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1. The concept of geographical location. Features of nature, population and economy of certain territories of Russia (give examples).

Geographical position is an indicator of the relative position on the earth's surface of geographical objects of various types - one of the main categories of geography. The geographical position can change over time under the influence of various factors, both natural and political and economic.

There are several types of geographic location.

1. Natural-geographical (physical-geographical). This is a characteristic of the location of the object in question in a number of natural objects, for example, in relation to the continents and oceans, to landforms, to islands and peninsulas, to rivers and lakes, etc.

2. Mathematical-geographical allows you to evaluate the position of an object in the coordinate system and reference points of the planet, i.e. in relation to the elements of the degree grid (to the equator and the Greenwich meridian), to the Earth's poles, to extreme geographical points.

3. Political-geographical - in relation to neighboring countries with their capitals, to political groupings of countries, for example, to the European Union.

4. Economic-geographical determines the position of an object among various anthropogenic objects that perform certain economic functions. For example, industrial and agricultural enterprises, mining sites and industrial areas, as well as in relation to economic groupings of countries (OPEC, ASEAN, NAFTA).

5. Transport-geographical assesses the availability of the object with transport and communication capabilities of economic relations (roads and railways, sea and river routes, air routes, oil and gas pipelines, fiber-optic communication lines and power lines, airports, sea and river ports, etc. .).

6. Military-geographical determines the degree of relation to objects of military-strategic importance (military bases, groupings of troops, nuclear facilities, ballistic missile silos, enterprises producing nuclear weapons), to military-industrial complex enterprises, as well as in relation to military-political groups countries (NATO).

7. Ecological-geographic characterizes the background of the environmental safety of the location of the object to places with environmental problems (for example, to points for the release of pollutants, to areas of radioactive contamination (Chernobyl), as well as to potentially dangerous objects that create an environmental threat).

Features of nature, population and economy of certain territories of Russia.

The great length of Russia from west to east and from north to south, the relief features predetermine the diversity of natural landscapes (arctic deserts, tundra, forest tundra, taiga, mixed and broad-leaved forests, forest steppes and steppes, semi-deserts and deserts).

Tundra. Severe, cold climatic conditions (low average annual air temperatures), long winter - the snow cover lasts 7-9 months, a short summer period (2 months) and, accordingly, a short growing season. The presence of permafrost, excessive moisture - high waterlogging of the territory, infertile tundra-gley soils. Large open spaces with strong winds. The existing natural and climatic conditions are unfavorable for humans. As a result, the districts are characterized by a low population density and a relative predominance of the urban population. A special type of economy has developed, the main specialization of which is the exploitation of the natural resources of the Far North (extraction of gas, copper, nickel, etc.) and reindeer breeding.

The steppe is the main agricultural region of Russia due to favorable natural and climatic conditions for agriculture (fertile soil - chernozems, long growing season). This is the zone of the most developed animal husbandry (cattle, pig breeding, sheep breeding, poultry farming). Developed food industry. The rural population predominates. Significantly high population density.

2. Fuel and energy complex: composition, importance in the economy, development problems. Fuel and energy complex and problems of environmental protection.

The fuel and energy complex is a group of industries associated with the production and distribution of energy. Includes the extraction of various types of fuel and its transport, the production of electricity and its transport. Recently, the extraction of fuel and energy production have become expensive, and there has been an increase in the cost of transporting fuel and energy. Energy development: exploration and development of deposits, construction of new processing plants and pipelines have an increasing negative impact on the environment, especially in the regions of the Far North.

The fuel industry consists of three main sectors - coal, oil and gas.

Among the fuel resources of the country in the explored geological reserves, coal accounts for more than 90%.

On the basis of the extraction of combustible minerals, territorial production complexes (TPC) of the country are being formed - Timan-Pechora, West Siberian, Kansk-Achinsk fuel and energy (KATEK), South Yakutsk.

The extraction of coking and power coal is concentrated mainly in Western Siberia (Kuznetsk basin), in the North (Pechora basin) and in the North Caucasus (Russian part of Donbass). The main region of the country for the extraction of brown coal is Eastern Siberia (Kansk-Achinsk basin). In recent years, coal production has decreased, which is caused by a reduction in production capacity and an increase in railway transport tariffs.

In terms of oil reserves, Russia ranks second in the world after Saudi Arabia. The largest oil-producing region is Western Siberia (70%), followed by the Urals and the Volga region. Approximately 70% of the country's continental shelf is promising in terms of oil and gas potential. For the vast northern territories of Russia, the transfer of oil through oil pipelines is more economical than sea transportation by tankers. The largest pipeline hub is Western Siberia, the main oil flows go to the west.

In recent years, oil production has been declining. The reasons are the reduction of reserves at the fields being developed, the insufficiency of geological exploration, wear and tear of equipment, the lack of modern mining equipment that makes it possible to rationally develop deposits. The reduction in oil production led to the fact that the share of oil in the total fuel production decreased and natural gas came out on top (37% and 48%, respectively).

Products of the gas industry are raw materials for the chemical industry and fuel.

At present, 3/5 of all Russian gas production comes from the fields of Western Siberia, the largest of which are Zapolyarnoye, Medvezhye, Urengoy, and Yamburg. The leading areas for natural gas production are West Siberian (more than 90%), Urals (about 7%), Volga (1%). The share of the West Siberian region accounts for more than 30% of all products of the fuel industry, the Ural region - 13%, the Volga region - 11% and the Central region - 10%.

Fuel and energy and consumer factors are the main ones when placing power plants. The bulk of electricity is generated at thermal power plants (3/4), hydraulic and nuclear.

Among thermal power plants, thermal power plants (CHP) and condensing power plants (CPP) are distinguished. According to the type of energy used, thermal power plants are divided into those operating on traditional fossil fuels, nuclear and geothermal; by the nature of public services - to district (GRES - state district power plants) and central.

The traditional fuel for thermal power plants (TPPs) is coal (more than 50%), oil products (fuel oil) and natural gas (more than 40%), peat and oil shale (5%).

TPPs are characterized by free location, generation of electricity without seasonal fluctuations, relatively fast and inexpensive construction. The capacity of the largest thermal power plants (TPPs) is more than 2 million kW. The TPP location factor is consumer, since the radius of transportation of one of its products (hot water) is a maximum of 12 km.

Nuclear power plants are located taking into account the consumer factor. The world's first nuclear power plant was built in the USSR in 1954 (Obninsk NPP, power 5 MW). Currently, the Kalinin, Smolensk, Leningrad, Kola, Kursk, Novovoronezh, Balakovo, Beloyarsk and Bilibinsk automatic telephone exchanges operate on the territory of the country. After the Chernobyl disaster, the construction of the Tatar, Bashkir, and Krasnodar nuclear power plants was suspended. In the coming years, blocks of many power plants in the country should be decommissioned, since the share of costs for uranium mining in the nuclear fuel cycle is approximately 2%, and about 3/4 is spent on processing and disposal of waste.

Geothermal power plants (GTPP) are technologically similar to combined heat and power plants, the factor of their placement is fuel and energy. The only operating GTPP in the country is Pauzhetskaya in Kamchatka.

