reflexes in dogs proceeds with great difficulty.

A trace conditioned reflex can form faster if the signal stimulus has a long-term stimulating value for the dog, and the unconditioned stimulus causes a strong excitatory or inhibitory reaction. For example, the “Listen” command, reinforced by the actions of the helper after 1-2 hours, causes the dog to be alert and expect the helper within this period of time.

from the book Araslanov Filimon, Alekseev Alexey, Shigorin Valery "Dog Training"

- a set of neurophysiological processes that provide consciousness, subconscious assimilation of incoming information and individual adaptive behavior of the organism in the environment.

mental activity

– it is an ideal subjectively realized activity of the organism, carried out with the help of neurophysiological processes.

Thus, mental activity is carried out with the help of GNI. Mental activity takes place only during the period of wakefulness and is realized, and GNI - both during sleep as unconscious processing of information, and during wakefulness as conscious and subconscious processing.

All reflexes are divided into 2 groups - unconditioned and conditional.

Unconditioned reflexes are called innate reflexes. These reflexes are of a species nature. Conditioned reflexes are acquired, individual.

Types of conditioned reflexes

In relation to the signal stimulus to the unconditioned stimulus, all conditioned reflexes are divided into natural and artificial (laboratory).

1. I. natural conditioned reflexes are formed to signals that are natural signs of a reinforcing stimulus. For example, the smell, color of meat can be conditioned signals of meat reinforcement. Conditioned reflexes easily arise without special development for a while. So, eating at the same time leads to the release of digestive juices and other reactions of the body (for example, leukocytosis at the time of eating).
2. II. Artificial (laboratory) called conditioned reflexes to such signal stimuli, which in nature are not related to the unconditioned (reinforcing) stimulus.
3. 1. Difficulty is classified as:

a) simple conditioned reflexes developed to single stimuli (classical conditioned reflexes by I.P. Pavlov);

b) complex conditioned reflexes, i.e. on several signals acting simultaneously or sequentially; c) chain reflexes - to a chain of stimuli, each of which causes its own conditioned reflex (dynamic stereotype).

1. By developing a conditioned reflex based on another conditioned reflex distinguish conditioned reflexes of the second, third and other orders. Reflexes of the first order are conditioned reflexes developed on the basis of unconditioned reflexes (classical conditioned reflexes). Second-order reflexes are developed on the basis of first-order conditioned reflexes, in which there is no unconditioned stimulus. The third-order reflex is formed on the basis of the second-order conditioned reflex. The higher the order of conditioned reflexes, the more difficult it is to develop them. Dogs manage to form conditioned reflexes only up to the third order.

Depending on the signaling system distinguish conditioned reflexes to the signals of the first and second signal systems, i.e. on word. The latter are produced only in humans: for example, after the formation of a conditioned pupillary reflex to light (pupil constriction), pronouncing the word “light” also causes pupil constriction in the subject.

The biological significance of conditioned reflexes lies in their preventive role, they have an adaptive value for the body, preparing the body for future beneficial behavioral activity and helping it avoid harmful effects, adapt to the natural and social environment. Conditioned reflexes are formed due to the plasticity of the nervous system.

The main conditions for the development of conditioned reflexes

1. The presence of two stimuli, one of which is unconditioned (food, pain stimulus, etc.), causing an unconditional reflex reaction, and the other is conditioned (signal), signaling an upcoming unconditioned stimulus (light, sound, type of food, etc.) ;
2. Multiple combination of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli;
3. The conditioned stimulus must precede the action of the unconditioned one and accompany it for a certain time;
4. According to its biological expediency, the unconditioned stimulus must be stronger than the conditioned one.
5. The active state of the central nervous system.

