What distinguishes the great ape. The origin of man in the classical sense

Differences in the structure and behavior of humans and animals

Along with similarities, humans have certain differences from monkeys.

In monkeys, the spine is arched, while in humans it has four bends, giving it an S-shape. A person has a wider pelvis, an arched foot that softens the concussion of internal organs when walking, a wide chest, the ratio of the length of the limbs and the development of their individual parts, structural features of muscles and internal organs.

A number of structural features of a person are associated with his labor activity and the development of thinking. In humans, the thumb on the hand is opposed to other fingers, so that the hand can perform a variety of actions. The cerebral part of the skull in humans prevails over the facial one due to the large volume of the brain, reaching approximately 1200-1450 cm 3 (in monkeys - 600 cm 3), the chin is well developed on the lower jaw.

The big differences between monkeys and humans are due to the adaptation of the first to life on trees. This feature, in turn, leads to many others. The essential differences between man and animals lie in the fact that man has acquired qualitatively new features - the ability to walk upright, the release of hands and their use as labor organs for the manufacture of tools, articulate speech as a method of communication, consciousness, i.e. those properties that closely related to the development of human society. Man not only uses the surrounding nature, but subjugates, actively changes it according to his needs, he himself creates the necessary things.

Similarities between humans and great apes

The same expression of feelings of joy, anger, sadness.

Monkeys gently caress their cubs.

Monkeys take care of children, but also punish them for disobedience.

Monkeys have a well-developed memory.

Monkeys are able to use natural objects as the simplest tools.

Monkeys have concrete thinking.

Monkeys can walk on their hind limbs, leaning on their hands.

On the fingers of monkeys, like humans, nails, not claws.

Monkeys have 4 incisors and 8 molars - like humans.

Humans and monkeys have common diseases (influenza, AIDS, smallpox, cholera, typhoid fever).

In humans and great apes, the structure of all organ systems is similar.

Biochemical evidence for human-monkey affinity:

the degree of hybridization of human and chimpanzee DNA is 90-98%, human and gibbon - 76%, human and macaque - 66%;

Cytological evidence of the proximity of man and monkeys:

humans have 46 chromosomes, chimpanzees and monkeys have 48 each, and gibbons have 44;

in the chromosomes of the 5th pair of chimpanzee and human chromosomes there is an inverted pericentric region

All of the above facts indicate that man and great apes descended from a common ancestor and make it possible to determine the place of man in the system of the organic world.

The similarity between man and monkeys is evidence of their kinship, common origin, and the differences are the result of different directions in the evolution of monkeys and human ancestors, especially the influence of human labor (tool) activity. Labor is the leading factor in the process of turning a monkey into a man.

F. Engels drew attention to this feature of human evolution in his essay "The Role of Labor in the Process of the Transformation of Apes into Humans", which was written in 1876-1878. and published in 1896. He was the first to analyze the qualitative originality and significance of social factors in the historical development of man.

The decisive step for the transition from ape to man was taken in connection with the transition of our most ancient ancestors from walking on all fours and climbing to a straight gait. Man's articulate speech and social life developed in labor activity, with which, as Engels said, we enter the realm of history. If the psyche of animals is determined only by biological laws, then the human psyche is the result of social development and influence.

Humans and monkeys share about 98 percent genetic similarity, but even the external differences between them are more than obvious. Monkeys hear differently, see differently and physically develop faster.

Structure

Many of the features that distinguish humans from monkeys are immediately noticeable. For example, upright posture. Despite the fact that gorillas can move on their hind legs, this is not a natural process for them. A flexible lumbar arch, arched foot and long straight legs, which monkeys lack, provide the convenience of moving in an upright position for a person.

But between man and ape there are distinctive features that only zoologists can tell about. For example, experts note that some of the signs that make a person closer to marine mammals than to primates are a thick fatty layer and skin rigidly attached to a muscular frame.
There are significant differences in the vocal capabilities of humans and monkeys. Thus, our larynx occupies a much lower position in relation to the mouth than that of any other primate species. The common “tube” formed as a result of this provides a person with exceptional opportunities for a speech resonator.