Hydroelectric power plants are characterized by ease of operation, high efficiency, and the generation of relatively cheap electricity.

The country's largest hydraulic power plants are part of two cascades - the Angara-Yenisei (with a total capacity of 22 million kW) and the Volga-Kama (11.5 million kW). The most powerful hydroelectric power plant in Russia is Sayano-Shushenskaya (6.4 million kW).

Tidal power plants (TPPs) operate on the tidal and tidal phases of ocean level change. The only tidal power plant in the country is Kislogubskaya (400 kW) on the coast of the Barents Sea. Promising regions for the construction of TPPs are the waters of the White (Mezen TPP with a capacity of 10 million kW is being designed) and the Sea of ​​Okhotsk (Tugur TPP is being designed).

Almost all power plants in our country are part of the Unified Energy System (UES) of Russia, with the exception of power plants in the Far East.

In terms of electricity generation, the Central region leads (23%), followed by the Urals (12%), East Siberian and North Caucasian regions (11% each).

The electric power industry is a branch of specialization for the Central, East Siberian, West Siberian, Central Black Earth, Northwest and Northern economic regions.

3. Determination of directions and distances from a topographic map.

Algorithm for determining directions from a topographic map.

1. On the map we mark the point where we are and the point to which we need to determine the direction (azimuth).

2. We connect these two points.

3. Through the point at which we are, we draw a straight line: north - south.

4. Using a protractor, we measure the angle between the north-south line and the direction to the desired object. Azimuth is measured from the north direction in a clockwise direction.

Algorithm for determining distances from a topographic map.

1. We measure the distance between the given points using a ruler.

2. The obtained values ​​​​(in cm) are converted into a distance on the ground using a named scale. For example, the distance between points on the map is 10 cm, and the scale: 1 cm is 5 km. We multiply these two numbers and get the desired result: 50 km is the distance on the ground.

3. When measuring distances, you can use a compass, but then the named scale will be replaced by a linear scale. In this case, our task is simplified, we can immediately determine the desired distance on the ground.

Geographical position

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See what "Geographical position" is in other dictionaries:

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

geographical position- Characteristics of the location of an object on the earth's surface relative to other geographical objects and countries of the world ... Geography Dictionary

geographical position- the position of any point or other object on the earth's surface in relation to other territories or objects; relative to the Earth's surface, the geographical position is determined using coordinates. Distinguish geographic location by ... ... encyclopedic Dictionary

geographical position- the position of a geographical object on the surface of the Earth within a given coordinate system and in relation to any data located outside of it that have a direct or indirect effect on this object. With a specific study ... ... Geographic Encyclopedia

Geographical position- the position of any point or area of ​​the earth's surface in relation to territories or objects located outside this point or area. G. p. in mathematical geography refers to the latitude and longitude of given points or areas, in ... ... Great Soviet Encyclopedia

GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION- position to. l. point or other object on the earth's surface in relation to other territories. or objects; relative to the earth's surface, the geographic distance is determined by means of coordinates. Distinguish G. of the item in relation to natural objects and to ekon. geographic… … Natural science. encyclopedic Dictionary

Geographical position of Russia- ... Wikipedia

- (EGP) is the ratio of the object of the city, region, country to the objects lying outside it, having one or another economic value, it does not matter whether these objects are of a natural order or created in the process of history (according to N.N. Baransky). In other words, ... ... Wikipedia

ECONOMIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION- the position of a region or country relative to other objects of economic importance to it. E. g. p. category is historical, may change in connection with the construction of the railway. or power plants, the beginning of the development of a useful deposit ... ... Geographic Encyclopedia

Economic and geographical position- the position of a deposit, enterprise, city, district, country or other economic and geographical object in relation to other economic and geographical objects of economic importance to it. EGP assessment of an object depends on its position... Financial vocabulary

Books

• German. Germany. Geographic location, population, politics. Tutorial. Level B 2, Yakovleva T.A.
• Geographic location and territorial structures. In memory of I. M. Maergoiz,. The collection is dedicated to the memory of the outstanding Soviet economic geographer Isaac Moiseevich Maergoiz. The collection received its name - GEOGRAPHICAL POSITION AND TERRITORIAL STRUCTURES - from two ...

The place of a phenomenon (object or process) relative to other phenomena in geospace is characterized by a set of geographic relations (GR; see Section 1.3.2 for them) and is defined as geographical position or geolocation. Established GO influence the formation of the properties of newly emerging objects, and prolonged participation in specific GO leads to the appearance of secondary properties in objects. The successful location of a subject or object in a system of geographical relations can both give it additional political and economic significance, and vice versa. From a formal point of view, geolocation is assessed by two types of factors: distances (metric and topological) and configurations (directions). So, all other things being equal, a port on a river bend has competitive advantages over a neighboring one, but on a straight stretch of the same river. Being in different civil defenses, even two initially similar geographical objects will gradually begin to differ first in functions, and then in their internal content. In this sense, it can be argued that, other things being equal, “political and geographical position acts as a factor that individualizes

political development of countries” [Maergois 1971, p. 43]. As a result, the researcher needs to find out how objects are “embedded”, adapted to the DL system, acquiring a set of specific features, and what specific features they “impose” on the environment. The geospace surrounding the object is infinitely diverse. Therefore, to analyze the geolocation, the geospace can be divided into analytically integral units (taxons, areas, polygons, districts, operational-territorial units, etc.), in relation to which the geolocation is estimated [Maergoyz 1986, p. 58-59].

The concept of geographical location is quite well developed and covered in the domestic literature, therefore, below we will dwell only on some debatable issues. So, if we take into account the different tightness and degree of influence of GO, then it seems disputable that the geolocation is set only by those external data with which the object is in interaction [Geographic 1988, p. 55; Rodoman 1999, p. 77]. A simple example. Let there be points that do not interact with each other A, B, C and 7). Need to route from BUT in AT entering C or 7). The choice of one of the latter will be influenced by their geographic location, which is set before the start of any interaction.

In domestic socio-geographical science, the concept of economic and geographical position(EGP). By definition, N.N. Baransky, the EGP expresses “the relationship of a place, district or city to data lying outside it, having one or another economic significance, it does not matter whether these data are of a natural order or created in the process of history” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Many other authors expressed the same opinion [Alaev 1983, p. 192; Leizerovich 2010 and others]. Within the framework of socio-economic geography, this approach proved to be justified. However, when it is extended to political-geographical and, especially, geopolitical phenomena, we encounter limitations. Thus, the transport-geographical position can no longer be considered as a type of EGP, since it can also be assessed in other, for example, military-geostrategic, coordinates. Therefore, only a transport EGP can be a species. To generalize different types of socially significant geolocations, it is advisable to use the concept socio-geographical position. This concept was used by I.M. Maergois in the 1970s [Maergois 1986, p. 78-79], although other authors did not support him then.