Mechanisms for the formation of conditioned reflexes

The physiological basis for the emergence of conditioned reflexes is the formation of functional temporary connections in the higher parts of the central nervous system. Temporary connection is a set of neurophysiological, biochemical and ultrastructural changes in the brain that occur during the combined action of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli. According to I.P. Pavlov, a temporary connection is formed between the cortical center of the unconditioned reflex and the cortical center of the analyzer, on the receptors of which the conditioned stimulus acts, i.e. the connection closes in the cerebral cortex (Fig. 50). The closure of a temporary connection is based on dominant interaction process between excited centers. Impulses caused by a conditioned signal from any part of the skin and other sensory organs (eye, ear) enter the cerebral cortex and provide the formation of a focus of excitation there. If, after the conditioned signal stimulus, food reinforcement (feeding) is given, then a more powerful second focus of excitation arises in the cerebral cortex, to which the excitation that has arisen and radiates through the cortex is directed. The repeated combination in the experiments of the conditioned signal and the unconditioned stimulus facilitates the passage of impulses from the cortical center of the conditioned signal to the cortical representation of the unconditioned reflex - synaptic facilitation - dominant.

It should be noted that the focus of excitation from an unconditioned stimulus is always stronger than from a conditioned one, since the unconditioned stimulus is always biologically more significant for the animal. This focus of excitation is dominant, therefore, it attracts excitation from the focus of conditioned irritation.

It should be noted that the resulting temporal relationship is two-way. In the process of developing a conditioned reflex, a two-way connection is formed between two centers - the cortical end of the analyzer, on the receptors of which the conditioned stimulus acts, and the center of the unconditioned reflex, on the basis of which the conditioned reflex is developed. This was shown in experiments where two unconditioned reflexes were taken: a blinking reflex, caused by a stream of air near the eyes, and an unconditioned food reflex. When they were combined, a conditioned reflex developed, and if an air stream was supplied, then a food reflex arose, and when a food stimulus was given, blinking was noted.

Conditioned reflexes of the second, third and higher orders. If you develop a strong conditioned food reflex, for example, to light, then such a reflex is a first-order conditioned reflex. On its basis, a second-order conditioned reflex can be developed; for this, a new, previous signal, for example, a sound, is additionally used, reinforcing it with a first-order conditioned stimulus (light).

As a result of several combinations of sound and light, the sound stimulus also begins to cause salivation. Thus, a new, more complex mediated temporal connection arises. It should be emphasized that the reinforcement for the second-order conditioned reflex is precisely the first-order conditioned stimulus, and not the unconditioned stimulus (food), since if both light and sound are reinforced with food, then two separate first-order conditioned reflexes will arise. With a sufficiently strong second-order conditioned reflex, a third-order conditioned reflex can be developed.

For this, a new stimulus is used, for example, touching the skin. In this case, the touch is reinforced only by a second-order conditioned stimulus (sound), the sound excites the visual center, and the latter excites the food center. An even more complex temporal connection emerges. Reflexes of a higher order (4, 5, 6, etc.) are produced only in primates and humans.

Inhibition of conditioned reflexes

There are two types of inhibition of conditioned reflexes that are fundamentally different from each other: congenital and acquired, each of which has its own variants.

Unconditional (innate) inhibition conditioned reflexes is divided into external and transboundary inhibition.

1. External braking- manifests itself in the weakening or termination of the current conditioned reflex under the action of some extraneous stimulus. For example, the inclusion of sound, light during the current conditioned reflex causes the appearance of a reaction that weakens or stops the existing conditioned reflex activity. This reaction, which arose to a change in the external environment (a reflex to novelty), I.P. Pavlov called the “what is it?” reflex. It consists in alerting and preparing the body for action in case of a sudden need (attack, flight, etc.).

External braking mechanism. According to the theory of I.P. Pavlov, an extraneous signal is accompanied by the appearance in the cerebral cortex of a new focus of excitation, which has a depressing effect on the current conditioned reflex by the mechanism dominants. External inhibition is unconditioned reflex. Since in these cases the excitation of the cells of the orienting reflex arising from an extraneous stimulus is outside the arc of the present conditioned reflex, this inhibition was called external. External braking promotes emergency adaptation of the body to changing conditions of the external and internal environment and makes it possible, if necessary, to switch to another activity in accordance with the situation.

1. Extreme braking occurs if strength or frequency the action of the stimulus lies beyond the limits of the efficiency of the cells of the cerebral cortex. For example, if you develop a conditioned reflex to the light of a light bulb and turn on the spotlight, the conditioned reflex activity will stop. Many researchers refer to the limiting inhibition mechanism as pessimal. Since the appearance of this inhibition does not require special development, it, like external inhibitions, is unconditioned reflex and plays a protective role.