Brain

The volume of the human brain is almost three times that of the brain of a monkey - 1600 and 600 cm3, which gives us an advantage in the development of mental abilities. In the brain of a monkey, there are no speech centers and zones of association that a person has. This led to the emergence of not only the first signal system (conditioned and unconditioned reflexes), but also the second one, which is responsible for speech forms of communication.
But more recently, British scientists discovered in the human brain a much more noticeable detail that the monkey brain lacks - this is the lateral frontal pole of the prefrontal cortex. It is he who is responsible for strategic planning, task differentiation and decision making.

Hearing

Human hearing is particularly sensitive to the perception of sound frequencies - in the range of approximately 20 to 20,000 Hz. But in some monkeys, the ability to distinguish frequencies significantly exceeds that of a human. For example, Philippine tarsiers can hear sounds up to 90,000 Hz.

True, the selective ability of human auditory neurons, which allow us to perceive the difference in sounds that differ by 3-6 Hz, is higher than that of monkeys. Moreover, people have a unique ability to relate sounds to each other.

However, monkeys can also perceive a series of repeated sounds of different pitches, but if this series is shifted up or down a few tones (change the key), then the melodic pattern will be unrecognizable for animals. It is not difficult for a person to guess the same sequence of sounds in different keys.

Childhood

Newborn babies are completely helpless and completely dependent on their parents, while baby monkeys can already hang and move from place to place. Unlike a monkey, a person needs a much longer time to grow up. So, for example, a female gorilla reaches puberty by the age of 8, given that her gestation period is almost the same as that of a woman.

In newborn children, unlike monkey cubs, instincts are much less developed - a person receives most of the life skills in the learning process. It is important to note that a person is formed in the process of direct communication with his own kind, while a monkey is born with an already established form of its existence.

Sexuality

By virtue of innate instincts, the male monkey is always able to recognize when the female is ovulating. Humans don't have this ability. But there is a more significant difference between humans and monkeys: this is the occurrence of menopause in humans. The only exception in the animal world is the black dolphin.
Man and monkey differ in the structure of the genital organs. So, not a single great ape has a hymen. On the other hand, the male genital organ of any primate contains gutter bone (cartilage), which is absent in humans. There is one more characteristic feature concerning sexual behavior. Face-to-face sexual intercourse, so popular with humans, is unnatural for monkeys.

Genetics

Geneticist Steve Jones once remarked that “50% of human DNA is similar to that of bananas, but this does not mean that we are half bananas, either from head to waist or from waist to toe.” The same can be said when comparing man with a monkey. The minimal difference in the genotype of humans and monkeys - about 2% - nevertheless forms a huge gap between the species.
The difference includes about 150 million unique nucleotides, which contain about 50 million individual mutation events. Such changes, according to scientists, cannot be achieved even on an evolutionary time scale of 250 thousand generations, which once again refutes the theory of human origin from higher primates.

There are significant differences between humans and monkeys in the set of chromosomes: if we have 46 of them, then gorillas and chimpanzees have 48. Moreover, there are genes in human chromosomes that are absent in chimpanzees, which reflects the difference between the human and animal immune systems. Another interesting genetic claim is that the human Y chromosome is as different from the similar chimpanzee chromosome as it is from the chicken Y chromosome.

There is also a difference in the size of the genes. When comparing human and chimpanzee DNA, it was found that the monkey genome is 12% larger than the human genome. And the difference in the expression of human and monkey genes in the cerebral cortex was expressed in 17.4%.
A genetic study by scientists from London has revealed a possible reason why monkeys are not able to speak. So they determined that the FOXP2 gene plays an important role in the formation of the speech apparatus in humans. Geneticists decided on a desperate experiment and introduced the FOXP2 gene to a chimpanzee, in the hope that the monkey would speak. But nothing of the kind happened - the zone responsible for the functions of speech in humans, in chimpanzees, regulates the vestibular apparatus. The ability to climb trees in the course of evolution for the monkey turned out to be much more important than the development of verbal communication skills.

The relationship of great apes (anthropoids) and humans is evidenced by the similarity of many anatomical and physiological features. This was first established by Charles Darwin's colleague - Thomas Huxley. Having carried out comparative anatomical studies, he proved that the anatomical differences between humans and higher apes are less significant than between higher and lower apes.