As we have already written, GO reflect not only the spatial position, but also have content content. This fully applies to the geographical location. At the same time, the limitation of GO only by external geospace appears to be unreasonable: GO not only correlates the territory of an object with the outside world, but also forms it itself “from the inside”. There are two extreme points of view, equally 90

unacceptable for us. The first excludes from consideration the internal structure and characteristics of the object itself [Leizerovich 2010, p. 209]. The second one replaces the geolocation of the object with the geolocations of its internal (lower) taxa relative to each other [Bulaev, Novikov 2002, p. 80] 1 . In addition, the position of relatively integral transboundary geographic systems or areas is of great importance. And it is irrational to evaluate the geographical position only in relation to the "external" part of such a system. Such, for example, are transboundary hydrocarbon deposits or transboundary nodal economic regions.

In our opinion, definitions of geographical location should be supplemented by the relation of a place or area to inside him lying or crossing his data. Let's call it introspective 2 geographic location. Unlike functional types (such as EGP), it appears as one of the positional (formal-spatial) types of geolocation (Fig. 10) and is partially reciprocal with the traditional (extraspective) geographical location of an internal object. For example, the position of the linguistic area relative to its dialectal center and the position of this very center relative to the area. The relations themselves (distances, etc.) are formally the same, but the semantic content and inclusion in other mediated relations are different. In geopolitical history, there are many cases when it was precisely the introspective geographical location that determined the priority geographical directions of the foreign policy of states. For example, one of the reasons why modern China seeks to improve relations with the countries of Central Asia, including the creation of the SCO, is the need to deprive the Xinjiang separatist movement of a possible “rear base” [Zotov 2009, p. 128]. The need to consider introspective geolocation in individual socio-geographical studies is increasingly recognized (see, for example, the definition of geocriminogenic location in [Badov 2009, p. 49]), but so far it has not been clearly formulated at the general geographical level. B.B. Rodoman, even describing the eccentricity of the country relative to the capital, does not, however, connect it with the geographical position of this country itself [Rodoman 1999, p. 152-153].

To study the EGP of large regions, a separate consideration of their parts is really necessary [Saushkin 1973, p. 143], but on the condition that this reveals the features of the EGP of the region itself - the object of study.

From lat. introspectus (intro - inside + spicere - look). The term "internal" in this case is inappropriate. The other option, "enclosing" geolocation, contains undesirable restrictions and makes it difficult to contrast with other, "non-enclosing" types.

Balanced

Displaced

Boundary

Boundary Linear

/ 2nd order secant

0_ *t* (I)

Rice. ten.

geographic location:

geopolitical position. Definitions

In most domestic works on the geopolitical position, this concept is not defined. Therefore, to consider the category of geopolitical position (GSP), it is advisable to rely on more carefully developed ideas about economic-geographical (EGP) and political-geographical positions. Any definition of geographical location consists of typical semantic blocks filled with different content in different concepts. Let's designate these blocks as "variables" P (relation), P (place), b(location), 7) (data), T(time). Then any definition can be represented in the following form:

Let us take as a basis the one mentioned above for the EGP. If we transform the definition of N.N. Baransky [Baransky 1980, p. 129] in relation to political geography, we get that political-geographical position (PC) is the ratio [I] of a place [P] to outside [b] its lying data [O] that have [T] this or that political significance, - it does not matter whether these data are natural order or created in the process of history. We emphasize that “having political significance” in general, and not just “for them”, as many other authors add to the definitions [Geographic 1988, p. 341; Rodoman 1999, p. 77].

According to V.A. Dergachev, GSP is “the position of the state and interstate associations [R] in relation to the world [D] centers of power (spheres of influence) [O], including military-political blocs and conflict zones. It is determined by the combined power of material and non-material resources [R] (military-political, economic, technological and passionate) in the multidimensional communication space of the Earth” [Dergachev 2009, p. 108]. Among the shortcomings of this approach, one can note the reduction of external data only to world centers of power and spheres of influence.

Much attention is paid to the development of geopolitics categories by P.Ya. Baklanov [Baklanov 2003; Baklanov, Romanov 2008]. From his point of view, “the geopolitical position of a country (or its large region) is the geographical position [P] of the country (region) [P] in relation [P] to other countries [?)], primarily neighboring [D], with taking into account the similarities and differences of their political systems, the correlation of geopolitical potentials, the presence or absence of mutual geopolitical interests and problems [?)]” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12].

In the event that all variables do not have any specificity, including political, we get a definition of a general geographical location. And if we take into account the previously considered geoadaptation

tational approach (see Section 2.1) and geoadaptation position. Let's consider the variables separately.

Location (b). Defines spatial constraints. On this basis, several types of geopolitical position can be distinguished. In particular, extraspective and intraspective. Also, this variable can set the scale of consideration of external and internal data at the macro-meso- and microlevel. Thus, a number of authors insist on globality as an essential feature of geopolitics.

Time (T). This variable is rarely set explicitly. However, most often it is understood that the concept of the Chamber of Commerce and Industry is used “to characterize geopolitical formations ... at a certain point in time” [Kaledin 1996, p. 98]. By modifying this variable, one can also determine historical GPP and predicted, planned GSP.

Givenness (O). It expresses the characteristics of politically significant phenomena of geospace, which can be of both political and any other nature (economic, environmental, etc.). Among the variety of givens, one should especially single out the class of actual political phenomena of geospace (Oh ro c,). These are states, political borders, etc. Also, given the value of the variable b, data can be divided into external and internal.

Here we must keep in mind that political geography and geopolitics usually take into account different sets of these givens. N.N. Baransky notes that “the position in the sense of mathematical geography is given on a grid of coordinates, the physical-geographical position is given on a physical map, the economic-geographical position is given on an economic map, the political-geographical position is given on a political map” [Baransky 1980, p. 129]. Accordingly, when assessing the physical and geographical position, extractive enterprises will not be taken into account, even if they change the terrain. Geopolitics, on the other hand, is more integrative: the geopolitical atlas will include physical, economic, and political-geographical maps created from a geopolitical point of view.

Attitude (I). The relations that form the GSP of a particular object can in many cases be represented as a kind of “positional multipliers” or factors of significance of external data that are essential for the subject, including resources. Thus, if an important resource is geographically inaccessible, its multiplier is zero. As availability increases, the importance of the resource itself does not increase, but the importance multiplier does. There are also such GPOs where the spatial aspect greatly gives way to the qualitative one (characteristics of the places themselves). Then the multiplier, on the contrary, is always close to the maximum. Or vice versa, the multiplier grows with the distance (see the types of GPO in section 1.5.2). Although it must be borne in mind that the actual geographical factor in the GPP is gradually changing its role. Its relative share in the definition of GSP is decreasing, but its scale and diversity are increasing, and its qualitative content is becoming more complex.

Further, it should be understood whether the geopolitical position can be set by other, non-political relations? At first glance, no. But, nevertheless, such a situation is possible in the case of mediation of relations of a different nature in a transitive chain closely related phenomena (Fig. 11). But only if at least one link in the mediation is political. Therefore, mediated GPO can be of a complex, composite nature and is of more interest for geopolitics than for political geography. Moreover, the assessment of mediated relationships is often more important than the assessment of direct ones. However, the GPO generated in this way further acts as an equal in rights with others, as, for example, in the formation of geopolitical triangles (see section 4.4.1). It should also be noted that the length or, rather, the significance of the GPO mediation chains depends on the geopolitical potential of the subject and the role of the object. Thus, in the geopolitical position of the United States, such relations extend to almost the entire world and capture many seemingly non-political phenomena.

