There are many places to start this discussion, and this is as good as the others: everything in our universe has the nature of both particles and waves at the same time. If one could say about magic this way: "All these are waves, and only waves," that would be a wonderful poetic description of quantum physics. In fact, everything in this universe has a wave nature.
Of course, also everything in the universe has the nature of particles. Sounds weird, but it is.
Describing real objects as particles and waves at the same time would be somewhat inaccurate. Strictly speaking, the objects described by quantum physics are not particles and waves, but rather belong to the third category, which inherits the properties of waves (frequency and wavelength, along with propagation in space) and some properties of particles (they can be counted and localized to a certain degree ). This leads to a lively debate in the physics community about whether it is even correct to speak of light as a particle; not because there is a contradiction in whether light has a particle nature, but because calling photons "particles" and not "excitations of a quantum field" is misleading students. However, this also applies to whether electrons can be called particles, but such disputes will remain in purely academic circles.
This "third" nature of quantum objects is reflected in the sometimes confusing language of physicists who discuss quantum phenomena. The Higgs boson was discovered as a particle at the Large Hadron Collider, but you've probably heard the phrase "Higgs field", such a delocalized thing that fills all of space. This is because under certain conditions, such as particle collision experiments, it is more appropriate to discuss excitations of the Higgs field than to characterize the particle, while under other conditions, such as general discussions of why certain particles have mass, it is more appropriate to discuss physics in terms of interactions with the quantum a field of universal proportions. They are just different languages describing the same mathematical objects.
Quantum physics is discrete
Everything in the name of physics - the word "quantum" comes from the Latin "how much" and reflects the fact that quantum models always include something that comes in discrete quantities. The energy contained in a quantum field comes in multiples of some fundamental energy. For light, this is associated with the frequency and wavelength of the light—high-frequency, short-wavelength light has a huge characteristic energy, while low-frequency, long-wavelength light has little characteristic energy.
In both cases, meanwhile, the total energy contained in a separate light field is an integer multiple of this energy - 1, 2, 14, 137 times - and there are no strange fractions like one and a half, "pi" or the square root of two. This property is also observed in discrete energy levels of atoms, and energy bands are specific - some energy values are allowed, others are not. Atomic clocks work thanks to the discreteness of quantum physics, using the frequency of light associated with the transition between two allowed states in cesium, which allows you to keep time at the level necessary for the "second jump".
Ultra-precise spectroscopy can also be used to search for things like dark matter, and remains part of the motivation for the institute's work on low-energy fundamental physics.
It's not always obvious - even some things that are quantum in principle, like black body radiation, are associated with continuous distributions. But upon closer examination and with the connection of a deep mathematical apparatus, quantum theory becomes even more strange.
Quantum physics is probabilistic
One of the most surprising and (at least historically) controversial aspects of quantum physics is that it is impossible to predict with certainty the outcome of a single experiment with a quantum system. When physicists predict the outcome of a particular experiment, their prediction is in the form of the probability of finding each of the particular possible outcomes, and comparisons between theory and experiment always involve deriving a probability distribution from many repeated experiments.
The mathematical description of a quantum system, as a rule, takes the form of a "wave function", represented in the equations of the Greek beech psi: Ψ. There are many discussions about what exactly the wave function is, and they have divided physicists into two camps: those who see the wave function as a real physical thing (ontic theorists), and those who believe that the wave function is solely an expression of our knowledge (or lack thereof) regardless of the underlying state of a particular quantum object (epistemic theorists).
In each class of the underlying model, the probability of finding a result is not determined directly by the wave function, but by the square of the wave function (roughly speaking, it is still the same; the wave function is a complex mathematical object (and therefore includes imaginary numbers like the square root or its negative variant), and the probability operation is a little more complicated, but "the square of the wave function" is enough to get the basic gist of the idea). This is known as the Born rule, after the German physicist Max Born, who first calculated it (in a footnote to a 1926 paper) and surprised many people with its ugly implementation. There is active work in trying to derive the Born rule from a more fundamental principle; but so far none of them has been successful, although it has generated a lot of interesting things for science.
This aspect of the theory also leads us to particles that are in many states at the same time. All we can predict is probability, and before measuring with a particular result, the system being measured is in an intermediate state - a superposition state that includes all possible probabilities. But whether the system is really in multiple states or is in one unknown depends on whether you prefer an ontic or epistemic model. Both of them lead us to the next point.
Quantum physics is non-local
The latter was not widely accepted as such, mainly because he was wrong. In a 1935 paper, along with his young colleagues Boris Podolkiy and Nathan Rosen (the EPR paper), Einstein made a clear mathematical statement of something that had been troubling him for some time, what we call "entanglement."
EPR's work claimed that quantum physics recognized the existence of systems in which measurements made at widely separated locations could be correlated so that the outcome of one determined the other. They argued that this meant that the results of the measurements had to be determined in advance by some common factor, since otherwise the result of one measurement would have to be transmitted to the site of another at a speed faster than the speed of light. Therefore, quantum physics must be incomplete, an approximation of a deeper theory (the “hidden local variable” theory, in which the results of individual measurements do not depend on something that is farther from the measurement site than a signal traveling at the speed of light can cover (locally), but rather is determined by some factor common to both systems in an entangled pair (hidden variable).
The whole thing was considered an incomprehensible footnote for more than 30 years, since there seemed to be no way to verify it, but in the mid-60s, the Irish physicist John Bell worked out the consequences of EPR in more detail. Bell showed that you can find circumstances under which quantum mechanics will predict correlations between remote measurements that are stronger than any possible theory like those proposed by E, P, and R. This was experimentally tested in the 70s by John Kloser and Alain Aspect in the early 80s. x - they showed that these intricate systems could not potentially be explained by any local hidden variable theory.
The most common approach to understanding this result is to assume that quantum mechanics is non-local: that the results of measurements made at a particular location can depend on the properties of a distant object in a way that cannot be explained using signals traveling at the speed of light. This, however, does not allow information to be transmitted at superluminal speeds, although many attempts have been made to circumvent this limitation using quantum nonlocality.
Quantum physics is (almost always) concerned with the very small
Quantum physics has a reputation for being weird because its predictions are drastically different from our everyday experience. This is because its effects are less pronounced the larger the object - you will hardly see the wave behavior of the particles and how the wavelength decreases with increasing momentum. The wavelength of a macroscopic object like a walking dog is so ridiculously small that if you magnified every atom in a room to the size of a solar system, the wavelength of a dog would be the size of one atom in that solar system.
This means that quantum phenomena are mostly limited to the scale of atoms and fundamental particles, whose masses and accelerations are small enough that the wavelength remains so small that it cannot be observed directly. However, a lot of efforts are being made to increase the size of a system that exhibits quantum effects.
Quantum physics is not magic
The previous point quite naturally brings us to this point: however strange quantum physics may seem, it is clearly not magic. What it postulates is strange by the standards of everyday physics, but it is severely constrained by well-understood mathematical rules and principles.
So if someone comes to you with a "quantum" idea that seems impossible - infinite energy, magical healing power, impossible space engines - it's almost certainly impossible. This doesn't mean that we can't use quantum physics to do incredible things: we are constantly writing about incredible breakthroughs using quantum phenomena, and they have already quite surprised humanity, it only means that we will not go beyond the laws of thermodynamics and common sense .