There is much in common in the external appearance of humans and great apes: large body sizes, long limbs relative to the body, long neck, broad shoulders, absence of a tail and ischial calluses, a nose protruding from the plane of the face, and a similar shape of the auricle. The body of anthropoids is covered with sparse hair without undercoat, through which the skin is visible. Their facial expressions are very similar to human ones. In the internal structure, a similar number of lobes in the lungs, the number of papillae in the kidney, the presence of a vermiform appendix of the cecum, an almost identical pattern of tubercles on molars, a similar structure of the larynx, etc., should be noted. in a person.

An exceptionally close similarity is noted in terms of biochemical parameters: four blood groups, similar reactions of protein metabolism, and diseases. Great apes in nature are easily infected with infections from humans. Thus, the reduction in the range of the orangutan in Sumatra and Borneo (Kalimantan) is largely due to the mortality of monkeys from tuberculosis and hepatitis B obtained from humans. It is no coincidence that great apes are indispensable experimental animals for studying many human diseases. Humans and anthropoids are also close in the number of chromosomes (46 chromosomes in humans, 48 in chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans), in their shape and size. There is much in common in the primary structure of such important proteins as hemoglobin, myoglobin, etc.

However, there are significant differences between humans and anthropoids, to a greater extent due to the adaptability of humans to walking upright. The human spine is S-shaped, the foot has an arch, which softens the concussion when walking and running (Fig. 45). With the vertical position of the body, the human pelvis takes on the pressure of the internal organs. As a result, its structure differs significantly from the anthropoid pelvis: it is low and wide, firmly articulated with the sacrum. There are significant differences in the structure of the brush. The thumb of the human hand is well developed, opposed to the rest and very mobile. Thanks to this structure of the hand, the hand is capable of various and subtle movements. In anthropoids, in connection with the arboreal way of life, the hands are hook-shaped, and the type of foot is prehensile. When forced to move on the ground, great apes lean on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs. Even a gorilla that walks on its entire foot is never in a fully extended position.

Differences between anthropoids and humans are observed in the structure of the skull and brain. The human skull does not have bony ridges and continuous superciliary arches, the brain part prevails over the front, the forehead is high, the jaws are weak, the fangs are small, and there is a chin protrusion on the lower jaw. The development of this protrusion is associated with speech. In monkeys, on the contrary, the facial part, especially the jaws, is highly developed. The human brain is 2-2.5 times larger than the brain of great apes. The parietal, temporal and frontal lobes, in which the most important centers of mental functions and speech are located, are highly developed in humans.

Significant signs of difference lead to the idea that modern great apes could not be the direct ancestors of man.

There is much in common in the external appearance of humans and great apes: large body sizes, long limbs relative to the body, long neck, broad shoulders, absence of a tail and ischial calluses, a nose protruding from the plane of the face, and a similar shape of the auricle. The body of anthropoids is covered with sparse hair without undercoat, through which the skin is visible. Their facial expressions are very similar to human ones. In the internal structure, it should be noted a similar number of lobes in the lungs, the number of papillae in the kidney, the presence of the appendix of the caecum, an almost identical pattern of tubercles on the molars, a similar structure of the larynx, etc.

However, there are significant differences between humans and anthropoids, to a greater extent due to the adaptability of humans to walking upright. The human spine is S-curved, the foot has an arch, which softens the shock when walking and running. With the vertical position of the body, the human pelvis takes on the pressure of the internal organs. As a result, its structure differs significantly from the anthropoid pelvis: it is low and wide, firmly articulated with the sacrum. There are significant differences in the structure of the brush. The thumb of the human hand is well developed, opposed to the rest and very mobile. Thanks to this structure of the hand, the hand is capable of various and subtle movements. In anthropoids, in connection with the arboreal way of life, the hands are hook-shaped, and the type of foot is prehensile. When forced to move on the ground, great apes lean on the outer edge of the foot, maintaining balance with the help of the forelimbs. Even a gorilla that walks on its entire foot is never in a fully extended position.

Humans are characterized by accelerated development in the early stages of embryogenesis. This is explained by the fact that the human embryo should be implanted into the wall of the uterus as soon as possible, since its position in the uterus, due to the straightness of the mother's body, characteristic of a person, is unreliable before fixation.