Geo- Geo- Geo-

BUT economic AT ecological C political

Subject

ratio _ ratio

Mediated GPO_

An object

Rice. 11. Scheme of mediated GPO of a complex nature

Place (P). This is not only a territory, but also an assessed object or subject occupying a certain place. In the general concept of geographical location, a place can also be natural (for example, a lake). In geopolitics, it is the subject of political activity ( RroSh).

There is another aspect. Let's start with a comparison. Does a natural or social non-economic object (place) have its EGP? There is no direct economic significance of other objects for them, but they are surrounded by economic phenomena. This example shows that the “value for them” qualification we mentioned above is redundant. THEM. Maergois even wrote that “the smaller the self-potential of the region, the clearer [its] EGP” [Maergois 1986, p. 67].

If we recognize such an EGP, then we must also recognize a similar political and geographical position, i.e. political and geographical position of natural objects and public non-political subjects. The political content of the GPO in this case can only be set by its other side - the political objects of geospace. In this interpretation, we can talk about the political and geographical position, for example, of a commercial enterprise next to the state

noah border. Or the sea. Those. it is a non-political place on the political map. It turns out that in the general case, for assessing the political and geographical position, the political characteristics of the subject itself and its political potential are not important, but it is considered only on the political map.

Geopolitical the situation is traditionally assessed only for political subjects ( RroSh), i.e. just for those who form and conduct geo -politics. Thus, here one can outline one of the facets of the formal delimitation of the GPP and the political and geographical position, which allows one to get away from synonymizing the two concepts. The complexity of the GPP in taking into account external data of a different nature was recognized by domestic authors already at the dawn of the “return” of geopolitics to Russia. So, in 1991 N.M. Mezhevich wrote: "... The geopolitical position is an integrating category in relation to FGP, EGP, GWP, while it is more historical than EGP and GWP..." [Mezhevich 1991, p. 102-103].

We tried to formally distinguish between the GSP and the political-geographical position according to the objects of study, but one can also outline their semantic difference. It is believed that the political and geographical position has a descriptive, ascertaining character [Mezhevich 1991, p. 103]. It is determined by historical, current and predicted GPOs. The predominant type of evaluation is placement (positional component) and dependency/independence (functional component). The GPP, on the other hand, has a clear political connotation associated with the category of geopolitical interest. Unlike the political-geographical one, it takes into account only those data that are or may be important for the subject (in this sense, the GPP is narrower than the political-geographical one). The GSP is viewed through the prism of projects, scenarios and strategies, resulting in a multi-layered and multi-layered view of the current GSP. The predominant type of assessment is relative political strength and weakness, opportunities and threats, which can be described in the matrices of geo-adaptation strategies 8?OT 3 (see paragraph 2.1.2). In this context, one can note the point of view of S.V. Kuznetsova and S.S. Lachininsky, that one of the key differences between the geo-economic position and the economic-geographic one is the consideration of geo-economic risks [Kuznetsov, Lachininsky 2014, p. 109]. But such a position looks somewhat one-sided and limited, since it replaces the category of interest with a more particular concept of risk.

Thus, the geopolitical position characterizes the heterogeneity of the complete geopolitical field of the actor and is expressed in the structure of the GPO at a certain historical moment in time, including the trends in their development and the influence of some past layers of the GPO.

In the complex dynamic structure of the GSP, one should also single out a certain invariant, i.e. stable for very long periods and epochs, the “framework” of the GPP, the change of which is always an important historical milestone. Presented in the form of a complex of stable

interests, this "framework" can be interpreted as a geopolitical code (code) of the subject. Moreover, in the case of the existence of allied or patron-client relations, the induction of geopolitical codes between actors occurs, and the local code of the satellite can be built into the global code of the leader. A single code of a group subject is formed. This is due to the induction of geopolitical interests (section 1.4.2).

In close connection with the concept of GSP, several related and interrelated concepts-analogues are used. We briefly outline some of them below.

Geopolitical situation- a superposition set of geopolitical positions of all subjects in a certain part of the geospace at a certain point in time. Note that in Russian the concept of "situation" is close to the concept of "state", but, unlike the latter, refers to heterogeneous phenomena. Another interpretation is related to the fact that the "geosituation" can be defined as a dynamic set of GPOs on a "real time" scale, in contrast to the inertial "geostructure".

geopolitical situation. It can be synonymous with the GSP or, more often, the geopolitical situation. In a narrower sense, it is interpreted as a set of factors that determine the state and prospects for the development of relations between states. That is, in this interpretation, the geopolitical situation is not the GPOs themselves, but those factors of geospace with which GPOs can be established. In this sense, the phrase "geopolitical situation around the country" is legitimate.

geopolitical potential. An unambiguous approach to determining the potential has not yet been developed either in geography or in geopolitics. It was often equated with a combination of various resources, with geopolitical power, or with the advantage of a political and geographical position. According to P.Ya. Baklanov, “this is the degree of both the existing and possible potential influence of one country on others, primarily neighboring countries” [Baklanov 2003, p. thirteen].

geopolitical power, in turn, implies not only the potential, the strength of the subject himself, but also his ability to achieve a certain goal in the external space (etymologically - from "might", "power"). Those. it is relative to external givens. In any case, the geopolitical potential is part of the characteristics of the GSP on the part of the subject.

Valuation principles and the importance of neighborhood

Based on the foregoing, it can be argued that in order to describe the GSP, it is necessary to consider not so much absolute as relative indicators, both 1) in external and 2) in internal contexts. In the first case, the geopolitical potential of the subject as a whole or some parameter of the potential (for example, GDP) is assessed in the context of some parameters of neighbors, centers of power and the world in the whole.

scrap. In the second one, an external parameter is estimated (for example, the GDP of neighboring countries) in the context of parameters or factors of internal geospace. At the same time, it must be emphasized that even relative indicators do not yet mean the actual estimates GPP. Thus, the ratio of the population of some territories describes only the geodemographic situation. This parameter characterizes the GSP only when it is included in the complex political characteristics of the geopolitical subject and its surrounding conditions, in the context of political threats and opportunities, strengths and weaknesses. Only in this case it is possible to speak, in particular, of the demographic GSP.

For a quantitative comparison of similar parameters at geopolitical boundaries, the concept of " geopolitical gradient. For example, the demographic/economic geopolitical gradient on the US-Mexico border, the Warsaw Pact and NATO. In an extended sense, it is applied to the measurement of balances also of fields that do not border HP. There are, however, other options for naming such relationships. Thus, a group of domestic authors proposes to use the term "geopolitical distance" [Kefeli, Malafeev 2013, p. 170]. In our opinion, such a term is inappropriate. This is about the same if the geographical distance (distance = distance) between mountains is measured by the difference in their heights. But geographical relations are an integral part of geopolitical relations. Among all the estimated parameters, various kinds of objectively identified and quantitatively measured links and relationships between countries and regions are of particular importance. As rightly noted by R.F. Turovsky, “otherwise, geopolitics can only be reduced to abstract philosophizing and projecting” [Turovsky 1999, p. 49]. In this sense, the actual GSP should be distinguished from various geopolitical projects and mythologies.