If the above points are not enough for you, consider this only a useful starting point for further discussion.
Physics is the most mysterious of all sciences. Physics gives us an understanding of the world around us. The laws of physics are absolute and apply to everyone without exception, regardless of person and social status.
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Fundamental discoveries in quantum physics
Isaac Newton, Nikola Tesla, Albert Einstein and many others are the great guides of mankind in the wonderful world of physics, who, like prophets, revealed to mankind the greatest secrets of the universe and the ability to control physical phenomena. Their bright heads cut through the darkness of ignorance of the unreasonable majority and, like a guiding star, showed the way to humanity in the darkness of the night. One of these conductors in the world of physics was Max Planck, the father of quantum physics.
Max Planck is not only the founder of quantum physics, but also the author of the world famous quantum theory. Quantum theory is the most important component of quantum physics. In simple terms, this theory describes the movement, behavior and interaction of microparticles. The founder of quantum physics also brought us many other scientific works that have become the cornerstones of modern physics:
- theory of thermal radiation;
- special theory of relativity;
- research in the field of thermodynamics;
- research in the field of optics.
The theory of quantum physics about the behavior and interaction of microparticles became the basis for condensed matter physics, elementary particle physics and high energy physics. Quantum theory explains to us the essence of many phenomena of our world - from the functioning of electronic computers to the structure and behavior of celestial bodies. Max Planck, the creator of this theory, thanks to his discovery allowed us to comprehend the true essence of many things at the level of elementary particles. But the creation of this theory is far from the only merit of the scientist. He was the first to discover the fundamental law of the universe - the law of conservation of energy. The contribution to science of Max Planck is difficult to overestimate. In short, his discoveries are priceless for physics, chemistry, history, methodology and philosophy.
quantum field theory
In a nutshell, quantum field theory is a theory of the description of microparticles, as well as their behavior in space, interaction with each other and mutual transformations. This theory studies the behavior of quantum systems within the so-called degrees of freedom. This beautiful and romantic name says nothing to many of us. For dummies, degrees of freedom are the number of independent coordinates that are needed to indicate the motion of a mechanical system. In simple terms, degrees of freedom are characteristics of motion. Interesting discoveries in the field of interaction of elementary particles were made by Steven Weinberg. He discovered the so-called neutral current - the principle of interaction between quarks and leptons, for which he received the Nobel Prize in 1979.
The Quantum Theory of Max Planck
In the nineties of the eighteenth century, the German physicist Max Planck took up the study of thermal radiation and eventually received a formula for the distribution of energy. The quantum hypothesis, which was born in the course of these studies, marked the beginning of quantum physics, as well as quantum field theory, discovered in the 1900th year. Planck's quantum theory is that during thermal radiation, the energy produced is emitted and absorbed not constantly, but episodically, quantumly. The year 1900, thanks to this discovery made by Max Planck, became the year of the birth of quantum mechanics. It is also worth mentioning Planck's formula. In short, its essence is as follows - it is based on the ratio of body temperature and its radiation.
Quantum-mechanical theory of the structure of the atom
The quantum mechanical theory of the structure of the atom is one of the basic theories of concepts in quantum physics, and indeed in physics in general. This theory allows us to understand the structure of everything material and opens the veil of secrecy over what things actually consist of. And the conclusions based on this theory are very unexpected. Consider the structure of the atom briefly. So what is an atom really made of? An atom consists of a nucleus and a cloud of electrons. The basis of the atom, its nucleus, contains almost the entire mass of the atom itself - more than 99 percent. The nucleus always has a positive charge, and it determines the chemical element of which the atom is a part. The most interesting thing about the nucleus of an atom is that it contains almost the entire mass of the atom, but at the same time it occupies only one ten-thousandth of its volume. What follows from this? And the conclusion is very unexpected. This means that the dense matter in the atom is only one ten-thousandth. And what about everything else? Everything else in the atom is an electron cloud.
The electron cloud is not a permanent and even, in fact, not a material substance. An electron cloud is just the probability of electrons appearing in an atom. That is, the nucleus occupies only one ten thousandth in the atom, and everything else is emptiness. And if we take into account that all the objects around us, from dust particles to celestial bodies, planets and stars, consist of atoms, it turns out that everything material in fact consists of more than 99 percent of emptiness. This theory seems completely unbelievable, and its author, at least, a delusional person, because the things that exist around have a solid consistency, have weight and can be felt. How can it consist of emptiness? Has a mistake crept into this theory of the structure of matter? But there is no error here.
All material things appear dense only due to the interaction between atoms. Things have a solid and dense consistency only due to attraction or repulsion between atoms. This ensures the density and hardness of the crystal lattice of chemicals, of which everything material consists. But, an interesting point, when, for example, the temperature conditions of the environment change, the bonds between atoms, that is, their attraction and repulsion, can weaken, which leads to a weakening of the crystal lattice and even to its destruction. This explains the change in the physical properties of substances when heated. For example, when iron is heated, it becomes liquid and can be shaped into any shape. And when ice melts, the destruction of the crystal lattice leads to a change in the state of matter, and it turns from solid to liquid. These are clear examples of the weakening of bonds between atoms and, as a result, the weakening or destruction of the crystal lattice, and allow the substance to become amorphous. And the reason for such mysterious metamorphoses is precisely that substances consist of dense matter only by one ten-thousandth, and everything else is emptiness.
And substances seem to be solid only because of the strong bonds between atoms, with the weakening of which, the substance changes. Thus, the quantum theory of the structure of the atom allows us to take a completely different look at the world around us.
The founder of the theory of the atom, Niels Bohr, put forward an interesting concept that the electrons in the atom do not radiate energy constantly, but only at the moment of transition between the trajectories of their movement. Bohr's theory helped explain many intra-atomic processes, and also made a breakthrough in the science of chemistry, explaining the boundary of the table created by Mendeleev. According to , the last element that can exist in time and space has the serial number one hundred thirty-seven, and elements starting from one hundred and thirty-eighth cannot exist, since their existence contradicts the theory of relativity. Also, Bohr's theory explained the nature of such a physical phenomenon as atomic spectra.
These are the interaction spectra of free atoms that arise when energy is emitted between them. Such phenomena are typical for gaseous, vaporous substances and substances in the plasma state. Thus, quantum theory made a revolution in the world of physics and allowed scientists to advance not only in the field of this science, but also in the field of many related sciences: chemistry, thermodynamics, optics and philosophy. And also allowed humanity to penetrate the secrets of the nature of things.
There is still a lot to be done by humanity in its consciousness in order to realize the nature of atoms, to understand the principles of their behavior and interaction. Having understood this, we will be able to understand the nature of the world around us, because everything that surrounds us, starting with dust particles and ending with the sun itself, and we ourselves - everything consists of atoms, the nature of which is mysterious and amazing and fraught with a lot of secrets.
This text presents new results in the field of neurology and the solution of many unsolved problems in physics. It does not deal with questions of metaphysics and is based on scientifically verifiable data, but touches on philosophical topics related to life, death and the origin of the universe.
Given the layering and richness of information, it may be necessary to read it several times in order to understand, despite our efforts, to simplify complex scientific concepts.