Conditional (acquired, internal) inhibition conditioned reflexes is an active nervous process that requires its development, like the reflex itself. Therefore, it is called conditioned reflex inhibition: it is acquired, individual. According to the theory of IP Pavlov, it is localized within ("inside") the nerve center of a given conditioned reflex. There are the following types of conditional inhibition: extinction, retardation, differential and conditional inhibition.

1. Fading braking occurs when the conditioned signal is repeatedly applied and not reinforced. In this case, at first the conditioned reflex weakens, and then completely disappears, after a while it can be restored. The rate of extinction depends on the intensity of the conditioned signal and the biological significance of the reinforcement: the more significant they are, the more difficult it is for the conditioned reflex to fade. This process is associated with forgetting previously received information if it is not repeated for a long time. The extinct conditioned reflex is quickly restored when it is reinforced.
2. delayed braking occurs when the reinforcement is delayed for 1–2 minutes relative to the onset of the action of the conditioned stimulus. Gradually, the manifestation of the conditioned reaction decreases and then stops altogether. This inhibition is also characterized by the phenomenon of disinhibition.
3. Differential braking is produced with the additional inclusion of a stimulus close to the conditioned one, and its non-reinforcement. For example, if in a dog a 500 Hz tone is reinforced with food, and a 1000 Hz tone is not reinforced and alternated during each experiment, then after a while the animal begins to distinguish both signals. This means that: at a tone of 500 Hz, a conditioned reflex will occur in the form of movement to the feeder, eating food, salivation, and at a tone of 1000 Hz, the animal will turn away from the feeder with food, there will be no salivation. The smaller the differences between the signals, the more difficult it is to develop differential inhibition. Conditioned differential inhibition under the action of extraneous signals of medium strength weakens and

accompanied by the phenomenon of disinhibition, i.e. this is the same active process as in other types of conditioned inhibition.

1. Conditional brake occurs when another stimulus is added to the conditioned signal and this combination is not reinforced. So, if you develop a conditioned salivary reflex to light, then connect an additional stimulus to the conditioned signal “light”, for example, “bell”, and do not reinforce this combination, then the conditioned reflex gradually fades away. The “light” signal must continue to be reinforced with food. After that, the addition of the "bell" signal to any conditioned reflex weakens it, i.e. "bell" has become a conditioned brake for any conditioned reflex. This type of inhibition is also disinhibited if another stimulus is connected.

The value of all types of conditional (internal) inhibition conditioned reflexes is to eliminate unnecessary activity at a given time - a subtle adaptation of the body to the environment.

dynamic stereotype

Separate conditioned reflexes in a certain situation can be linked together into complexes. If a number of conditioned reflexes are carried out in a strictly defined order with approximately the same time intervals and this whole complex of combinations is repeated many times, then a single system will be formed in the brain that has a specific sequence of reflex reactions, i.e. previously disparate reflections are connected into a single complex.

Thus, in the cerebral cortex, with prolonged use of the same sequence of conditioned signals (external stereotype), a certain system of connections (internal stereotype) is created. A dynamic stereotype arises, which is expressed in the fact that a constant and strong system of responses is developed to a system of various conditioned signals that always act one after another after a certain time. In the future, if only the first stimulus is used, then all other reactions will develop in response. The dynamic stereotype is a characteristic feature of human mental activity.

The reproduction of a stereotype is, as a rule, automatic. A dynamic stereotype prevents the creation of a new one (it is easier to teach a person than to retrain). The elimination of a stereotype and the creation of a new one are often accompanied by significant nervous tension (stress). A stereotype plays a significant role in a person's life: professional skills are associated with the formation of a certain stereotype, a sequence of gymnastic elements, memorizing poetry, playing musical instruments, practicing a certain sequence of movements in ballet, dancing, etc. are all examples of dynamic stereotypes, and their role is obvious. There are relatively stable forms of behavior in society, in relationships with other people, in assessing current events and responding to them. Such stereotypes are of great importance in human life, as they allow you to perform many activities with less stress on the nervous system. The biological meaning of dynamic stereotypes is to free the cortical centers from solving standard tasks in order to ensure the performance of more complex ones.