When describing various GPOs, we encounter a certain duality arising from their own nature. On the one hand, it is required to describe the relative quantitative and qualitative parameters of countries, regions, territories, and on the other hand, to give them a relative geospatial certainty. As a result, we get a kind of two-dimensional GPP matrix "parameter x place". Thus, when characterizing demographic indicators, political regimes, geopolitical disputes, natural phenomena, etc. (rows of the matrix), they are divided into geospatial sections (unequal columns of the matrix), tied to absolute geographic coordinates. The cells of such a matrix are, in fact, a reflection of a number of geopolitical fields or ideas about them.

The geopolitical position, due to its integrality, not only depends on other types of geographical location (EGP, etc.), but also influences them, and through them - on various internal characteristics of a country or its region, on their geopolitical potential. T.I. Pototskaya, for example, considers such an impact on the example of the Western region of Russia. In the model she proposed (Fig. 12), the leading component of the influence of not only the GLP, but also the EGP is the political and geographical position [Pototskaya 1997, p. thirteen].

Consider some of the many possible evaluation parameters. P.Ya. Baklanov believes that “based on ... the idea of ​​the geopolitical position, its assessment for a particular country consists of the following stages: assessment of the neighborhood of other countries with this one, identification of immediate neighbors - 1st, 2nd order, etc.; assessment of the similarities and differences in the political systems of neighboring countries, primarily neighbors of the 1st order, with the political system of a given country; assessment of the geopolitical potentials of a given country and its neighbors, assessment of the ratio of these geopolitical potentials; identification and evaluation of mutual geopolitical interests of a given country and its neighbors of various orders; identification and assessment of geopolitical problems existing between a given country and its neighbors” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. On the whole, one can apparently agree with this approach. However, further concretization reveals some contradictions and ambiguities.

Rice. 12.

Indeed, an extremely important issue for geopolitics remains the assessment geographic neighborhood. It occupies one of the central places in geopolitical relations and models, bringing a significant share of geographic content to geopolitics even in the modern conditions of a “shrinking”, globalizing world. Moreover, the adjacent territories act as "conductors" of links with distant global centers of power. True, the main attention is paid to the assessment of the neighborhood at the regional and local levels of the study, especially for GPO types M-G-M and M-M-M (see paragraph 1.5.2). Neighbor countries of the 1st and 2nd orders are neighboring geopolitical regions of the 1st and 2nd orders. THEM. Maergois wrote about neighboring geographic macro-regions identified in the same way. Accordingly, allocate

There are regional both EGP and GPP. Maergois also noted the special position of second-order doubly neighbors [Maergois 1986, p. 80, 82, 111]. B.B. Rodoman considers neighboring geopolitical regions to be a kind of nuclear geographic zonality [Rodoman 1999, p. 58]. Very specific is the insular position of a country that does not have first-order neighbors at all.

P.Ya. Baklanov suggests that “in terms of military defense, it is apparently better to have fewer neighboring countries of the 1st order. However, for the development of international economic, political, cultural ties, it is more profitable to have more neighboring countries of the 1st order” [Baklanov 2003, p. 12]. But let's take an extreme case. How to assess the situation if this, let's say the only, neighbor is an enemy, and the country itself is an enclave? It turns out that such a GPP, contrary to the thesis, is extremely unprofitable. The case of economic valuation is also ambiguous: many small neighbors create barriers to trade due to customs barriers. To overcome them, associations like the EU are being created. A large number of neighbors is also disadvantageous from an environmental point of view [Pototskaya 1997, p. 130].

The role of neighbors of the 2nd and higher orders depends not only on the degree of neighborhood, but also on their relative position and remoteness: a 3rd order neighbor can be quite close, while a 2nd one can be thousands of kilometers away, in a different geographical region ( for example, Macedonia and North Korea in relation to Ukraine). So we should talk about the neighborhood of countries of the 2nd and higher orders, not only in the topological sense, but also as a distance measure of proximity[cm. Maergois 1986, p. 68, 80]. In the second case, however, the "normative" measure of closeness can be set either subjectively or tied to other objective parameters. The distance measure is most important for island countries that do not even have maritime neighbors.

In general, it can be argued that the more diverse neighbors of the first and second orders, the greater the variety of close regional GPOs, the more opportunities for geopolitical maneuvering, the less significant threats from individual neighbors, but at the same time the less stability and sustainability of GPOs, the greater the variety of potential threats and the necessary diplomatic efforts in the region . This dependence is objective in itself, but which combination of GPOs is preferable is a matter of specific policy in a real geopolitical situation. In the general case, based on the indicated structure of geopolitical relations, there is a tendency to consider fragmentation of actual or potentially negative geopolitical fields and integration of positive and potentially positive geopolitical fields of the neighboring region as beneficial. This is also expressed in the estimate of the number of corresponding neighbors. About the same, but regardless of the neighboring region, we wrote in detail in the previous section (see paragraph 2.3.2). In the neighboring region, as the most tense geopolitical field, this trend is especially pronounced. Thus, Israel, as stated by its ambassador to the United States, since 2011 has been interested in overthrowing the B. Assad regime in Syria in order to break (fragmentation) the Shiite arc “Beirut-Damascus-Tehran”, even if the new regime would turn out to be no less hostile [ Ketoi 2013].

Depending on the location of the fields involved in fragmentation or integration, two extreme cases are distinguished. Integration of neighbors of the same order or fragmentation of a large GP field into neighbors of different orders is interpreted as the formation of "arcs", "cordons", "segments", "shells", "belts", "buffers", "zones", etc. The reverse cases are perceived as "corridors", "vectors", "sectors" or "axes". The intersection of "shells" and "sectors" forms special areas - zone-sector facets or trapezoids [Rodoman 1999, p. 70, 136]. The combination of both structures forms, respectively, "long zones/belts" and "wide corridors/sectors". However, such spatial forms can have different purposes. Thus, political geography distinguishes countries with “corridors”, but, for example, in Namibia, the “corridor” joined the territory as a communication sector (Caprivi Strip), and in Afghanistan - as a cordon isolating Russia from India (Wakhan Corridor). From all of the above in this and the previous sections, an unambiguous conclusion suggests itself: it is impossible to give an a priori assessment of the neighborhood in isolation from a specific and very diverse geopolitical context. The latter also contains many complicating factors or GPOs, such as international and moral obligations, a system of geopolitical "balances", historical memory, configuration of borders, trade and cultural ties, lines of communication.