Chapter 1
God is in neurons
The human brain is a network of approximately one hundred billion neurons. Different sensations form neural connections that reproduce different emotions. Depending on the stimulation of neurons, some connections become stronger and more effective, while others weaken. It is called neuroplasticity.
A student of music creates stronger neural connections between the two hemispheres of the brain in order to develop musical creativity. Almost any talent or skill can be developed through training.
Rudiger Gamm considered himself a hopeless student and could not even cope with elementary mathematics. He began to develop his abilities and turned into a human calculator, capable of extremely complex calculations. Rationality and emotional stability work the same way. Nerve connections can be strengthened.
When you do something, you are physically changing your brain in order to achieve better results. Since it is the main and basic mechanism of the brain, self-awareness can greatly enrich our life experience.
social neuroscience
Special neurons and neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine trigger a defense mechanism when we feel that our thoughts need to be protected from outside influences. If someone's opinion differs from ours, the same chemicals enter the brain that ensure our survival in dangerous situations.
In this protective state, more primitive part of the brain interferes with rational thought, and limbic system can block our working memory, physically causing "thinking limitations".
This can be seen when bullying, or when playing poker, or when someone is stubborn in an argument.
No matter how valuable the idea is, in this state the brain is not able to process it. At a neural level, he perceives it as a threat, even if it is harmless opinions or facts that we might otherwise agree with.
But when we express ourselves and our views are appreciated, the level of protective substances in the brain decreases, and the transfer of dopamine activates reward neurons, and we feel our strength and confidence. Our beliefs significantly affect our body chemistry. This is what the placebo effect is based on. Self-esteem and self-confidence are linked to the neurotransmitter serotonin.
Severe deficiency often leads to depression, self-destructive behavior, and even suicide. When society appreciates us, it increases the levels of dopamine and serotonin in the brain and allows us to release emotional fixation and increase our level of self-awareness.
Mirror neurons and consciousness
Social psychology often addresses the basic human need to "find one's place" and calls it "normative social influence." As we grow older, our moral and ethical compass is almost entirely shaped by our external environment. Thus, our actions are often based on how society evaluates us.
But new findings in neuroscience are giving us a clearer understanding of culture and individuality. New neurological research has confirmed the existence of empathic mirror neurons.
When we experience emotions or perform actions, certain neurons fire. But when we see someone else do it or imagine it, many of the same neurons fire as if we were doing it ourselves. These empathic neurons connect us to other people and allow us to feel what others feel.
Since these same neurons respond to our imagination, we get emotional feedback from them in the same way as from another person. This system gives us the possibility of introspection.
Mirror neurons do not discriminate between themselves and others. Therefore, we are so dependent on the assessment of others and the desire to comply.
We are constantly subject to the duality between how we see ourselves and how others perceive us. It can interfere with our individuality and self-esteem.
Brain scans show that we experience these negative emotions even before we are aware of them. But when we are self-aware, we can change wrong emotions because we can control the thoughts that cause them.
This is a neurochemical consequence of how memories fade and how they are restored through protein synthesis.
Introspection greatly affects how the brain works. It activates neocortical areas of self-regulation that allow us to clearly control our own feelings. Whenever we do this, our rationality and emotional stability are enhanced. Without self-control, most of our thoughts and actions are impulsive, and the fact that we react randomly and do not make a conscious choice,
instinctively annoys us.
To eliminate this, the brain seeks to justify our behavior and physically rewrites memories through memory reconsolidation, making us believe we were in control of our actions. This is called retrospective rationalization, which leaves most of our negative emotions unresolved and can flare up at any time. They feed inner discomfort while the brain continues to justify our irrational behavior. All this complex and almost schizophrenic behavior of the subconscious is the work of vast parallel distributed systems in our brain.
Consciousness has no definite center. The apparent unity is due to the fact that each individual circuit is activated and manifests itself at a particular moment in time. Our experience is constantly changing our neural connections, physically changing the parallel system of our consciousness. Intervening directly in this can have surreal effects, which raises the question of what consciousness is and where it is located.
If the left hemisphere of the brain is separated from the right hemisphere, as in the case of patients who have undergone a brain split, you will retain the ability to speak and think with the help of the left hemisphere, while the cognitive abilities of the right hemisphere will be severely limited. The left hemisphere will not suffer from the absence of the right, although this will seriously change your perception.
For example, you won't be able to describe the right side of someone's face, but you'll notice it, you won't see it as a problem, and you won't even realize that something has changed. Since this affects not only your perception of the real world, but also your mental images, this is not just a problem of perception, but a fundamental change in consciousness.
God is in neurons
Each neuron has an electrical voltage that changes when the ions
enter or leave the cell. When the voltage reaches a certain level, the neuron sends an electrical signal to other cells, where the process is repeated.
When many neurons emit a signal at the same time, we can measure it as a wave.
Brainwaves are responsible for almost everything that happens in our brain, including memory, attention, and even intelligence.
Oscillations of different frequencies are classified as alpha, beta and gamma waves. Each wave type is associated with different tasks. Waves allow brain cells to tune in to the appropriate frequency for the task, ignoring extraneous signals.
Just like a radio tunes in to a radio station. Information transfer between neurons becomes optimal when their activity is synchronized.
That's why we experience cognitive dissonance - irritation caused by two incompatible ideas. Will is the desire to reduce the dissonance between each of the active neural circuits.
Evolution can be seen as the same process where nature tries to adapt, that is, "resonate" with the environment. So she developed to the level where she gained self-awareness and began to think about her own existence.
When a person is faced with the paradox of striving for a goal and thinking that existence is meaningless, cognitive dissonance occurs.
Therefore, many people turn to spirituality and religion, rejecting science, which is not able to answer existential questions: who am I? and what am I for?
I...
“Mirror neurons do not discriminate between themselves and others. „
The left hemisphere is largely responsible for creating a coherent belief system that maintains a sense of continuity in our lives.
The new experience is compared with the existing belief system, and if it does not fit into it, then it is simply rejected. The balance is played by the right hemisphere of the brain, which plays the opposite role.
While the left hemisphere strives to maintain the pattern, the right hemisphere continuously
questions the status quo. If the discrepancies are too great, the right hemisphere forces us to reconsider our worldview. But if our beliefs are too strong, the right brain may not overcome our rejection. This can create great difficulty in reflecting others.
When the neural connections that determine our beliefs are not developed or active, our consciousness, the unity of all active circuits, is filled with mirror neuron activity, just as when we are hungry, our consciousness is filled with neuronal processes associated with nutrition.
This is not the result of the central "I" issuing commands to different areas of the brain.
All parts of the brain can be active or inactive and interact without a central nucleus. Just as pixels on a screen can form a recognizable image, a group of neural interactions can express themselves as consciousness.
At any moment we are a different image. When we reflect others, when we are hungry, when we watch this movie. Every second we become a different person, passing through different states.
When we look at ourselves through mirror neurons, we create the idea of individuality.
But when we do this with scientific understanding, we see something completely different.
The neural interactions that create our consciousness extend far beyond our neurons. We are the result of electrochemical interactions between the hemispheres of the brain and our senses, connecting our neurons with other neurons in our environment. There is nothing external. This is not a hypothetical philosophy, this is the basic property of mirror neurons that allows us to understand ourselves through others.
To consider this neural activity as one's own, to the exclusion of the environment, would be wrong. Evolution also reflects our side of the superorganism, where our survival, as primates, depended on collective abilities.