The development of the child's higher nervous activity is in close connection with the formation of the structure of the cerebral cortex and the system of analyzers as a whole.

In higher animals and humans in the postnatal period, the main regulating role in behavior is played by the cerebral cortex, which is an organ of individual adaptation of the organism to the external environment. I.P. Pavlov pointed out that the balancing of the organism with the environment cannot be ensured by unconditioned reflexes alone. “The balancing achieved by these reflexes would be perfect only with the absolute constancy of the external environment. And since the external environment, with its extreme diversity, is at the same time in constant fluctuation, then unconditional connections, as constant connections, are not enough, and it is necessary to supplement them with conditioned reflexes, temporary connections.

A. Neonatal period. The formation of conditioned reflexes begins from the first days or weeks after birth, those. during the period when the most intensive development of cortical structures occurs and separate cortical fields associated with the corresponding receptors are formed.

The earlier formation of conditioned food reflexes in a developing organism compared to defensive reflexes is of great adaptive importance. In the first period of the life of the organism, the main vital functions are reduced to food intake. The appearance during this period of conditioned food reflexes provides him with a more complete implementation of the act of nutrition.

The possibility of earlier development of conditioned food reflexes from phylogenetically older analyzers (olfactory, skin, vestibular) than from phylogenetically newer ones (auditory, visual) indicates that corticolization of phylogenetically old analyzer systems associated with the food center occurs at an earlier date than phylogenetically young analyzer systems.

Age features of the formation of conditioned reflexes are clearly revealed in the nature of the development of the conditioned reaction itself. The defensive conditioned reflex in various animal species in the process of development, first of all, manifests itself in the form of a general motor reaction and its accompanying vegetative components (changes in respiration and cardiac activity), and then much later its specialized form is formed in the form of a local reflex. Thus, at the early stages of ontogenesis, there is a wide generalization of excitation processes in the effector and afferent parts of the conditioned reflex arc, followed by the appearance at the later stages of cortical inhibition processes, which determines the locality and specialization of the conditioned reaction. Age-related differences in higher nervous activity are revealed mainly in the ability to develop the process of internal inhibition, without which complex forms of conditioned reactions cannot be formed. This ability is found only at a later age, with a certain degree of morphological maturity and activity of the biochemical processes of the cerebral cortex.

The earliest conditioned reflexes in a child are natural food reflexes in the form of sucking movements that occur on the position of the child during feeding. They are formed for the first time at the age of 8-15 days to a complex complex of tactile, proprioceptive and labyrinth stimuli. At the 2-4th week of life, artificial protective and food conditioned reflexes to vestibular stimuli begin to form. From the 3-4th week, conditioned reflexes to proprioceptive stimuli are developed. At the end of the 1st month, conditioned reflexes to odor stimuli are developed, and reflexes are formed somewhat later on odors that act mainly on the olfactory apparatus. In the same period, conditioned food and defensive reflexes to sound signals are formed.

B. Breast age. At the beginning of the 2nd month, conditioned reflexes are formed to light stimuli, conditioned "food and protective reflexes to skin-tactile stimuli, as well as conditioned protective reflexes to taste substances are formed. Thus, there is a certain sequence in the appearance of reflexes from various analyzers: first of all they are formed from the vestibular and auditory receptors, and later - from the visual and skin-tactile.However, during the second half of the 1st month and the first half of the 2nd month, conditioned reflexes

sy in a child are formed from all analyzers. This indicates that it is at this age that the cortex of the cerebral hemispheres of the child gets the opportunity to establish diverse conditioned connections.