Main settings

Next, we briefly outline some of the parameters by which a country's GSP can be assessed. Many publications are devoted to their more detailed consideration [see: Pototskaya 1997; Geopolitical position 2000; Baklanov, Romanov 2008 and others]. The entire set of parameters should be conditionally grouped into several functional blocks. However, each parameter can, and often should, be considered in conjunction with related parameters of other blocks. In this case, a three-dimensional matrix of the form "parameter X parameter X place" will be obtained.

In regional studies, it is customary to begin the study of a territory with a description and assessment of its physical and geographical characteristics. However, for our case, to be consistent, this approach is not suitable. Indeed, for such an analysis, the grid of state or geopolitical boundaries must already be set. But it's not on the physical map. The situation is similar with the assessment of the economic space, information about which is initially grouped precisely by countries. As a result, it turns out that the characterization of the GSP should begin with a description of the political and geographical location. The territory of the country, accordingly, is not a natural parameter. Having set the coordinate system in this way, the remaining blocks can be opened already in different

sequence, depending on the tasks and accents.

I. Political-geographical and strategic parameters.

First, the geolocations and configurations of the boundaries of geopolitical formations, the historical stability and variability of borders, the degree of neighborhood, the place of the country in terms of the total area of ​​​​territory in the world, etc. are determined. All this determines the geospatial base for further comparative characteristics in terms of profitability.

On this basis, the structure of foreign political relations should be considered. Their most obvious indicator is direct contacts between geopolitical subjects. V.A. Kolosov

and R.F. Turovsky is considered the key indicator for the analysis of the geopolitical position of the country is precisely the geographically linked statistics of state visits. It is sensitive to changes in the country's foreign policy [Kolosov, Turovsky 2000]. In this case, visits to the country, from the country and their balance (“balance”) are considered. It is important to emphasize here that it is not the visits that form the geopolitical situation, but this situation itself is reflected in the statistics of visits available to an external observer. But it is important to understand that this indicator does not “capture” the state of negative, conflicting GPOs.

Many other parameters of this block can be combined into the following groups:

• political regimes and their complementarity to each other (including the representativeness of representative bodies of power);
• treaties, alliances and counter-alliances (including an assessment of countries-“balances” and “cordons”);
• heterogeneity of actors and territorial disputes (including irredentist movements);
• spheres of influence of centers of power;
• geopolitical images (including the nature of the media, representations of elites, identity);
• military potential and military-strategic position (including: arms trade, conflicts near borders, border configuration factor for land, naval and air operations).

The choice of certain parameters to characterize the geopolitical position depends on the ideas about their role at a certain historical moment or era, as well as on the purpose of such a characterization.

the contrast of the ethnic, cultural and political spaces "fitting" into them. A good example is the region of the South Caucasus. Therefore, the first parameter of this block, which is usually paid attention to, is the correspondence or inconsistency of geopolitical boundaries and natural boundaries. Many authors, especially non-geographers, argue that as the technosphere develops, the dependence of society on the natural environment generally weakens. But this is only partly true, because the development of technology, allowing society to overcome some restrictions, imposes new ones on it. For example, the need for hitherto unseen resources (in the ancient world there could be no competition, for example, for deposits of gas and uranium).

Next, we consider the correlation of natural conditions, and above all - territorial resources. Of course, the very territory of the subject, as we saw above, refers to political parameters. But it is heterogeneous, in connection with which its natural features should be evaluated. These include the following areas: favorable for life according to natural conditions, suitable for agriculture, forest, shelf, marine territorial waters, etc. Important parameters are indicators of the relative endowment with natural resources by their types and, consequently, the complementarity of the natural resource potentials of countries and regions. Ecological and geographical position is essential. Finally, a special parameter of the SNP is the attitude towards specially protected natural territories and water areas, especially those under international control.

• geographical location and topology of transport / communication routes, nodes and infrastructure at the borders of the subject and in the region as a whole (for example, the density of the road network);
• transport unity of the territory of the country/alliance and transport exclaves;
• congestion of routes, assessment of incoming and outgoing flows (including the number of telephone connections);
• inclusion in the global communications system and the role of transit communications, the degree of dependence on external transit territories;
• development of advanced means of communication and their geography.

IV. Geodemographic parameters.

In economic terms, “demogeographic position is the position regarding places of excess and shortage of labor resources, as well as places of departure and entry of migrants” [Maergoyz 1986, p. 62]. Geopolitics is also interested in other aspects. First of all, this is the ratio of the total population of countries. We note here an interesting circumstance for general geopolitics: in many Eastern cultures, counting the people of their community, especially by name, was considered unacceptable and dangerous from a mystical point of view.

Population trends (even larger than their absolute values) are often more objective geopolitical indicators, even compared to arbitrary reports of gross domestic product (GDP) trends, investment, and opinion polls. Demographic trends reflect the real medium-term state of communities. It would be appropriate to mention here that in 1976 the French sociologist E. Todd was the first to predict the collapse of the USSR, focusing on the negative dynamics of demographic indicators (such as a decrease in life expectancy, an increase in infant mortality and the number of suicides).

Most parameters can be combined into the following groups:

• docking and correlation of settlement systems and their supporting frames in neighboring countries and regions;
• the value and dynamics of demographic indicators (including the mobilization potential), their ratio;
• assessment of migration processes;
• types of population reproduction.

are so complex and multidirectional that it is possible to single out a through “basis” only at the philosophical level. The vulgarization of these ideas, similar to what was sometimes observed in the USSR, leads to economic determinism. Many states in history have repeatedly gone to economic losses for the sake of increasing political prestige and influence, for the sake of "honor of the flag" and "power projection". Also, interethnic relations and conflicts do not always have an economic background.

It should also be taken into account that GDP, the trade balance and other consolidated monetary indicators can greatly distort ideas about the real geopolitical situation and create the illusion of accuracy in cross-country comparisons [Karabell 2014]. Thus, the US trade balance with China turns out to be large and negative in a summary assessment, but a detailed analysis of mutual relations, including trade in components and intellectual product, the picture is quite different. In our opinion, it is more realistic to compare the volumes of production and services in physical terms and component by component. In the era of the information society, there is no longer any need to fit any analysis to summary indicators alone. Moreover, these indicators themselves, like GDP, were developed for the industrial XX century, and in the XXI century. They don't "work" the way they were supposed to.

In addition, in the economic block, one can also consider the economic significance of parameters from other sections. For example, the foreign economic programs of parliamentary parties in neighboring countries, the impact of demographic processes on labor resources, etc.

Most parameters can be combined into the following groups:

• indicators of the size of economies, including gross and per capita;
• correlation and complementarity of territorial structures of the economy;
• degree of self-sufficiency, including energy supply;
• scientific and technological development;
• foreign trade and investment, dependence on foreign markets and resources, the control of the latter by friendly or hostile political forces;
• the ratio of the economic influence of the actor and third countries on any country in a neighboring or remote region;
• socio-economic indicators, including the class structure of societies.

the value of external and internal territories. So, for the French, Alsace and Algeria had different values. The second, unlike the first, was not considered a genuine part of France. It is important to trace the possible influence of the geopolitical position of the country on the national character and historical individuality of the people. I.A. Kostetskaya, for example, notes this influence in the example of South Korea [Kostetskaya 2000].