At the later stages of prenatal ontogenesis, a progressive slowdown in human development is observed. Compared to other mammals, newborns in primates are small and helpless, and humans at birth lag behind newborn monkeys in terms of somatic development. A newborn cub of the lower narrow-nosed monkey in its physical condition corresponds to a child of 3-4 years old, and a chimpanzee - to a 4-5-month-old one, although the body weight of newborns in large anthropomorphic monkeys is relatively less than in humans. In humans, it is 5.6% of the body weight of an adult, in an orangutan - 4.1, in a gorilla - 2.6, in a chimpanzee - 4.0%.

The growth and development of monkeys after birth occurs faster than in humans. A baby monkey in a helpless state occurs only during the first 2-3 months, and a baby chimpanzee - 5-6 months.

In monkeys, ossification of the wrist and teething occur faster than in humans. So, in a gorilla, the bones of the wrist ossify by 3 years, in humans - by 12-13 years. Milk teeth in a macaque erupt in the interval from 0.5 to 5.5 months, in chimpanzees - from 2.5 to 12.3, in gorillas - from 3 to 13, in humans - from 7.5 to 28.8. Permanent teeth erupt in macaques between 1.8 and 6.4 years, in chimpanzees - from 2.9 to 10.2, in gorillas - from 3 to 10.5, in humans - from 6.2 to 20.5 years.

Monkeys reach puberty faster than humans: lower monkeys - by 3-6 years, higher ones - by 8-10. In humans, better than in monkeys, a pubertal jump is expressed (acceleration of growth in the pubertal period), which is not characteristic of other mammals at all. The increase in the time between the end of feeding and puberty and, as a consequence, the appearance of the puberty jump played an important role in the process of anthropogenesis, since this increased the time for the maturation of the associative zones of the cerebral cortex, and also lengthened the period of childhood, i.e. period of study.

General growth in lower apes ends by 7 years, in large anthropoids - by 11, in humans - by 20 years. In humans, all periods of life are longer, and its total duration is longer: the lower narrow-nosed ones live an average of 25, anthropomorphic - 35 years ...

With the slowdown in the development of the human body compared to monkeys, the fact that an adult retains some "embryonic" structural features, i.e. those that are characteristic of the fruits of humans and monkeys, but then the latter are lost. This phenomenon is called fetalization (foetus - fruit). These features include some features of the human skull, bringing it closer to the skulls of anthropoid apes in the fetal period and their young forms: a shortened facial and large brain region, a straight convex forehead, a curved base of the skull, a large occipital foramen shifted forward, thin walls, a weakly pronounced relief on the surface of the bones, the absence of a continuous bone ridge above the orbits, a wide-open palatine arch, long-term preservation of the sutures.

We also find the similarity of a person with the fruits of anthropomorphic monkeys in some signs of the structure of the foot (the relative thickness of the I metatarsal bone), in a well-developed thumb, in the large width and curvature of the pelvic bones, in the depigmentation of the skin, hair and eyes, the absence of a continuous hairline, thick lips, etc.

These facts served as the basis for the creation of L. Bolkom's theory of the origin of man through slow development and preservation of the embryonic features of primates in adulthood. Bolk saw the reason for the retardation of human development in the activity of the endocrine glands.

A detailed critique of Bolk's theory was given by Ya.Ya. Roginsky. Along with criticism of Bolk's general theoretical ideas that the evolution of the structure of the human body was determined only by internal morphogenetic causes, Ya.Ya. Roginsky showed that in the process of anthropogenesis, with a delay in the development of some features, there was an acceleration in the development of others. Thus, a large human brain is a consequence of both its longer growth and a huge acceleration of growth after birth: in the first two years of life, the volume of the gorilla skull increases by 36% (from 280 to 380 cm 3), in chimpanzees by 33% (from 240 up to 320 cm 3), in humans - by 227% (from 330 to 1080 cm 3).

In humans, earlier than in higher monkeys, the intermaxillary bone grows together with the maxillary bone, very early (on the 3rd month of intrauterine life) the central bone of the carpus grows to the scaphoid (in monkeys they are separated all their lives or grow together very late), the length of the legs increases much more , the mastoid processes of the skull grow earlier and more, the segments of the sternum and pelvic bones grow together earlier, etc.