Early conditioned reflexes in children are unstable and mild. The receptor from which the reflex is produced is also of decisive importance in the emergence and stability of the conditioned reflex. Ceteris paribus, the vestibular and auditory conditioned reflexes are strengthened before others, then the visual, olfactory and gustatory reflexes, and last of all - skin-tactile and proprioceptive. However, along with the general regularities in the formation of conditioned reflexes, which are characteristic of all children, already at an early age, individual features of the child's cortical functions are revealed, depending on the type of his nervous system. The individual characteristics of the child are most clearly manifested during the period when the cerebral cortex, in addition to the formation of positive conditioned reflex connections, begins to perform another function, closely related to the first, the function of analyzing external stimuli. This last function is based on the development of cortical inhibition.

The ability to analyze external stimuli is revealed by the example of the formation of differentiations. In the 2nd month of a child's life, almost all analyzers differentiate stimuli that differ significantly from each other. At the 3-4th month, the analyzer function of the cerebral cortex is rapidly improving and allows you to develop stronger and more subtle differentiations. The development of mechanisms for closing conditioned reflex connections and differentiating external stimuli quickly complicates and fundamentally changes the entire behavior of the child in the sense of his vigorous activity and cognition of the world around him.

Thus, the essential feature of the conditioned reflex activity of the child in the first six months of life must be considered complex stimuli that are effective for him. For example, the “feeding position”, in which tactile, proprioceptive and vestibular receptors are irritated and naturally excited at the same time. Various types of conditioned (internal) inhibition begin to appear: differential inhibition is formed (3-4th month), a conditioned brake at the 5th month, delayed inhibition at the 6th month, i.e., by the end of the first year of life, all types of internal inhibition (conditioned inhibition of conditioned reflexes - see section 6.8).

C. In the nursery period (from 1 year to 3 years), conditioned reflex activity is characterized not only by the development of individual conditioned reflexes, but also by the formation of dynamic stereotypes, and often in a shorter time than in adults.

D. A 2-year-old child develops a huge number of conditioned reflexes to the ratio of the size, severity, distance, color of objects. These types of conditioned reflexes determine the integrated reflection of the phenomena of the external world; they are considered the basis of concepts formed on the basis of the first signal system. An example of a dynamic stereotype of this age can be changes in the characteristics of the child's GNI according to the daily routine: sleep - wakefulness, nutrition, walks, requiring a sequence of behavioral elements that make up the procedures for washing, feeding, playing.

The systems of conditional connections developed at this time are especially strong, and most of them retain their significance throughout the entire subsequent life of a person. Therefore, one can think that during this period, in a number of cases, imprinting still continues to operate. Raising children in a sensory enriched environment accelerates their mental development. The interaction of the projection and non-projection sections of the cerebral cortex provides a deeper perception of the environment. Of particular importance in this case is the interaction of excitations that provide the emergence of sensations and motor activity, for example, visual perception of an object and grasping it with a hand.

E. At the age of 3-5 years, the improvement of conditioned reflex activity is expressed in an increase in the number of dynamic stereotypes (for more details, see section 6.14).

torii develop a conditioned defensive reflex to the same call in another laboratory. In this case, the call is reinforced by a slight irritation of the limb with an electric current. Soon, the dog reacts to the call not by salivation, but by withdrawing the limb - a defensive conditioned reflex. In this case, the conditioned signal is essentially a set of stimuli - a call and the environment of the laboratory. Such situations often occur in life. For example, a bell before the start of the lesson informs students about the need to start classes, at the end of the lesson - about the beginning of the break.

D. A consistent set of a number of conditioned reflexes is a dynamic stereotype, illustrating the consistency in the activity of the cerebral cortex, analytical and synthetic activity (E.A. Asratyan). In the experiments of E.A. Asratyan, conditioned reflexes were developed in dogs in a certain sequence, for example, a bell, a metronome (60 beats / min), hissing, metronome differentiation (120 beats / min), light, a wheelchair (Fig. 6.5).

conditioned reflexes to each of the stimuli, instead of each conditioned signal, one conditioned signal "light" was used in the experiment. At the same time, various conditioned reflexes were received on one stimulus - light, as with the sequential action of all the listed signals. In the cortex, there was a connection between all the points of the conditioned signals, and it was enough to turn on the “light” stereotype in the first place, as conditions were created for turning on the subsequent ones.