Other parameters include: mutual "historical grievances" and their significance in election campaigns, the cultivation of images of the enemy, tribalism, educational and scientific migrations, ethnic parties, minorities and diasporas, ethnic policy, educational policy (foreign universities, religious schools etc.), the number of religious groups, etc. Apparently, some integral indicators can also be attributed to this series, such as the Human Development Index (HDI) calculated by the UN, which reflects the standard of living, literacy, education and life expectancy. In general, the cultural aspect of the GSP is of great importance for the formation of "soft power" and the reformatting of the GSP itself. Thus, during the collapse of the colonial empire (1960s), French President Charles de Gaulle successfully embodied the concept of francophonie (a community of French-speaking countries). The French language became the basis of French influence in the former colonies of Tropical Africa.

In contrast to the time of another 100, and even more so 200 years ago, image GPOs are of great importance. Many of them can be considered as "myths about the country" (one's own and another) in the system of national historical myths or stereotypes, and as the country's "cultural radiation" [Geopolitical situation... 2000, p. 19, 10]. And as the quintessence of various cultural aspects, a certain multifaceted “project of the future” is imprinted in the mass consciousness and traditions of a certain community. The cultural and geopolitical code (code) of the country is closely connected with this "project" - its original geopolitical DNA. Here it is important to take into account the degree of compatibility or conflict potential of the "projects of the future" of different interacting communities.

noah evaluation of the GSP. For example, when assessing national capabilities (CINC) or the "status" of countries. We will mention these models later (see Section 4.2.2, Section 4.4.2).

• - central, remote; 12 - coinciding, combined; 13- intermediate: equidistant and axial, symmetrical; 14 - remote, isolated; 15 - centering, covering; 21 - eccentric, deep, peripheral; 23 - intermediate, displaced, asymmetric, in a particular case - angular; 24 - close, in the field of influence; 25 - eccentric, covering; 31 - border, marginal; 32 - transboundary, joint, transitional; 34 - neighboring, adjacent, on-site; 35 - delimiting, joining; 41 - border l-th order; 42 - trans-areal (-boundary) of the n-th order; 43 - neighbor / adjacent l-th order; 45 - delimiting l-th order; 51 - dissecting, crossing; 52 - crossing; 54 - crossing (black box model); 55 - crossed, transit, nodal
• Natural geographic parameters. In the concepts of "hard" geographical determinism, they were given a priority policy-forming role. Their influence is really great, but it consists in imposing certain incentives and restrictions on public life. In particular, the contrasting landscape and mountainous terrain contribute to increased complexity, 102
• Transport and communication parameters. With The natural and geographical features of the territory are closely related to the transport and geographical position. This becomes obvious if we turn to the development of transport routes since ancient times. It was the natural objects themselves (rivers, passes, etc.) that became the main lines of communication. Therefore, the transport situation should not be included entirely in the sphere of the economy, as is sometimes suggested. Almost all representatives of classical geopolitics attached a huge role to the location of countries relative to lines of communication. At present, it can be confidently asserted that the transport-geographical or, in the broader sense, the communication-geographical position affects most of the components of the geopolitical position: military-strategic, political, cultural, economic, environmental, demographic, and others. Various types of transport, wire networks (including fiber optic backbones), radio and space communications, and information flows in virtual space are considered. At the next stage, the actual degree of use of the existing transport and communication potential, the possibility of its increase and the threats existing for it are assessed.
• Economic and geographical parameters. These characteristics are essential for the evaluation of the GSP. In Marxist and neo-Marxist literature, it is precisely economic relations, phenomena and processes that are ultimately considered as the basis for the development of all other manifestations of social life. However, the links in which economic phenomena are involved, 104
• Ethno-civilizational and cultural parameters. The key characteristics are the positions of the geopolitical subject on the ethnolinguistic and historical maps. From this position, the localization of ethnic groups, superethnoi and superethnic systems, the complementarity of neighboring ethnic groups (according to L.N. Gumilyov) is determined. The historical map reveals a difference in cultural and symbolic
• Integral geopolitical parameters. Some characteristics that summarize different parameters from the above can be separated into a separate group. This, for example, is the complex geopolitical zoning of the region and the interpretation of the GSP from the point of view of some integral global concept (for example, regarding the Heartland of H. Mackinder, the pan-regions of K. Haushofer, the geopolitical regions of S. Cohen, the civilizational platforms of V. Tsymbursky, etc. ). It is possible to use integral quantitative indicators (indices) for the complex. Partial provisions are published in [Elatskov 2012a].

The position of any point on the globe can be determined using geographic coordinates - that's what they are created for. But even the coordinates themselves are different: latitude, although very approximately, speaks of the temperature regime of the place (it can be said with certainty that 10-15 ° latitude is warmer than 75-80 °); but even at the same latitude, natural conditions can be very different. Longitude in itself does not carry any information if we do not know what is located around the place we are considering, especially since, in principle, any meridian can be taken as the starting point for counting longitude. Therefore, the concept of geographical location goes far beyond the characteristics of the position of an object in terms of coordinates.

Geographical position is the position of any geographical feature on the earth

surface in relation to other objects with which it interacts. Geographical location is an important characteristic of an object, as it largely gives an idea of ​​its natural and socio-economic features.

To determine the geographical location of any geographical object, it is necessary, first of all, to resolve the question - why is this being done?

We characterize the geographical position of Moscow in order to determine what determines the climate of the city. In this case, it is important, first of all, at what latitude Moscow is located. 56 ° latitude is a temperate zone of illumination, almost throughout the globe there are also moderate thermal and climatic zones. Western winds prevail at these latitudes. The city is located in the middle of a vast plain at a fairly large (1000-1500 km) distance from the seas, but the plain is open to winds of all directions - the prevailing western, humid, from the relatively warm Atlantic Ocean, the cold north, from the Arctic Ocean, less frequent, dry from Central Asia. The position of Moscow among a large landmass makes the climate continental, but the free access of air from the Atlantic softens this continentality.

To characterize the geographical position of Moscow as the capital of Russia, a major industrial and cultural center, one must also pay attention to its position in the center of the plain, but here the hydrographic network comes first - navigable rivers and places where in the old days it was possible to cross by drag from one river pool to another. Favorable in the old days was the situation in the forest zone, less accessible to nomads from the south than, for example, near Kyiv. Moscow became the center around which the Russian state was formed at the end of the Horde rule and after its overthrow. Roads connected Moscow with many cities, Moscow became a major transportation hub. In the future, the road network itself became an important factor in the geographical position that contributed to the development of the city. It is especially important because there are no significant raw materials and energy natural resources near the city, much has to be delivered from distant places.

In the first case, we considered the physical-geographical position of the city (with a narrow goal - only to explain its climate), in the second - the economic-geographical one.

Economic and geographical position (EGP)- these are all spatial relations of an enterprise, a locality, a region, a country, a group of countries to external objects that are of economic importance to them. The EGP of any object can be assessed as favorable, contributing to the economic development of the object, and unfavorable - preventing it. EGP is a historical concept, in the course of changing the economic object itself and the objects associated with it, it can become more favorable than it was before, or less favorable.