Over time, neocortical regions have evolved to allow for instinctual shifting and suppression of hedonistic impulses for the benefit of the group. Our genes began to develop mutual social behavior in the structures of a superorganism, thereby abandoning the idea of "survival of the fittest."
The brain functions most efficiently when there is no dissonance between the advanced areas of the brain and the older and more primitive ones. What we call "selfish tendencies" is only a limited interpretation of selfish behavior, when the characteristics of a person are perceived through an incorrect paradigm of individuality ...
… instead of a scientific view of who we are, an instant, ever-changing image
a single whole without a center.
The psychological consequence of this belief system is self-awareness without reference to the imaginary "I", which leads to increased mental clarity, social awareness, self-control, and what is often called "being here and now."
There is an opinion that we need history, a chronological view of our lives, in order to form moral values.
But our current understanding of the empathic and social nature of the brain shows that a purely scientific view, without reference to individuality and "history", provides a much more accurate, constructive and ethical system of concepts than our disparate values.
This is logical because our normal tendency to define ourselves as an imaginary individual constant drives the brain into cognitive disorders such as intrusive stereotyping and the need to set expectations.
The desire to classify lies at the heart of all our forms of interaction. But by classifying the ego as internal and the environment as external, we limit our own neurochemical processes and experience an apparent sense of disconnection.
Personal growth and its side effects such as happiness and satisfaction are stimulated when we are not stereotyped in our interactions.
We may have different views and disagree with each other, but interactions that accept us as we are without judgment become neuropsychological catalysts that stimulate the brain.
accept others and accept rationally provable belief systems without cognitive dissonance.
Stimulating this neural activity and interaction releases the need for distractions and entertainment and creates cycles of constructive behavior in our environment. Sociologists have discovered that phenomena such as smoking and overeating, emotions and ideas are distributed in society in the same way as the electrical signals of neurons are transmitted when their activity is synchronized.
We are a global network of neurochemical reactions. A self-evolving cycle of appreciation and recognition, sustained by daily decisions, is the chain reaction that ultimately determines our collective ability to overcome apparent divisions and look at life in its universal structure.
Chapter 2
universal structure
During Chiren's research, I have made a simplistic but comprehensive review of his current results.
This is one of the interpretations of the unification work quantum physics and the theory of relativity.
This topic is complex and may be difficult to understand. It also contains some philosophical conclusions that will be touched upon in the epilogue.
Over the past century, there have been many amazing achievements that have led to a change in the scientific system of understanding the world. Einstein's theory of relativity showed that time and space form a single fabric. BUT Niels Bohr revealed the basic components of matter, thanks to quantum physics - a field that exists only as an "abstract physical description".
After that, Louis de Broglie discovered that all matter, not just photons and electrons, has a quantum wave-particle duality . These led to the emergence of new schools of thought about the nature of reality, as well as popular metaphysical and pseudoscientific theories.
For example, that the human mind can control the universe through positive thinking. These theories are attractive, but they are not verifiable and can hinder scientific progress.
Einstein's laws of special and general relativity are used in modern technology, such as GPS satellites, where the accuracy of calculations can deviate by more than 10 km per day, if effects such as time dilation are not taken into account. That is, for a moving clock, time passes more slowly than for a stationary one.
Other effects of relativity are length contraction for moving objects and the relativity of simultaneity, which makes it impossible to say with certainty that two events occur at the same time if they are separated in space.
Nothing moves faster than the speed of light. This means that if a tube 10 light seconds long is pushed forward, 10 seconds will elapse before the action occurs on the other side. Without a time interval of 10 seconds, the pipe does not exist in its entirety.
The point is not in the limitations of our observations, but in a direct consequence of the theory of relativity, where time and space are interconnected, and one cannot exist without the other.
Quantum physics provides a mathematical description of many issues of wave-particle duality and the interaction of energy and matter. It differs from classical physics primarily at the atomic and subatomic level. These mathematical formulations are abstract and their deductions are often non-intuitive.
A quantum is the smallest unit of any physical entity involved in an interaction. Elementary particles are the basic components of the universe. These are the particles that make up all other particles. In classical physics, we can always divide an object into smaller parts; in quantum physics, this is impossible.
Therefore, the quantum world is a set of unique phenomena that are inexplicable according to classical laws. For example, quantum entanglement, photoelectric effect , Compton scattering and much more.
The quantum world has many unusual interpretations. Among the most widely recognized are the Copenhagen Interpretation and the Many Worlds Interpretation. Currently, alternative interpretations such as the "holographic universe" are gaining momentum.
de Broglie equations
Although quantum physics and Einstein's laws of relativity are equally essential to the scientific understanding of the universe, there are many unsolved scientific problems and no unifying theory yet.
Some of the current questions are: Why is there more observable matter in the universe than antimatter? What is the nature of the time axis? What is the origin of mass?
One of the most important clues to these problems are de Broglie's equations, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics.
This formula shows that all matter has corpuscular-wave dualism, that is, in some cases it behaves like a wave, and in others - like a particle. The formula combines Einstein's equation E = mc^2 with the quantum nature of energy.
Experimental evidence includes the interference of C60 fullerene molecules in the double slit experiment. The fact that our very consciousness is made up of quantum particles is the subject of numerous mystical theories.
And while the relationship between quantum mechanics and consciousness is hardly as magical as esoteric films and books claim, the implications are quite serious.
Since de Broglie's equations apply to all matter, we can say that C = hf, where C is consciousness, h is Planck's constant, and f is frequency. "C" is responsible for what we perceive as "now", quantum , that is, the minimum unit of interaction.
The sum of all "C" moments up to the current moment is what shapes our vision of life. This is not a philosophical or theoretical statement, but a direct consequence of the quantum nature of all matter and energy.
The formula shows that life and death are abstract aggregates "C".
Another consequence of the de Broglie equations is that the rate of oscillation of matter or energy and its behavior as a wave or particle depends on the frequency of the reference frame.
Frequency increases due to speed correlate with others and lead to phenomena such as time dilation.
The reason for this is that the perception of time does not change relative to the frame of reference, where space and time are properties of quanta, and not vice versa.
Antimatter and unperturbed time
The Large Hadron Collider. Switzerland
Antiparticles are created everywhere in the universe where high-energy collisions between particles take place. This process is artificially modeled in particle accelerators.
At the same time as matter, antimatter is also created. Thus, the lack of antimatter in the universe is still one of the biggest unresolved issues in physics.
By trapping antiparticles in electromagnetic fields, we can explore their properties. The quantum states of particles and antiparticles are mutually interchangeable if the charge conjugation ©, parity (P), and time reversal (T) operators are applied to them.
That is, if a physicist, consisting of antimatter, will conduct experiments in a laboratory, also from antimatter, using chemical compounds and substances consisting of antiparticles, he will get exactly the same results as his "real" counterpart. But if they combine, there will be a huge release of energy proportional to their mass.
Recently, Fermi Labs discovered that quanta such as mesons move from matter to antimatter and back again at a rate of three trillion times a second.
Considering the universe in the quantum reference frame "C", it is necessary to take into account all the experimental results applicable to quanta. Including how matter and antimatter are created in particle accelerators, and how mesons go from one state to another.