Thus, in the cerebral cortex, with prolonged use of the same sequence of conditioned signals (external stereotype), a certain system of connections (internal stereotype) is created. The reproduction of a stereotype is, as a rule, automatic. A dynamic stereotype prevents the creation of a new one (it is easier to teach a person than to retrain). The elimination of a stereotype and the creation of a new one are often accompanied by significant nervous tension (stress). A stereotype plays a significant role in a person's life: professional skills are associated with the formation of a certain stereotype; a sequence of gymnastic elements, memorizing poetry, playing musical instruments, practicing a certain sequence of movements in ballet, dancing, etc. - all these are examples of dynamic stereotypes, the role of which is obvious.

D. Conditioned reflexes have several components. During the development of a conditioned reflex, for example, a defensive reflex, to a call with irritation of a limb by an electric current, in addition to a motor reaction, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems react to electrocutaneous stimulation; it is possible to increase the heart rate, increase blood pressure due to the excitation of the sympathoadrenal system and the release of adrenaline into the blood, changes in the frequency and depth of breathing, metabolic changes. Firstly, they are associated with the action of stimuli, and secondly, with the provision of motor responses by vegetative shifts. Subsequently, vegetative shifts, although to a lesser extent, persist under the action of only a conditioned signal, in this case a bell, and accompany the conditioned defensive reflex.

Under the mechanism of formation of a conditioned reflex, IP Pavlov understood the process of establishing and closing a nerve connection in the cerebral cortex between two excited foci - the centers of conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.

Depending on the characteristics of the responses, the nature of the stimuli, the conditions for their application and reinforcement, etc., various types of conditioned reflexes are distinguished. These types are classified based on various criteria, in accordance with the tasks. Some of these classifications are of great importance both in theoretical and practical terms, including in sports activities.

Natural (natural) and artificial conditioned reflexes

Conditioned reflexes that are formed to the action of signals characterizing the constant properties of unconditioned stimuli (for example, the smell or type of food) are called natural conditioned reflexes. An illustration of the regularities in the formation of natural conditioned reflexes are the experiments of I. S. Tsitovich. In these experiments, puppies of the same litter were kept on different diets: some were fed only meat, others only milk. In animals that were fed meat, the sight and smell of it already at a distance caused a conditioned food reaction with pronounced motor and secretory components. The puppies, who received only milk, for the first time reacted to meat only with an orienting reaction (that is, according to the figurative expression of I.P. Pavlov, the reflex “What is it?”) - they sniffed it and turned away. However, even a single combination of the sight and smell of meat with food completely eliminated this "indifference". Puppies have developed a natural food conditioned reflex.

The formation of natural (natural) conditioned reflexes to the appearance, smell of food and the properties of other unconditioned stimuli is also characteristic of humans. Natural conditioned reflexes are characterized by rapid development and great durability. They can be held all Life in the absence of subsequent reinforcements. This is explained by the fact that natural conditioned reflexes are of great biological importance, especially in the early stages of the organism's adaptation to the environment. It is the properties of the unconditioned stimulus itself (for example, the type and smell of food) that are the first signals that act on the body after birth.

But conditioned reflexes can also be developed to various indifferent signals (light, sound, smell, temperature changes, etc.) that do not have the properties of an irritant that causes an unconditioned reflex under natural conditions. Such reactions, in contrast to natural ones, are called artificial conditioned reflexes. For example, the smell of mint is not inherent in meat. However, if this smell is combined several times with meat feeding? then a conditioned reflex is formed: the smell of mint becomes a conditioned signal of food and begins to cause a salivary reaction without reinforcement. Artificial conditioned reflexes are developed more slowly and fade faster when not reinforced. An example of the development of conditioned reflexes to artificial stimuli can be the formation in a person of secretory and motor conditioned reflexes to signals in the form of the sound of a bell, metronome beats, strengthening or weakening the illumination of touching the skin, etc.

Higher nervous activity- a system that allows the human body and animals to adapt to variable environmental conditions. Evolutionarily, vertebrates have developed a number of innate reflexes, but their existence is not enough for successful development.