In addition, the direction and rate of change of one or another trait may not be the same in different periods of ontogeny. In human evolution, the appearance of such completely new features as the external bone nose, the chin protrusion, some facial muscles, the third peroneal muscle, etc., took place.

At the same time, it turned out that some structural features of the human body associated with upright posture are formed at the early stages of ontogenesis ... This is shown for the development of the calcaneus and talus, as well as for the muscles of the lower limb. Thus, the distribution of growth rates of the muscles of the hind limb, in contrast to the muscles of the forelimb, is similar in the postnatal period in different mammals. This, apparently, is explained by the greater uniformity of movements of the hind limbs compared to the forelimbs and their greater significance in locomotion ...

The proportions of the limbs in humans and anthropomorphic monkeys in adulthood differ more than in their fetuses. A newborn human has relatively longer arms and shorter legs than an adult, and in this way it resembles an ape.

It has been shown that in the prenatal ontogenesis of mammals, the limbs grow faster than the body, and a craniocaudal gradient is observed in the growth of the limbs - the forelimbs overtake the hind limbs in growth and development. Within each limb, the distal segments grow faster than the proximal ones. Moreover, in the early stages of the uterine period, the hand grows "at the expense" of the wrist and has short fingers, in the later stages the fingers grow intensively. After birth, the character of the growth of the limbs and their segments changes in different mammals in different ways, depending on their mode of locomotion. In primates, after birth, the limbs continue to grow faster than the body, and the hind limbs especially grow; the hand and foot are relatively shortened; the brush is already made (only in a gorilla, which has a very wide brush, it expands); the length of the forearm increases in relation to the length of the shoulder (except for humans and gorillas, which have the shortest forearm among primates) and in most primates, the length of the lower leg in relation to the length of the thigh; the relative length of the thumb decreases in all anthropomorphic apes, except for the gorilla, in which, as in humans, it increases.

In the ontogeny of primates, two main periods of elongation of the limbs in relation to the body are observed: in the middle of the uterine period, when the forelimbs are especially elongated, and immediately after birth, when the hind limbs are most elongated.

This explains why a person is born relatively long-armed and short-legged and why, in terms of the proportions of the limbs, his fetus is similar to an anthropomorphic monkey. It turned out that anthropomorphic monkeys acquire their characteristic long-armedness in the first period of limb lengthening, increasing the growth gradient characteristic of this period; a person becomes especially long-legged after birth. Moreover, the intermembrane index decreases in the postnatal period of growth in all primates (except for gibbons, which have exceptionally long arms): in monkeys - from 121 to 106, in chimpanzees - from 146 to 136, in humans - from 104 to 88.

This fact, along with some others, was cited by Ya.Ya. Roginsky to the formulation of the position that the proportions of the body in a particular species of animals change by strengthening or weakening the growth gradients characteristic of a large group to which this species belongs. This rule applies to change and other signs.

So, in all monkeys, an intensive increase in brain weight is noted immediately after birth. It is during this period that a sharp difference is formed in the mass of the brain between humans and anthropomorphic monkeys due to the especially high rate of its growth in humans. After birth, the chewing apparatus is intensively formed in connection with the function of chewing, and it is during this period that the difference between humans and monkeys is formed in terms of the degree of expression of the facial region of the skull.

Significant signs of difference lead to the idea that modern great apes could not be the direct ancestors of man.

The presence of a four-chambered heart; 2) upright posture; 3) the presence of an arched foot; 4) the presence of nails; 5) S-shaped spine; 6) replacement of milk teeth with permanent ones.

a) 1,4,6; b) 3,4,6;

c) 2,3,5; d) 2.5.6;

6. Specify units of the class Amphibians -

Squad order; 2) detachment Tailed; 3) detachment Carnivores; 4) detachment Tailless; 5) detachment of the Turtle; 6) Detachment Legless.

a) 1, 3, 5; b) 1, 2, 6;

c) 1, 3, 4; d) 2, 3, 5;

Specify the plants of the Department of Bryophytes-

Kukushkin flax; 2) male shield; 3) asplenium; 4) sphagnum; 5) Venus hair; 6) Marchation.

a) 1, 3, 5; b) 1, 5, 6;

c) 1, 4, 6; d) 2, 3, 4;