For C, this has serious implications. From a quantum point of view, every instant of "C" has an anti-C. This explains the lack of symmetry, i.e., antimatter, in the universe and is also related to the arbitrary choice of emitter and absorber in the Wheeler-Feynman absorption theory.
The unperturbed time T in the uncertainty principle is the time or cycle required for the existence of quanta.
Just as in the case of mesons, the boundary of our personal perception of time, that is, the range of the current moment, is the transition of "C" to "anti-C". This moment of self-annihilation and its interpretation of "C" is enclosed in the framework of the abstract axis of time.
If we define the interaction and consider the basic properties of the wave-particle duality of the quantum, all interactions consist of interference and resonance.
But since this is not enough to explain the fundamental forces, different models must be used. This includes the Standard Model, which mediates between the dynamics of known subatomic particles through force carriers, and general relativity, which describes macroscopic phenomena such as planetary orbits that follow an ellipse in space and spirals in spacetime. But Einstein's model does not apply at the quantum level, and the Standard Model needs additional force carriers to explain the origin of mass. Combining two models or Theory of everything
has been the subject of many as yet unsuccessful studies.
Theory of everything
Quantum mechanics are purely mathematical descriptions whose practical implications often contradict intuition. Classical concepts such as length, time, mass and energy can be described similarly.
Based on the de Broglie equations, we can replace these concepts with abstract vectors. This probabilistic approach to the main existing concepts in physics makes it possible to combine quantum mechanics with Einstein's theory of relativity.
De Broglie's equations show that all frames of reference are quantum, including all matter and energy. Particle accelerators have shown that matter and antimatter are always created at the same time.
The paradox of how reality emerges from abstract components that cancel each other out can be explained using quanta as a frame of reference.
Simply put, we must look at things through the eyes of a photon. The frame of reference is always quantum and determines how space-time is quantized.
When a system "increases" or "decreases", the same thing happens with space-time. In quantum mechanics, this is mathematically described as the probability amplitude of the wave function, and in Einstein's theory, as time dilation and length contraction.
For a quantum frame of reference, mass and energy can only be defined as abstract probabilities or, to be more specific and create a mathematical foundation, as vectors that only exist when we assume a time axis. They can be defined as interference or resonance with a frame of reference that defines the minimum unity or space-time constant "c", equivalent to Planck's constant in quantum mechanics.
Experiments show that the conversion of matter into energy through antimatter generates gamma rays with the opposite momentum. What appears to be a transformation is a relationship between opposite vectors, interpreted as distance and time, matter and antimatter, mass and energy, or interference and resonance within the abstract time axis "C".
The sum of opposite vectors is always zero. This is what causes symmetry or conservation laws in physics, or why at speed "c" time and space are zero due to length contraction and time dilation. A consequence of this is the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle, which states that some pairs of physical properties, such as position and momentum, cannot be known simultaneously with high accuracy.
In a sense, an individual particle is its own field. This does not explain our sense of continuity, where "C" destroys itself within its own required range. But when these vectors are exponentially boosted or accelerated about and within the time axis, the underlying mathematical algorithms that describe the fundamental forces can give rise to a continuous reality.
from abstract components.
Therefore, the equations of harmonic motion are used in many areas of physics dealing with periodic phenomena, such as quantum mechanics and electrodynamics. And so Einstein's equivalence principle, from which the space-time model is derived, states that there is no difference between gravity and acceleration.
Because gravity is a force only when considered in an oscillating frame of reference.
This is illustrated by the logarithmic spiral, which reduces to a helical spiral in the frame of reference, causing objects to rotate and move in orbits. For example, two growing apples in a growing frame of reference look like they are attracting each other, while the size seems to be the same.
The opposite occurs with interference. Simply put, the increase or decrease in the size of objects as we approach or move away is determined by the shift in the frame of reference, like a radio that tunes into different waves in order to pick up a radio station.
This also applies to gravity. In fact, regardless of any frame of reference, there are no fundamental forces. All interactions in our abstract continuity can be mathematically described in terms of interference and resonance, if the ever-changing and oscillating minimal unit or quantum is taken into account.
The experimental proof includes an invisible effect in the Standard Model where we see the action of forces but not the carriers of the force.
quantum superposition
The continuity of reality does not require that the quanta have a sequence in time. A quantum is not a subject of any concept of space and time and can simultaneously occupy all of its possible quantum states. This is called quantum superposition and is demonstrated, for example, in the double slit experiment or quantum teleportation, where every electron in the universe can be the same electron. The only requirement for an abstract time axis and consistent continuity of reality is an algorithm for describing a model or an abstract sequence of vectors.
Since this continuity determines our capacity for self-awareness, it subjects us to its mathematical consequences - the fundamental laws of physics.
Interaction is just an interpretation of an abstract model. That is why quantum mechanics gives only mathematical descriptions - it can only describe patterns within infinite probabilities.
When probability is expressed as "C", the information needed to describe the current moment, or the probabilistic range "C", also embodies the time axis. The nature of the time axis is one of the biggest unsolved questions in physics, which has led to many new popular interpretations.
For example, the holographic principle - part of quantum gravity and string theory - suggests that the entire universe can be viewed as just a two-dimensional information structure.
Time
We traditionally associate the concept of a time axis with the sequence of events that we experience through a sequence of short-term and long-term memories. We can only have memories of the past, not the future, and we have always assumed that this reflects the passage of time.
Scientists began to doubt this logic only when discoveries in quantum mechanics demonstrated that some phenomena are not related to our concept of time, and that our concept of time is just a perception of changes in observable parameters.
This is also reflected in time dilation and length contraction, which is one of the reasons Einstein established that time and space are a single fabric.
In an absolute sense, the concept of time is no different from the concept of distance.
Seconds are equal to light seconds, but mutually exclusive. Simply put: since distance and time are opposites, the passage of time can be interpreted as the distance traveled by the hands of a clock, as they move in the opposite direction of time.
While moving forward in distance, they are actually moving backward in what is called time. That is why every minimal unit of experience is immediately absorbed into the eternal now.
This interpretation eliminates the disagreement between wave function collapse and quantum decoherence. Concepts such as "life" and "death" are purely intellectual constructions. And any religious reasoning about the afterlife taking place in a world that is not subject to the mathematical laws of this reality is also fictional.
Another important consequence is that the Big Bang theory, where the universe originates from one point, is a misunderstanding. The traditional view of space-time, where space is three-dimensional and time plays the role of the fourth dimension, is wrong. If we want to study the origin of the universe, we must look ahead, since the time vector "C" is opposite to the distance vector from which we perceive the expanding universe. Although this temporal map of the universe will give only abstract concepts without taking into account its quantum basis.
Experimental evidence includes the acceleration of the expansion of the universe, as well as the inverse or regressive metric of black holes, and many problems associated with
with the Big Bang theory, for example, the horizon problem.
Neurological consequences
These inferences may raise questions about free will, since it seems that in our perception of time, action comes first, and then awareness.
Most of the research that sheds light on this question shows that the action actually happens before it is realized. But the deterministic point of view relies on a misconception of time, as shown by the mathematical descriptions of probability in quantum mechanics.