In the process of individual development, new adaptive reactions are formed - these are conditioned reflexes. An outstanding domestic scientist I.P. Pavlov is the founder of the doctrine of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes. He formed a conditioned reflex theory, which states that the acquisition of a conditioned reflex is possible when a physiologically indifferent stimulus acts on the body. As a result, a more complex system of reflex activity is formed.

I.P. Pavlov - the founder of the doctrine of unconditioned and conditioned reflexes

An example of this is Pavlov's study of dogs that salivated in response to a sound stimulus. Pavlov also showed that innate reflexes are formed at the level of subcortical structures, and new connections are formed in the cerebral cortex throughout the life of an individual under the influence of constant stimuli.

Conditioned reflexes

Conditioned reflexes are formed on the basis of unconditional, in the process of individual development of the organism, against the background of a changing external environment.

reflex arc The conditioned reflex consists of three components: afferent, intermediate (intercalary) and efferent. These links carry out the perception of irritation, the transmission of an impulse to the cortical structures and the formation of a response.

The reflex arc of the somatic reflex performs motor functions (for example, flexion movement) and has the following reflex arc:

The sensitive receptor perceives the stimulus, then the impulse goes to the posterior horns of the spinal cord, where the intercalary neuron is located. Through it, the impulse is transmitted to the motor fibers and the process ends with the formation of movement - flexion.

A necessary condition for the development of conditioned reflexes is:

• The presence of a signal that precedes the unconditional;
• the stimulus that will cause the catching reflex must be inferior in strength to the biologically significant effect;
• the normal functioning of the cerebral cortex and the absence of distractions are mandatory.

Conditioned reflexes are not formed instantly. They are formed for a long time under the constant observance of the above conditions. In the process of formation, the reaction either fades away, then resumes again, until a stable reflex activity sets in.

An example of the development of a conditioned reflex

Classification of conditioned reflexes:

1. A conditioned reflex formed on the basis of the interaction of unconditioned and conditioned stimuli is called reflex of the first order.
2. Based on the classical acquired reflex of the first order, a second order reflex.

Thus, a defensive reflex of the third order was formed in dogs, the fourth could not be developed, and the digestive one reached the second. In children, conditioned reflexes of the sixth order are formed, in an adult up to the twentieth.

The variability of the external environment leads to the constant formation of many new behaviors necessary for survival. Depending on the structure of the receptor that perceives the stimulus, conditioned reflexes are divided into:

• Exteroceptive- irritation is perceived by body receptors, dominated by reflex reactions (gustatory, tactile);
• intraceptive- are caused by action on internal organs (changes in homeostasis, blood acidity, temperature);
• proprioceptive- are formed by stimulating the striated muscles of humans and animals, providing motor activity.

There are artificial and natural acquired reflexes:

artificial arise under the action of a stimulus that has no connection with an unconditioned stimulus (sound signals, light stimulation).

natural are formed in the presence of a stimulus similar to the unconditioned (smell and taste of food).

Unconditioned reflexes

These are innate mechanisms that ensure the preservation of the integrity of the body, homeostasis of the internal environment and, most importantly, reproduction. Congenital reflex activity is formed in the spinal cord and cerebellum, controlled by the cerebral cortex. Characteristically, they persist for life.

reflex arcs hereditary reactions are laid down before the birth of a person. Some reactions are characteristic of a certain age, and then disappear (for example, in small children - sucking, grasping, searching). Others do not manifest themselves at first, but with the onset of a certain period they appear (sexual).

Unconditioned reflexes are characterized by the following features:

• Occur independently of the consciousness and will of a person;
• species - appear in all representatives (for example, coughing, salivation at the smell or sight of food);
• endowed with specificity - appear when exposed to the receptor (pupil reaction occurs when a beam of light is directed to photosensitive areas). This also includes salivation, secretion of mucous secretions and enzymes of the digestive system when food enters the mouth;
• flexibility - for example, different foods lead to the secretion of a certain amount and various chemical composition of saliva;
• on the basis of unconditioned reflexes, conditioned ones are formed.

Unconditioned reflexes are needed to fulfill the needs of the body, they are permanent, but as a result of illness or bad habits they can disappear. So, with a disease of the iris of the eye, when scars form on it, the reaction of the pupil to light exposure disappears.