8. Which of the following examples can be attributed to aromorphoses–

The development of seeds in gymnosperms; 2) the development of a large number of lateral roots in cabbage after hilling; 3) the formation of juicy pulp in the fruit of a mad cucumber; 4) release of odorous substances by fragrant tobacco; 5) double fertilization in flowering plants; 6) the appearance of mechanical tissues in plants.

a) 1, 3, 4; b) 1, 5, 6;

c) 2, 3, 4; d) 2, 4, 5;

9. Specify the types of hereditary variability–

Mutational; 2) modification; 3) combinative; 4) cytoplasmic; 5) group; 6) certain.

a) 1, 2, 4; b) 1, 3, 4;

c) 1, 4, 5; d) 2, 3, 5;

Paleontological evidence for evolution includes -

The remainder of the third century in man; 2) imprints of plants on coal seams; 3) petrified remains of ferns; 4) the birth of people with thick hair on the body; 5) coccyx in the human skeleton; 6) the phylogenetic series of the horse.

a) 1,4,6; b) 1,3,4;

c) 2,4,5; d) 2,3,6;

Part 3 You are offered test tasks in the form of judgments, with each of which

should either be accepted or rejected. In the response matrix, indicate the answer option "yes" or "no". The maximum number of points that can be scored is 20 (1 point for each test item).

1 .The material for evolution is natural selection.

2. A collection of plants of the same species, artificially created by man, is called a breed.

3. With autosomal dominant inheritance, the trait occurs in both men and women.

4. The variety of phenotypes that arise in organisms under the influence of environmental conditions is called combinative variability.

5 .Allopolyploidy - a multiple increase in the number of chromosomes in hybrids obtained as a result of crossing different species.

6 .When an egg matures, three directional bodies are formed for each full-fledged cell.

7. The cavity inside the blastula is called the blastomere.

8. In spermatogenesis in the growth phase, the number of chromosomes and DNA molecules is 2n4c.

9. The code unit of the genetic code is the nucleotide.

10. The Krebs cycle occurs on the mitochondrial membrane.

11. The plant cell contains semi-autonomous organelles: vacuoles and plastids.

12. The centromere is a section of the eukaryotic DNA molecule.

13. The number of mitochondria in a cell depends on its functional activity.

14 .There is no cell wall in protozoan cells.

15. The most common monosaccharides are sucrose and lactose.

16. According to the type of nutrition, an adult toothless is a biofilter.

18. Fish lack the ability to accommodate.

19. Most of the cambium cells are deposited towards the wood.

20. If the flowers are collected on the lateral axes, then such inflorescences are called complex.

Part 4. Match. The maximum number of points that can be scored is 25.

Establish a correspondence between the characteristic of the plant and the department to which it belongs

Signs of a plant Division

A. The life cycle is dominated by gametophyte 1. Bryophytes

B. The life cycle is dominated by sporophyte 2. Gymnosperms

B. Reproduction by spores

D. The presence of a well-developed root system

D. Formation of pollen grains.

Match the example with the environmental factor.

Examples Environmental factors

A. Chemical composition of water 1. abiotic factors B. Diversity of plankton 2. biotic factors

B. Humidity, soil temperature

D. The presence of nodule bacteria on the roots of legumes

D. Soil salinity.

Establish a correspondence between the features of the processes of protein biosynthesis and photosynthesis

Process Features Processes

A. It ends with the formation of carbohydrates 1. protein biosynthesis B. Source substances - amino acids2. photosynthesis

C. Based on matrix synthesis reactions

D. Initial substances - carbon dioxide and water

D. ATP is synthesized during the process.

BUT	B	AT	G	D

Matrix of answers Grade 11

Part 1.


b	b	a	b	G	in	a	a	in	b

a	G	in	G	G	in	G	b	b	b

in	a	G	b	G	in	G	a	G	G

b	a	in	a	b

Part 2.


d	G	b	b	in	d	in	b	b	G

Part 3


-	-	+	-	+	+	-	+	-	-

-	-	+	+	-	+	-	+	+	+

Part 4

BUT	B	AT	G	D

BUT	B	AT	G	D

BUT	B	AT	G	D

BUT	B	AT	G	D

BUT	B	AT	G	D

Maximum points -100

Portal for the student. Self-training