These interpretations will be important for future neurological research, as they show that any neural circuit is a vector that determines cognitive dissonance and interference or resonance in "C". The ability to understand and consciously change these vectors, acquired over billions of years of evolution, confirms how important our belief systems are in expanding our awareness, and how they affect our working memory, which is responsible for our ability to make connections, and for the neural processes that form meaning. It also explains that artificial consciousness would require a network
independent processors, rather than a linear sequence of complex algorithms.
Limited interpretation
Athene Unified Theory is a solution that combines quantum physics and relativity. Although it answers many of the questions in physics listed here, this is my limited interpretation of the first months of his research.
Regardless of the outcome, it is clear that we have entered an era in which science is open to all. And if we keep the internet accessible and neutral, we can test the validity of our ideas, develop our imagination by creating new relationships, and we can continue to develop our understanding.
universe and mind.
Epilogue
In quantum mechanics, we have learned to take a different approach to reality and see everything as probabilities rather than certainties. In a mathematical sense, everything is possible.
Both in science and in our daily lives, our ability to calculate or guess probabilities is determined by our intellectual ability to recognize patterns.
The more open we are, the more clearly we can see these patterns and base our actions on reasonable probability.
Since it is in the very nature of our left hemisphere to reject ideas that do not fit into our current views, the more attached we are to our beliefs, the less able we are to make conscious choices for ourselves. But by controlling this process, we expand our self-awareness and increase our free will.
They say that wisdom comes with age. But with openness and skepticism - key scientific principles - we don't need decades of trial and error to determine which of our beliefs might be wrong.
The question is not whether our beliefs are true or not, but whether our emotional attachment to them will do good or harm.
Free choice does not exist as long as we are emotionally attached to a belief system. Once we have enough self-awareness to understand this, we can work together to understand the probabilities of what will actually benefit us the most.
“The development of quantum mechanics has subjected our classical scientific views to unprecedented criticism. Self-awareness and a willingness to revise our hypotheses, which are constantly being tested by science and humanity, will determine the degree to which we achieve a deeper understanding of the mind and the universe.
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Surely you have heard many times about the inexplicable mysteries of quantum physics and quantum mechanics. Its laws fascinate with mysticism, and even the physicists themselves admit that they do not fully understand them. On the one hand, it is curious to understand these laws, but on the other hand, there is no time to read multi-volume and complex books on physics. I understand you very much, because I also love knowledge and the search for truth, but there is sorely not enough time for all the books. You are not alone, so many inquisitive people type in the search line: “quantum physics for dummies, quantum mechanics for dummies, quantum physics for beginners, quantum mechanics for beginners, basics of quantum physics, basics of quantum mechanics, quantum physics for children, what is quantum Mechanics". This post is for you.
You will understand the basic concepts and paradoxes of quantum physics. From the article you will learn:
- What is interference?
- What is spin and superposition?
- What is "measurement" or "wavefunction collapse"?
- What is quantum entanglement (or quantum teleportation for dummies)? (see article)
- What is the Schrödinger's Cat thought experiment? (see article)
What is quantum physics and quantum mechanics?
Quantum mechanics is part of quantum physics.
Why is it so difficult to understand these sciences? The answer is simple: quantum physics and quantum mechanics (a part of quantum physics) study the laws of the microworld. And these laws are absolutely different from the laws of our macrocosm. Therefore, it is difficult for us to imagine what happens to electrons and photons in the microcosm.
An example of the difference between the laws of macro- and microworlds: in our macrocosm, if you put a ball into one of the 2 boxes, then one of them will be empty, and the other - a ball. But in the microcosm (if instead of a ball - an atom), an atom can be simultaneously in two boxes. This has been repeatedly confirmed experimentally. Isn't it hard to put it in your head? But you can't argue with the facts.
One more example. You photographed a fast racing red sports car and in the photo you saw a blurry horizontal strip, as if the car at the time of the photo was from several points in space. Despite what you see in the photo, you are still sure that the car was at the moment when you photographed it. in one specific place in space. Not so in the micro world. An electron that revolves around the nucleus of an atom does not actually revolve, but located simultaneously at all points of the sphere around the nucleus of an atom. Like a loosely wound ball of fluffy wool. This concept in physics is called "electronic cloud" .
A small digression into history. For the first time, scientists thought about the quantum world when, in 1900, the German physicist Max Planck tried to find out why metals change color when heated. It was he who introduced the concept of quantum. Before that, scientists thought that light traveled continuously. The first person to take Planck's discovery seriously was the then unknown Albert Einstein. He realized that light is not only a wave. Sometimes it behaves like a particle. Einstein received the Nobel Prize for his discovery that light is emitted in portions, quanta. A quantum of light is called a photon ( photon, Wikipedia) .
In order to make it easier to understand the laws of quantum physics and mechanics (Wikipedia), it is necessary, in a certain sense, to abstract from the laws of classical physics familiar to us. And imagine that you dived, like Alice, down the rabbit hole, into Wonderland.
And here is a cartoon for children and adults. Talks about the fundamental experiment of quantum mechanics with 2 slits and an observer. Lasts only 5 minutes. Watch it before we delve into the basic questions and concepts of quantum physics.
Quantum physics for dummies video. In the cartoon, pay attention to the "eye" of the observer. It has become a serious mystery for physicists.
What is interference?
At the beginning of the cartoon, using the example of a liquid, it was shown how waves behave - alternating dark and light vertical stripes appear on the screen behind a plate with slots. And in the case when discrete particles (for example, pebbles) are “shot” at the plate, they fly through 2 slots and hit the screen directly opposite the slots. And "draw" on the screen only 2 vertical stripes.
Light interference- This is the "wave" behavior of light, when a lot of alternating bright and dark vertical stripes are displayed on the screen. And those vertical stripes called an interference pattern.
In our macrocosm, we often observe that light behaves like a wave. If you put your hand in front of the candle, then on the wall there will be not a clear shadow from the hand, but with blurry contours.
So, it's not all that difficult! It is now quite clear to us that light has a wave nature, and if 2 slits are illuminated with light, then on the screen behind them we will see an interference pattern. Now consider the 2nd experiment. This is the famous Stern-Gerlach experiment (which was carried out in the 20s of the last century).
In the installation described in the cartoon, they did not shine with light, but “shot” with electrons (as separate particles). Then, at the beginning of the last century, physicists around the world believed that electrons are elementary particles of matter and should not have a wave nature, but the same as pebbles. After all, electrons are elementary particles of matter, right? That is, if they are “thrown” into 2 slots, like pebbles, then on the screen behind the slots we should see 2 vertical stripes.
But… The result was stunning. Scientists saw an interference pattern - a lot of vertical stripes. That is, electrons, like light, can also have a wave nature, they can interfere. On the other hand, it became clear that light is not only a wave, but also a particle - a photon (from the historical background at the beginning of the article we learned that Einstein received the Nobel Prize for this discovery).
You may remember that at school we were told in physics about "particle-wave dualism"? It means that when it comes to very small particles (atoms, electrons) of the microworld, then they are both waves and particles
It is today that you and I are so smart and understand that the 2 experiments described above - firing electrons and illuminating slots with light - are one and the same. Because we're firing quantum particles at the slits. Now we know that both light and electrons are of quantum nature, they are both waves and particles at the same time. And at the beginning of the 20th century, the results of this experiment were a sensation.
Attention! Now let's move on to a more subtle issue.