The city's EGP can improve if a road is built to it; it may worsen if a road is made to bypass this city, and the paths that previously passed through it now go sideways.

The EGP will improve if a mineral deposit is discovered near the city, it will worsen if the entire deposit is depleted, and there are no other significant industries in the city.

A country's EGP can worsen if its border, through which there used to be free passage, is closed for some political reasons.

Let us consider as examples the economic and geographical position of several states and cities.

United Kingdom, an island nation in Western Europe. The country is located on the island of Great Britain and also occupies the north of the island of Ireland, so the full name of the state is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The island of Great Britain is separated from continental Europe by the English Channel, which has a width of 32 km in its narrowest part (Pas de Calais). Proximity to the continent was at first the reason that the Roman conquests (I century BC), and then the conquests of the Normans (1066) spread here. But then, with the strengthening of the state, the insular position became advantageous: from the 11th century. no attempt at foreign invasion of British territory was successful. At the same time, having many good natural harbors, Great Britain has become a seafaring power, has a powerful fleet, and has conducted and continues to conduct maritime trade with the whole world. The British navy has long been considered the best in the world. The insular position helps the country to maintain a certain identity even in the context of globalization, while at the same time the small distance separating it from continental Europe allows it to maintain very close ties with it; a tunnel has now been created under the Pas de Calais between Great Britain and France, through which land transport passes.

Panama, a state in Central America, in the narrowest part of the isthmus connecting North America with South. It would seem that the situation is very advantageous: control over the isthmus that controls the connection between the continents. But the mountainous relief of Central America and dense tropical vegetation impeded the development of land transport here, and no control over it turned out. It turned out to be more important for Panama not what geographical objects are connected by the Isthmus of Panama, on which it is located, but what objects it separates - the Pacific and Atlantic oceans. In 1914, the Panama Canal was built, and in 1920 officially opened, a little over 80 km long, connecting the Caribbean Sea of ​​the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. Thus, Panama began to control not a barely noticeable cargo flow by land between the continents, but a very powerful one - between the oceans, since the path along the canal is much shorter than the path around South America from the south, and the EGP of Panama immediately improved significantly.

Singapore, a city-state in Southeast Asia, near the southernmost point of the Eurasian continent. Singapore is located on the island of the same name near the southern end of the Malay Peninsula. Most ships on their way from the Indian Ocean to the Pacific pass through the Malacca Strait (between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula) and go around Malacca from the south, so it is very difficult to bypass Singapore. Therefore, the EGP of the island and the city should be considered extremely profitable. Almost all trade between Europe, India, the countries of the Persian Gulf, some African countries, on the one hand, and China, Japan, South Korea, the Russian Far East, on the other, passes through this route. Therefore, over the past decades, Singapore has come out on top among the ports of the whole world in terms of cargo turnover. Singapore is separated from the mainland by a narrow strait through which bridges are thrown, so that a good land connection with the Malaysian mainland and with Thailand is possible, but Singapore's land connections with other mainland countries are small, since the road network in Myanmar, Laos and Cambodia is poor.

Khabarovsk, Vladivostok, Magadan What are the similarities and differences in their economic and geographical position? All three cities are located in the Far East of Russia. All three cities are centers of subjects of the Russian Federation (Vladivostok and Khabarovsk are regional centers, Magadan is a regional one). Vladivostok and Magadan are seaports: Vladivostok on the Sea of ​​Japan, Magadan on the Sea of ​​Okhotsk.

Vladivostok is much (at 17° latitude) to the south, so it can be used all year round. The advantage of Vladivostok lies in the fact that the railway approaches it - it is the terminus of the Trans-Siberian Railway. The settlements surrounding Vladivostok are well provided with land transport, and are also located within an area with natural conditions favorable for agriculture, and therefore do not need a seaport to serve them. In this regard, Vladivostok is focused on foreign trade - export and import.

The Magadan region has a transport connection with the rest of the territory of Russia practically only through its regional center and is in great need of such a connection, because it cannot provide itself with food and many other resources. There are no railroads in the region, but a motor road (Kolyma tract) runs from Magadan, on which or near which most of the settlements of the region are located. Therefore, the port of Magadan mainly serves its region, providing it with everything imported from other regions of Russia. True, there is a motor road to Yakutsk from the Kolyma tract, but the railway does not reach Yakutsk itself, so there is no reason to carry anything to the Magadan region through Yakutsk.

Khabarovsk, unlike Vladivostok and Magadan, does not stand on the coast and, therefore, is not a seaport. It is located at the intersection of the Trans-Siberian Railway and the large Amur River near the confluence of the Ussuri. Khabarovsk is an important river port, and in fact a railway junction: not in the city itself, but only 50 kilometers from it, the line to Komsomolsk-on-Amur - Vanino - Sovetskaya Gavan departs from the Trans-Siberian Railway. All this makes the transport position of Khabarovsk very advantageous, since Komsomolsk is the terminus of the Baikal-Amur Railway, while Vanino and Sovetskaya Gavan are seaports.

Militarily, Vladivostok and Khabarovsk are more vulnerable, as they are located near the state border, while Magadan is on the Sea of ​​Okhotsk, whose shores are completely controlled by Russia.

Geographical position- "the position of a geographical object relative to the surface of the Earth, as well as in relation to other objects with which it is in interaction ...". It characterizes "the place of a given object in the system of spatial connections and flows (material, energy, information) and determines its relationship with the external environment" . Usually reflects the geospatial relationship of a particular object to the environment, the elements of which have or may have a significant impact on it. In public geography, location is usually defined in two-dimensional space (displayed on a map). In physical geography, the third change is certainly taken into account - the absolute or relative height of the location of objects.

concept geographical position is the key to the entire system of geographical sciences. Actually, geography was born as a science of methods for determining and fixing the location of objects on the earth's surface relative to each other or in a certain coordinate system. Later it turned out that determining the location of an object not only helps to find it ... but also explains some of the properties of this object and even predicts its development. The most important element of geographical research is the establishment and analysis of relationships between objects located in space, determined precisely by their location.

Thus the geographical position :

• is an individualizing factor, since it determines many properties of a geographical object;
• is historical in nature, as it changes over time;
• has a potential character, since the position alone is not a sufficient condition for the corresponding development of the object;
• has close ties with the configuration of the territory and its boundaries.

There are the following types of geographic location:

• mathematical and geographical (geodesic, astronomical, "absolute")
• physical and geographical;
• political and geographical;
• geopolitical;
• military geographical;
• ecological and geographical;
• cultural and geographical;

other.

By scale they distinguish:

• macro position
• mesolocation
• microposition

According to the coordinate system, they distinguish:

• absolute (geodesic, astronomical);
• relative;
  • math ("3 miles north of Seattle");
  • functional (economic-geographical, physical-geographical, etc.).

In an extended interpretation, the geographical location may also include the ratio of the areal object as a whole (area, district, territory) to the data underlying inside him (to the elements of the internal environment). Such a geographical location may be referred to, for example,