Classification of unconditioned reflexes

Congenital reactions are classified into:

• Simple(quickly remove your hand from a hot object);
• complex(maintaining homeostasis in situations of increased CO 2 concentration in the blood by increasing the frequency of respiratory movements);
• the most difficult(instinctive behavior).

Classification of unconditioned reflexes according to Pavlov

Pavlov divided innate reactions into food, sexual, protective, orienting, statokinetic, homeostatic.

To food salivation at the sight of food and its entry into the digestive tract, the secretion of hydrochloric acid, gastrointestinal motility, sucking, swallowing, chewing.

Protective are accompanied by contraction of muscle fibers in response to an irritating factor. Everyone knows the situation when the hand reflexively withdraws from a hot iron or a sharp knife, sneezing, coughing, lacrimation.

indicative occur when sudden changes occur in nature or in the organism itself. For example, turning the head and body towards sounds, turning the head and eyes to light stimuli.

Sexual associated with reproduction, preservation of the species, this includes parental (feeding and caring for offspring).

Statokinetic provide bipedalism, balance, movement of the body.

homeostatic- independent regulation of blood pressure, vascular tone, respiratory rate, heart rate.

Classification of unconditioned reflexes according to Simonov

vital to maintain life (sleep, nutrition, economy of strength), depend only on the individual.

role-playing arise upon contact with other individuals (procreation, parental instinct).

The need for self-development(the desire for individual growth, for the discovery of something new).

Congenital reflexes are activated when necessary due to a short-term violation of internal constancy or variability of the external environment.

Table comparing conditioned and unconditioned reflexes

Comparison of the characteristics of conditioned (acquired) and unconditioned (innate) reflexes
Unconditional	Conditional
Congenital	Acquired in the course of life
Present in all members of the species	Individual for each organism
Relatively constant	Arise and fade with changes in the external environment
Formed at the level of the spinal cord and medulla oblongata	Carried out by the brain
Are laid in utero	Developed against the background of congenital reflexes
Occurs when an irritant acts on certain receptor zones	Manifested under the influence of any stimulus that is perceived by the individual

Higher nervous activity carries out work in the presence of two interrelated phenomena: excitation and inhibition (congenital or acquired).

Braking

External unconditional braking(congenital) is carried out by the action on the body of a very strong stimulus. The termination of the action of the conditioned reflex occurs due to the activation of the nerve centers under the influence of a new stimulus (this is transcendental inhibition).

When several stimuli (light, sound, smell) are simultaneously exposed to the studied organism, the conditioned reflex fades, but over time, the orienting reflex is activated and inhibition disappears. This type of inhibition is called temporary.

Conditional inhibition(acquired) does not arise by itself, it must be worked out. There are 4 types of conditional inhibition:

• Fading (disappearance of a persistent conditioned reflex without constant reinforcement by an unconditioned one);
• differentiation;
• conditional brake;
• delayed braking.

Braking is a necessary process in our life. In its absence, many unnecessary reactions would occur in the body that are not beneficial.

An example of external inhibition (the reaction of a dog to a cat and the SIT command)

The meaning of conditioned and unconditioned reflexes

Unconditioned reflex activity is necessary for the survival and preservation of the species. A good example is the birth of a child. In the new world for him, many dangers await him. Due to the presence of innate reactions, the cub can survive in these conditions. Immediately after birth, the respiratory system is activated, the sucking reflex provides nutrients, touching sharp and hot objects is accompanied by an instant withdrawal of the hand (manifestation of protective reactions).

For further development and existence, one has to adapt to the surrounding conditions, conditioned reflexes help in this. They provide rapid adaptation of the body and can be formed throughout life.

The presence of conditioned reflexes in animals enables them to quickly respond to the voice of a predator and save their lives. A person at the sight of food carries out conditioned reflex activity, salivation begins, the production of gastric juice for the rapid digestion of food. The sight and smell of some objects, on the contrary, signals danger: the red cap of fly agaric, the smell of spoiled food.

The importance of conditioned reflexes in the daily life of man and animals is enormous. Reflexes help to navigate the terrain, get food, get away from danger, saving one's life.