We shine on our slits with a stream of photons (electrons) - and we see an interference pattern (vertical stripes) behind the slits on the screen. It is clear. But we are interested to see how each of the electrons flies through the slit.
Presumably, one electron flies to the left slit, the other to the right. But then 2 vertical stripes should appear on the screen directly opposite the slots. Why is an interference pattern obtained? Maybe the electrons somehow interact with each other already on the screen after flying through the slits. And the result is such a wave pattern. How can we follow this?
We will throw electrons not in a beam, but one at a time. Drop it, wait, drop the next one. Now, when the electron flies alone, it will no longer be able to interact on the screen with other electrons. We will register on the screen each electron after the throw. One or two, of course, will not “paint” a clear picture for us. But when one by one we send a lot of them into the slots, we will notice ... oh horror - they again “drawn” an interference wave pattern!
We start to slowly go crazy. After all, we expected that there would be 2 vertical stripes opposite the slots! It turns out that when we threw photons one at a time, each of them passed, as it were, through 2 slits at the same time and interfered with itself. Fantasy! We will return to the explanation of this phenomenon in the next section.
What is spin and superposition?
We now know what interference is. This is the wave behavior of micro particles - photons, electrons, other micro particles (let's call them photons for simplicity from now on).
As a result of the experiment, when we threw 1 photon into 2 slits, we realized that it flies as if through two slits at the same time. How else to explain the interference pattern on the screen?
But how to imagine a picture that a photon flies through two slits at the same time? There are 2 options.
- 1st option: photon, like a wave (like water) "floats" through 2 slits at the same time
- 2nd option: a photon, like a particle, flies simultaneously along 2 trajectories (not even two, but all at once)
In principle, these statements are equivalent. We have arrived at the "path integral". This is Richard Feynman's formulation of quantum mechanics.
By the way, exactly Richard Feynman belongs to the well-known expression that we can confidently say that no one understands quantum mechanics
But this expression of his worked at the beginning of the century. But now we are smart and we know that a photon can behave both as a particle and as a wave. That he can fly through 2 slots at the same time in some way that is incomprehensible to us. Therefore, it will be easy for us to understand the following important statement of quantum mechanics:
Strictly speaking, quantum mechanics tells us that this photon behavior is the rule, not the exception. Any quantum particle is, as a rule, in several states or at several points in space simultaneously.
Objects of the macroworld can only be in one specific place and in one specific state. But a quantum particle exists according to its own laws. And she doesn't care that we don't understand them. This is the point.
It remains for us to simply accept as an axiom that the "superposition" of a quantum object means that it can be on 2 or more trajectories at the same time, at 2 or more points at the same time
The same applies to another photon parameter - spin (its own angular momentum). Spin is a vector. A quantum object can be thought of as a microscopic magnet. We are used to the fact that the magnet vector (spin) is either directed up or down. But the electron or photon again tells us: “Guys, we don’t care what you are used to, we can be in both spin states at once (vector up, vector down), just like we can be on 2 trajectories at the same time or at 2 points at the same time!
What is "measurement" or "wavefunction collapse"?
It remains for us a little - to understand what is "measurement" and what is "collapse of the wave function".
wave function is a description of the state of a quantum object (our photon or electron).
Suppose we have an electron, it flies to itself in an indeterminate state, its spin is directed both up and down at the same time. We need to measure his condition.
Let's measure using a magnetic field: electrons whose spin was directed in the direction of the field will deviate in one direction, and electrons whose spin is directed against the field will deviate in the other direction. Photons can also be sent to a polarizing filter. If the spin (polarization) of a photon is +1, it passes through the filter, and if it is -1, then it does not.
Stop! This is where the question inevitably arises: before the measurement, after all, the electron did not have any particular spin direction, right? Was he in all states at the same time?
This is the trick and sensation of quantum mechanics.. As long as you do not measure the state of a quantum object, it can rotate in any direction (have any direction of its own angular momentum vector - spin). But at the moment when you measured his state, he seems to be deciding which spin vector to take.
This quantum object is so cool - it makes a decision about its state. And we cannot predict in advance what decision it will make when it flies into the magnetic field in which we measure it. The probability that he decides to have a spin vector "up" or "down" is 50 to 50%. But as soon as he decides, he is in a certain state with a specific spin direction. The reason for his decision is our "dimension"!
This is called " wave function collapse". The wave function before the measurement was indefinite, i.e. the electron spin vector was simultaneously in all directions, after the measurement, the electron fixed a certain direction of its spin vector.
Attention! An excellent example-association from our macrocosm for understanding:
Spin a coin on the table like a top. While the coin is spinning, it has no specific meaning - heads or tails. But as soon as you decide to "measure" this value and slam the coin with your hand, this is where you get the specific state of the coin - heads or tails. Now imagine that this coin decides what value to "show" you - heads or tails. The electron behaves approximately the same way.
Now remember the experiment shown at the end of the cartoon. When photons were passed through the slits, they behaved like a wave and showed an interference pattern on the screen. And when the scientists wanted to fix (measure) the moment when photons passed through the slit and put an “observer” behind the screen, the photons began to behave not like waves, but like particles. And “drawn” 2 vertical stripes on the screen. Those. at the moment of measurement or observation, quantum objects themselves choose what state they should be in.
Fantasy! Is not it?
But that is not all. Finally we got to the most interesting.
But ... it seems to me that there will be an overload of information, so we will consider these 2 concepts in separate posts:
- What ?
- What is a thought experiment.
And now, do you want the information to be put on the shelves? Watch a documentary produced by the Canadian Institute for Theoretical Physics. In 20 minutes, it will tell you very briefly and in chronological order about all the discoveries of quantum physics, starting with the discovery of Planck in 1900. And then they will tell you what practical developments are currently being carried out on the basis of knowledge of quantum physics: from the most accurate atomic clocks to super-fast calculations of a quantum computer. I highly recommend watching this movie.
See you!
I wish you all inspiration for all your plans and projects!
P.S.2 Write your questions and thoughts in the comments. Write, what other questions on quantum physics are you interested in?
P.S.3 Subscribe to the blog - the subscription form under the article.
The golden foliage of the trees shone brightly. The rays of the evening sun touched the thinned tops. Light broke through the branches and staged a spectacle of bizarre figures flickering on the wall of the university "kapterka".
Sir Hamilton's pensive gaze moved slowly, watching the play of chiaroscuro. In the head of the Irish mathematician there was a real melting pot of thoughts, ideas and conclusions. He was well aware that the explanation of many phenomena with the help of Newtonian mechanics is like the play of shadows on the wall, deceptively intertwining figures and leaving many questions unanswered. “Maybe it's a wave… or maybe it's a stream of particles,” the scientist mused, “or light is a manifestation of both phenomena. Like figures woven from shadow and light.
The beginning of quantum physics
It is interesting to watch great people and try to understand how great ideas are born that change the course of evolution of all mankind. Hamilton is one of those who stood at the origins of quantum physics. Fifty years later, at the beginning of the twentieth century, many scientists were engaged in the study of elementary particles. The knowledge gained was inconsistent and uncompiled. However, the first shaky steps were taken.
Understanding the microworld at the beginning of the 20th century
In 1901, the first model of the atom was presented and its failure was shown, from the standpoint of ordinary electrodynamics. During the same period, Max Planck and Niels Bohr published many works on the nature of the atom. Despite their complete understanding of the structure of the atom did not exist.
A few years later, in 1905, a little-known German scientist Albert Einstein published a report on the possibility of the existence of a light quantum in two states - wave and corpuscular (particles). In his work, arguments were given explaining the reason for the failure of the model. However, Einstein's vision was limited by the old understanding of the model of the atom.
After numerous works by Niels Bohr and his colleagues in 1925, a new direction was born - a kind of quantum mechanics. A common expression - "quantum mechanics" appeared thirty years later.
What do we know about quanta and their quirks?
Today, quantum physics has gone far enough. Many different phenomena have been discovered. But what do we really know? The answer is presented by one modern scientist. "One can either believe in quantum physics or not understand it," is the definition. Think about it for yourself. It will suffice to mention such a phenomenon as quantum entanglement of particles. This phenomenon has plunged the scientific world into a position of complete bewilderment. Even more shocking was that the resulting paradox is incompatible with Einstein.
The effect of quantum entanglement of photons was first discussed in 1927 at the fifth Solvay Congress. A heated argument arose between Niels Bohr and Einstein. The paradox of quantum entanglement has completely changed the understanding of the essence of the material world.
It is known that all bodies consist of elementary particles. Accordingly, all the phenomena of quantum mechanics are reflected in the ordinary world. Niels Bohr said that if we do not look at the moon, then it does not exist. Einstein considered this unreasonable and believed that the object exists independently of the observer.
When studying the problems of quantum mechanics, one should understand that its mechanisms and laws are interconnected and do not obey classical physics. Let's try to understand the most controversial area - the quantum entanglement of particles.
The theory of quantum entanglement
To begin with, it is worth understanding that quantum physics is like a bottomless well in which you can find anything you want. The phenomenon of quantum entanglement at the beginning of the last century was studied by Einstein, Bohr, Maxwell, Boyle, Bell, Planck and many other physicists. Throughout the twentieth century, thousands of scientists around the world actively studied it and experimented.
The world is subject to the strict laws of physics
Why such an interest in the paradoxes of quantum mechanics? Everything is very simple: we live, obeying certain laws of the physical world. The ability to “bypass” predestination opens a magical door behind which everything becomes possible. For example, the concept of "Schrödinger's Cat" leads to the control of matter. It will also become possible to teleport information, which causes quantum entanglement. The transmission of information will become instantaneous, regardless of distance.
This issue is still under study, but has a positive trend.
Analogy and understanding
What is unique about quantum entanglement, how to understand it, and what happens with it? Let's try to figure it out. This will require some thought experiment. Imagine that you have two boxes in your hands. Each of them contains one ball with a stripe. Now we give one box to the astronaut, and he flies to Mars. As soon as you open the box and see that the stripe on the ball is horizontal, then in the other box the ball will automatically have a vertical stripe. This will be quantum entanglement expressed in simple words: one object predetermines the position of another.
However, it should be understood that this is only a superficial explanation. In order to get quantum entanglement, it is necessary that the particles have the same origin, like twins.
It is very important to understand that the experiment will be disrupted if someone before you had the opportunity to look at at least one of the objects.
Where can quantum entanglement be used?
The principle of quantum entanglement can be used to transmit information over long distances instantly. Such a conclusion contradicts Einstein's theory of relativity. It says that the maximum speed of movement is inherent only in light - three hundred thousand kilometers per second. Such transfer of information makes possible the existence of physical teleportation.
Everything in the world is information, including matter. Quantum physicists came to this conclusion. In 2008, based on a theoretical database, it was possible to see quantum entanglement with the naked eye.
This once again indicates that we are on the verge of great discoveries - movement in space and time. Time in the Universe is discrete, so instantaneous movement over vast distances makes it possible to get into different time densities (based on the hypotheses of Einstein, Bohr). Perhaps in the future it will be a reality just like the mobile phone is today.
Aether dynamics and quantum entanglement
According to some leading scientists, quantum entanglement is explained by the fact that space is filled with some kind of ether - black matter. Any elementary particle, as we know, exists in the form of a wave and a corpuscle (particle). Some scientists believe that all particles are on the "canvas" of dark energy. This is not easy to understand. Let's try to figure it out in another way - the association method.
Imagine yourself at the seaside. Light breeze and a slight breeze. See the waves? And somewhere in the distance, in the reflections of the rays of the sun, a sailboat is visible.
The ship will be our elementary particle, and the sea will be ether (dark energy).
The sea can be in motion in the form of visible waves and drops of water. In the same way, all elementary particles can be just a sea (its integral part) or a separate particle - a drop.
This is a simplified example, everything is somewhat more complicated. Particles without the presence of an observer are in the form of a wave and do not have a specific location.
The white sailboat is a distinguished object, it differs from the surface and structure of the sea water. In the same way, there are "peaks" in the ocean of energy that we can perceive as a manifestation of the forces known to us that have shaped the material part of the world.
The microworld lives by its own laws
The principle of quantum entanglement can be understood if we take into account the fact that elementary particles are in the form of waves. Without a specific location and characteristics, both particles are in an ocean of energy. At the moment the observer appears, the wave “turns” into an object accessible to touch. The second particle, observing the system of equilibrium, acquires opposite properties.
The described article is not aimed at capacious scientific descriptions of the quantum world. The ability to comprehend an ordinary person is based on the availability of understanding of the material presented.
Physics of elementary particles studies the entanglement of quantum states based on the spin (rotation) of an elementary particle.
In scientific language (simplified) - quantum entanglement is defined by different spins. In the process of observing objects, scientists saw that only two spins can exist - along and across. Oddly enough, in other positions, the particles do not “pose” to the observer.
New hypothesis - a new view of the world
The study of the microcosm - the space of elementary particles - gave rise to many hypotheses and assumptions. The effect of quantum entanglement prompted scientists to think about the existence of some kind of quantum microlattice. In their opinion, at each node - the point of intersection - there is a quantum. All energy is an integral lattice, and the manifestation and movement of particles is possible only through the nodes of the lattice.
The size of the "window" of such a grating is quite small, and measurement with modern equipment is impossible. However, in order to confirm or refute this hypothesis, scientists decided to study the motion of photons in a spatial quantum lattice. The bottom line is that a photon can move either straight or in zigzags - along the diagonal of the lattice. In the second case, having overcome a greater distance, he will spend more energy. Accordingly, it will differ from a photon moving in a straight line.
Perhaps, over time, we will learn that we live in a spatial quantum grid. Or it might turn out to be wrong. However, it is the principle of quantum entanglement that indicates the possibility of the existence of a lattice.
In simple terms, in a hypothetical spatial “cube”, the definition of one facet carries with it a clear opposite meaning of the other. This is the principle of preserving the structure of space - time.
Epilogue
To understand the magical and mysterious world of quantum physics, it is worth taking a close look at the development of science over the past five hundred years. It used to be that the Earth was flat, not spherical. The reason is obvious: if you take its shape as round, then water and people will not be able to resist.
As we can see, the problem existed in the absence of a complete vision of all acting forces. It is possible that modern science lacks a vision of all acting forces to understand quantum physics. Vision gaps give rise to a system of contradictions and paradoxes. Perhaps the magical world of quantum mechanics contains the answers to the questions posed.
